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Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations
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Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations

A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 December 2025 | Viewed by 11698

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Yuehua Chen

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Guest Editor
School of Philosophy, Institute for Christianity and Cross-Cultural Studies, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Interests: religious studies; religious philosophy; comparative religious studies; ancient Chinese religious philosophy; medieval philosophy; Christian theology and philosophy; Augustine; Mysticism; Neoplatonism
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Chuanhui Zeng

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institut of World Religions, Chinese Academy of Social Science, Beijing, China
Interests: theories of the Scientific Study of Religion; Daoism; Chinese traditional religions
Dr. Zhejia Tang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Marxist Religious Studies in New Area, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, China
Interests: The relationship between Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism; Philosophy of religion, Taoist philosophy
Dr. Xuedan Li

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Institute for Marxist Religious Studies in New Area, Hangzhou City University, Hangzhou, China
Interests: Chinese ancient religions; Chinese philosophy; Chinese Daoism

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Chinese religion has been playing a critical role in shaping China’s civilization development. With a long history and continuous traditions, Chinese religious cultures are dynamic and mainly consist of Buddhism, Daoism, Islam, Catholic, Protestantism, Confucian religious thoughts and diverse folk religion. Understanding the historical traditions of Chinese religions will give great insight into the ancient Chinese society and modern times, as well as the enduring cultural communication between the world civilizations. Modern interpretations of Chinese religious cultures are conducive to understanding the characteristics and features of Chinese civilization and the role religion has played in Chinese society and people’s daily life. We are pleased to invite global scholars to contribute an academic article related to religious cultures in China (particularly on the religions mentioned above), including their history, tradition and development, from multiple disciplinary aspects of modern academic interpretations. We hope that this Special Issue will contribute to a better understanding of the characteristics of Chinese religions and Chinese cultural tradition.

For this Special Issue, original research articles and reviews are welcome. Research areas may include (but are not limited to) the following:

  • Interpreting Chinese religious cultures and scriptural texts with modern theories of religious studies;
  • Exploring the modern value and significance of Chinese traditional religious cultures in China;
  • Comparative studies on Chinese religious cultures with the perspective of modern communication and mutual learning among civilizations;
  • The influence of important Chinese religious rituals, practices, figures, conceptions, theories, thoughts, events and places on the modern Chinese society;
  • The international spread of Chinese religious cultures and its modern value to the global civilization.

We request that, prior to submitting a manuscript, the interested authors initially submit a proposed title and an abstract of 200–300 words summarizing their intended contribution. Please send it to the Guest Editor or the Assistant Editor of Religions. Abstracts will be reviewed by the Guest Editors for the purpose of ensuring proper fit within the scope of the Special Issue. Full manuscripts will undergo a double-blind peer review.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Reference

Brashier, K.E. 2015. The Modern Endeavor to Interpret Early Chinese Religions, Oxford Handbook Topics in Religion (online edn, Oxford Academic, 3 Feb. 2014), https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935420.013.34, Accessed 30 Apr. 2024.

Zhuo, Xinping. 2015. The Direction of Modern Chinese Religion, On China’s Cultural Transformation, Issues in Contemporary Chinese Thought and Culture. Edited by Arif Dirlik and Keping Yu. Leiden: Brill, Vol(5), p.228-240.

Yang, C. K. 1970. Religion in Chinese society: A study of contemporary social functions of religion and some of their historical factors. Berkeley and Los Angeles:University of California Press.

Wong, W. Y. 2011. Defining Chinese Folk Religion: A Methodological Interpretation. Asian Philosophy, 21(2), 153–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/09552367.2011.563993

Rosker, J. S. 2017. Is Confucianism a religion? Modern Confucian theories on the ethical nature of classical discourses. Asian Philosophy, 27(4), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1080/09552367.2017.1388552

Cao, Nanlai. 2019. A Sinicized World Religion?: Chinese Christianity at the Contemporary Moment of Globalization Religions 10, no. 8: 459. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel10080459

Frankel, James D. 2016. Chinese–Islamic Connections: An Historical and Contemporary Overview. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 36(4): 569–83. doi:10.1080/13602004.2016.1248175.

Weber, Max. 1968. The Religion of China : Confucianism and Taoism, Translated and Edited by Hans H. Gerth, New York: Free Press.

Mou, Zhongjian, 2018, A Brief History of the Relationship among Confucianism, Daoism and Buddhism, 儒道佛三教關係簡明通史, Beijing: Renmin Press.

Kengo, Araki. 1975. Confucianism and Buddhism in the late Ming. The unfolding of Neo-Confucianism. Edited by William Theodore De Bary, New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 39--66.

Prof. Dr. Yuehua Chen
Prof. Dr. Chuanhui Zeng
Dr. Zhejia Tang
Dr. Xuedan Li
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Religions is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • modern interpretations
  • Chinese religious cultures
  • Buddhist culture
  • Daoist culture
  • Islamic culture
  • Christian culture
  • Chinese folk religion
  • Confucian religious thoughts

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Further information on MDPI's Special Issue policies can be found here.

Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

15 pages, 321 KiB  
Article
The Role of Love in Ethical Development Beyond Family and Friendship in Confucianism: Insights from Matteo Ricci’s On Friendship
by Mark Kevin S. Cabural
Religions 2025, 16(5), 554; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050554 - 26 Apr 2025
Viewed by 187
Abstract
The family is a form of human relationship or organization that has been vital to the Chinese, influencing various aspects of its tradition. At its core lies the parent-child relationship, which emphasizes the virtue of filial piety (xiao 孝) and serves as [...] Read more.
The family is a form of human relationship or organization that has been vital to the Chinese, influencing various aspects of its tradition. At its core lies the parent-child relationship, which emphasizes the virtue of filial piety (xiao 孝) and serves as the beginning of ethical development. Beyond the family, friendship is another form of human relationship that can also contribute to ethical development but is seen only as an extension of the development that begins in the family. This article aims to discuss how friendship, as articulated in Matteo Ricci’s On Friendship (Li Madou 利玛窦, 1552–1610; Jiaoyou Lun 交友论), can deepen or contribute to ethical development that begins in the family and extends into friendship, as understood in the Confucian tradition. The discussion places particular emphasis on the role of love as it emerges in Ricci’s text. The overarching argument of this article is that Ricci’s understanding of love, which is the indispensable element that binds friends together, can contribute to strengthening the ethical development that originates from the family and extends into friendship, as understood in Confucianism. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
21 pages, 538 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Ming Dynasty Buddhism’s Chan Jing He Yi (Integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) on Buddhist Thought in Journey to the West
by Ran Wei
Religions 2025, 16(4), 428; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040428 - 27 Mar 2025
Viewed by 299
Abstract
In the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, Yunqi Zhuhong 雲栖祩宏 and Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 integrated Zen thought and Pure Land Buddhism based on the fusion of various Buddhist sects, which facilitated the transition to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism [...] Read more.
In the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, Yunqi Zhuhong 雲栖祩宏 and Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 integrated Zen thought and Pure Land Buddhism based on the fusion of various Buddhist sects, which facilitated the transition to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). In this context, Journey to the West 西遊記, published in the late Ming Dynasty, reflects the characteristic of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). Based on the historical fact that the monk Xuanzang 玄奘 journeyed to India to seek Buddhist scriptures during the Tang Dynasty’s Zhenguan period, four relatively complete literary works that recount the stories of this westward journey were published over nearly a thousand years, from the Tang Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty: Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話, the Journey to the West drama 西遊記雜劇, and Journey to the West. The Buddhist ideas in these four works went through a transformation from advocating yoga theory 瑜伽論 to advocating belief in Vaisravana 毗沙門天王信仰 and then to focusing on the “mind nature 心性” theory of Zen Buddhism. Finally, in Journey to the West, Buddhist thought is aimed at achieving rebirth in the Western Pure Land and supplemented with Chan Buddhist practices, which are aligned with the trend of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). In Journey to the West, the concepts of Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性) and Ji Xin Ji Fo (the mind is the Buddha 即心即佛) differ from the Zen Buddhism concept of seeing one’s own nature. Instead, it requires seeking other Buddhas and ascending to the Western Pure Land to meet Amitabha Buddha in order to achieve complete spiritual cultivation. This had changed from the Wei Xin Jing Tu (mind-only Pure Land 唯心淨土) theory advocated by Zen Buddhism to the Xi Fang Jing Tu (Western Pure Land 西方淨土) theory advocated by the Pure Land School. The numerous depictions of Pure Land cultivation methods, such as Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛), Chi Jie (commandment keeping 持戒), and the Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin faith 淨土往生型觀音信仰, also appear in Journey to the West, reflecting the profound influence of Chan Jing He Yi 禪淨合一 in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty on Journey to the West. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
21 pages, 357 KiB  
Article
A Historical Examination of Westerners’ Pro-Confucianism in China During the Early Republican Years
by Pan Jia
Religions 2025, 16(3), 356; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030356 - 12 Mar 2025
Viewed by 432
Abstract
During the early Republican years in China, through the publication of several prominent Western individuals’ view with respect to the Confucian religion in materials like Kong jiao lun 孔教论 (On the Confucian Religion) and 孔教会杂志 (The Confucian Association Monthly), [...] Read more.
During the early Republican years in China, through the publication of several prominent Western individuals’ view with respect to the Confucian religion in materials like Kong jiao lun 孔教论 (On the Confucian Religion) and 孔教会杂志 (The Confucian Association Monthly), Chen Huanchang, the director of the Confucian Association, appeared to have successfully enlisted the support for the Association from some renowned Western figures in China, including Timothy Richard, Gilbert Reid, Hermann Graf Keyserling, Hiram Stevens Maxim, and Reginald Fleming Johnston. Notwithstanding the Confucian Association’s propaganda, Timothy Richard and Gilbert Reid’s patronage of the Confucian Association in fact stemmed from their concept of “uniting all religions”. The praises heaped on Confucius by Hermann Graf Keyserling and Hiram Stevens Maxim were totally unrelated to the Confucian Association but were cleverly packaged by Chen Huanchang as an ideal resource through his ingenious translation. Reginald Fleming Johnston’s laudatory remarks with respect to the Confucian Association were inevitably motivated by his political speculation. The superficial respect for Confucius among Westerners in China belied more complex and nuanced attitudes towards making the Confucian religion the state religion of China. Such attitudes reveal the multiple facets of Confucianism in the early Republican era in response to some of the challenges posed by modernization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
29 pages, 13364 KiB  
Article
The Interactive Relationship and Influence Between Kitchen God Beliefs and Stoves in the Han Dynasty (202 BCE–220 AD)
by Xiangyu Liu
Religions 2025, 16(3), 319; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030319 - 3 Mar 2025
Viewed by 820
Abstract
The Kitchen God has always been regarded as the protector of Chinese families and one of the most common and far-reaching gods in Chinese folk beliefs. The emergence and development of the Kitchen God are inseparable from the material carrier of the stove. [...] Read more.
The Kitchen God has always been regarded as the protector of Chinese families and one of the most common and far-reaching gods in Chinese folk beliefs. The emergence and development of the Kitchen God are inseparable from the material carrier of the stove. The Han Dynasty was a critical period for the development and integration of stoves and the Kitchen God belief. Based on archaeological discoveries of cultural relics, characters and images, as well as relevant historical documents and records, this paper focuses on the interactive and symbiotic relationship between the spiritual belief in the Kitchen God and the material culture of kitchen stoves and its influence during the Han Dynasty. The Han Dynasty combined stoves with high cooking benches, large stove chambers, multiple burners, and functional designs that incorporated images of the Kitchen God, making them both practical and spiritual. The Kitchen God’s identity and functions were transformed from ancestor to household god, from giving food to monitoring merits and demerits, along with the renewal of stoves. These developments laid the foundation for the Chinese people’s earnest hope for a prosperous life and a peaceful and harmonious family. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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24 pages, 496 KiB  
Article
Presentation and Analysis of “Three Teachings Syncretism” in Song and Jin Poetry and Its Modern Significance
by Enhai Lei and Xudong Hu
Religions 2025, 16(1), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010039 - 3 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1029
Abstract
The “Three Teachings Syncretism” (sanjiao heyi, 三教合一), i.e., the integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, represents an important religious philosophy in ancient China. This article aims to analyze how this ideology is presented and expressed directly in Song and Jin poetry, [...] Read more.
The “Three Teachings Syncretism” (sanjiao heyi, 三教合一), i.e., the integration of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism, represents an important religious philosophy in ancient China. This article aims to analyze how this ideology is presented and expressed directly in Song and Jin poetry, along with its modern value and significance. To achieve the research objectives, the paper isolates related poems from the Complete Song Poetry and Complete Liao Jin Poetry as the research objects. First, it organizes and classifies the relevant poems through the ways in which the idea of “Three Teachings Syncretism” is presented. Second, it examines the reasons behind this phenomenon, including the intellectualization of poetry and the Confucian academic background of Buddhist monks and Daoist priests. Thirdly, it explores the value and significance of this thought for modern China, showcasing the inherent diversity, inclusiveness, and harmony in Chinese culture. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
18 pages, 647 KiB  
Article
Reflection on the Unity of the Three Teachings in the Late Ming Dynasty—Centered on the Concept of “Sanhanjiao Is Non-Orthodox Teaching” in The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven
by Zhejia Tang
Religions 2024, 15(12), 1425; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15121425 - 24 Nov 2024
Viewed by 996
Abstract
In his work The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, Matteo Ricci not only criticized Buddhism and Taoism but also put forward the viewpoint that “Sanhanjiao is non-orthodox teaching”. The so-called Sanhanjiao actually refers to the three teachings into one established [...] Read more.
In his work The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven, Matteo Ricci not only criticized Buddhism and Taoism but also put forward the viewpoint that “Sanhanjiao is non-orthodox teaching”. The so-called Sanhanjiao actually refers to the three teachings into one established by Lin Zhaoen, so Ricci’s criticism of the three teachings into one, to some extent, is also a criticism of Lin Zhaoen’s “Three-in-One Doctrine”. Ricci used the argument “One Teaching cannot have Three Teachings” to criticize the view of “One Dao, Three Teachings” and also used “it is not possible to forcibly equate the Three Teachings” to criticize the theory of “the Three Teachings are the same”, bringing the perspective of the uniqueness of faith in Western religious culture to China. Ricci’s criticism of the three teachings into one is based on the premise of spreading Catholicism; his argument mainly relies on the logical reasoning of the Western way of thinking, thus ignoring the inherent characteristics of Chinese indigenous culture. However, his viewpoint at least broke the mainstream ideology of “the Unity of the Three Teachings” in the late Ming Dynasty and also provided significant inspiration for the intellectuals of the late Ming Dynasty to reflect on this trend. Ricci’s dialogue with Chinese indigenous religions did not erase the differences between their respective cultures, but actually promoted the integration between Chinese and Western cultures. Therefore, the significance of The True Meaning of the Lord of Heaven lies not only in the dissemination of Catholic thought but also implies a dialogue and cultural transformation between different civilizations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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19 pages, 383 KiB  
Article
Transcending Individual Traditions: Zhang Taiyan’s Interpretation of Zhuangzi’s Notion of Chengxin
by Cheng Wang
Religions 2024, 15(11), 1309; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15111309 - 26 Oct 2024
Viewed by 1454
Abstract
This article examines the nuanced interpretations of chengxin 成心 in the Zhuangzi 莊子, a foundational Daoist text, across different philosophical traditions. Historically, Daoist thinkers like Guo Xiang 郭象 and Cheng Xuanying 成玄英, along with Neo-Confucian scholars such as Lü Huiqing 吕惠卿 and Lin [...] Read more.
This article examines the nuanced interpretations of chengxin 成心 in the Zhuangzi 莊子, a foundational Daoist text, across different philosophical traditions. Historically, Daoist thinkers like Guo Xiang 郭象 and Cheng Xuanying 成玄英, along with Neo-Confucian scholars such as Lü Huiqing 吕惠卿 and Lin Xiyi 林希逸, have provided differing perspectives on the notion of chengxin. They regard it as either a source of subjective bias or an expression of heavenly principle. The core focus of this study is Zhang Taiyan’s 章太炎 innovative interpretation of chengxin as seeds (bijas) within ālaya-vijñāna (storehouse consciousness), integrating Yogācāra Buddhist concepts with traditional Daoist philosophy. The study conducts a textual analysis of Zhang’s Qiwulun Shi 齊物論釋, comparing his interpretation with earlier commentaries on the Zhuangzi. It is argued that Zhang’s approach is profoundly influenced by the Buddhist doctrine of non-duality, which underscores the interconnectedness of all phenomena. While Zhang’s interpretation has faced criticism from contemporaries and later philosophers for misunderstandings of Yogācāra theory and Kantian philosophy, it employs the method of geyi 格義 (matching concepts), not to impose one tradition over another, but to foster a dialogical process where the insights from each tradition mutually inform and transform one another. This article highlights the interpretative openness of the Zhuangzi, which invites diverse interpretations, and demonstrates how Zhang’s approach enriches this tradition by synthesizing various philosophical and religious frameworks. Zhang’s methodology remains relevant, fostering cross-cultural and inclusive philosophical dialog. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
15 pages, 394 KiB  
Article
Fang Yizhi’s Transformation of the Consciousness-Only Theory in Yaodi Pao Zhuang: A Comparison and Analysis Based on Literature
by Qing Wu
Religions 2024, 15(8), 953; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080953 - 6 Aug 2024
Viewed by 1351
Abstract
Yaodi Pao Zhuang (Monk Yaodi Distills the Essence of the Zhuangzi, 藥地炮莊), written by Ming dynasty scholar Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), was one of the greatest annotations of Zhuangzi 庄子 in the late Ming dynasty. However, the Buddhist thought in Yaodi Pao Zhuang [...] Read more.
Yaodi Pao Zhuang (Monk Yaodi Distills the Essence of the Zhuangzi, 藥地炮莊), written by Ming dynasty scholar Fang Yizhi (1611–1671), was one of the greatest annotations of Zhuangzi 庄子 in the late Ming dynasty. However, the Buddhist thought in Yaodi Pao Zhuang has scarcely been examined. Drawing on the revival of the consciousness-only (vijñaptimātratā, 唯識) theory during the Ming dynasty, this study discussed how Fang Yizhi transformed the theory to annotate Zhuangzi in Yaodi Pao Zhuang through literature comparison and logical analysis. Meanwhile, from a speculative viewpoint drawing on Yi studies (studies of the Yi Jing, 易學), Fang Yizhi demonstrated that “storehouse consciousness” (alaya-vijnana, 阿賴耶識) could have contrasting properties of defilement (samklesa, 染) and purity (suddha, 淨). Moreover, he proposed “consciousness is wisdom” to replace the consciousness-only view of “transforming consciousness into wisdom” prevailing in the Tang dynasty, thus providing the conditions for the interpenetration of the consciousness-only doctrine into Zhuangzi. This study’s results highlight the positive implications of Fang Yizhi’s mutually supportive interaction model of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism for addressing contemporary cultural conflicts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
17 pages, 383 KiB  
Article
Exploring the Significance of “Discerning the Zong (Bian Zong 辨宗)” in the Sectarianization of Buddhism
by Peng Zhou
Religions 2024, 15(8), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080914 - 28 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1713
Abstract
The prelude holds dual significance. Firstly, it denotes the initial exploration of sectarian Buddhism by the Sanlun zong and the Tiantai zong. Secondly, it signifies the act of “exploring” itself as a means of establishing a distinct sect. The concept of “Discerning the [...] Read more.
The prelude holds dual significance. Firstly, it denotes the initial exploration of sectarian Buddhism by the Sanlun zong and the Tiantai zong. Secondly, it signifies the act of “exploring” itself as a means of establishing a distinct sect. The concept of “Discerning the Zong” not only permeates the context of the sectarianization of Buddhism but also exerts influence on the evolution trajectory of the Sinicization of Buddhism to some extent. Sectarian Buddhism is rooted in the foundational principles and overarching framework of the Sanlun zong and the Tiantai zong, presenting a continuous portrayal of the development of Chinese Buddhist sects. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)
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