Religions

13 pages, 315 KB

Open AccessArticle

Remaining After Ruin: The Politics of Lament in Forced (Im)Mobilities

by Eliana Ah-Rum Ku

Religions 2026, 17(2), 158; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020158 - 29 Jan 2026

How do survivors mourn when violence controls movement, speech, and public grief? This article reads lament as a political–theological practice that keeps the dead publicly addressable under forced (im)mobilities—conditions in which some are deported, disappeared, or killed while others are compelled to remain [...] Read more.

How do survivors mourn when violence controls movement, speech, and public grief? This article reads lament as a political–theological practice that keeps the dead publicly addressable under forced (im)mobilities—conditions in which some are deported, disappeared, or killed while others are compelled to remain amid ruins, surveillance, and stigma. Through a comparative reading of Lamentations and Han Kang’s Human Acts, this study develops “fourth-person lament” to name a ruin-saturated address (“you”) that is relayed through multiple voices and across the boundary of death, refusing to resolve responsibility into a single speaker or a finished story. The analysis shows how lament is mediated through bodies that remain—hunger, wounds, exhaustion, unburied dead—and through spaces turned into archives of violence, so that catastrophe cannot be sealed into closure or denial. By tracing struggles over memory and affect—over who may move, who must stay, and whose deaths can appear as grievable—this article argues that lament operates as resistant passage within enforced (im)mobility: a communal and public insistence that memory, mourning, and responsibility remain open to contestation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forced Migration and the Bible: Displacement, Statelessness, and Resiliency in Sacred Texts)

20 pages, 3219 KB

Open AccessArticle

After the Empire: The Bumpache Paintings and the Art of the Tibetan “Dark Age”

by Xiaotian Yin

Religions 2026, 17(2), 157; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020157 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

The Tibetan “Dark Age,” following the collapse of the Tibetan Empire in the mid-ninth century, has traditionally been viewed as a period of cultural and religious decline. This paper reframes that narrative by examining recently excavated double-sided portable paintings from the Gathang Bumpache [...] Read more.

The Tibetan “Dark Age,” following the collapse of the Tibetan Empire in the mid-ninth century, has traditionally been viewed as a period of cultural and religious decline. This paper reframes that narrative by examining recently excavated double-sided portable paintings from the Gathang Bumpache stūpa in Central Tibet, dating to before the eleventh century. Detailed analysis of the style and iconography of the Bumpache paintings identifies the female figure as an offering goddess, closely related to figures found in Thousand-Armed Avalokiteśvara paintings from Dunhuang, and the monk figures as members of the Sixteen Arhats, whose depiction follows Chinese artistic traditions. These findings show that Buddhist artistic production in post-imperial Tibet not only continued but actively reinterpreted visual models from beyond the plateau, integrating them into a distinctive and previously unattested double-sided format. Rather than a cultural and religious void, the so-called Tibetan “Dark Age” emerges as a vital period in which Buddhist art was localized and innovated upon following the fall of the Tibetan Empire. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Topography of Mind)

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21 pages, 358 KB

Open AccessArticle

Plato’s Tragicomic Ascent

by Louis A. Ruprecht, Jr.

Religions 2026, 17(2), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020156 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

This article explores the richly visual vocabulary characteristic of the Platonic corpus. Focusing on Plato’s linkage of seeing and knowing, it will explore a two-fold paradox: first, that the soul’s ascent is consistently depicted as a painful matter by Plato; and second, that [...] Read more.

This article explores the richly visual vocabulary characteristic of the Platonic corpus. Focusing on Plato’s linkage of seeing and knowing, it will explore a two-fold paradox: first, that the soul’s ascent is consistently depicted as a painful matter by Plato; and second, that it customarily involves some emphatically bodily mechanics. These textual and rhetorical details may, in their turn, call for a significant re-thinking of several truisms regarding Platonic spirituality and “Platonic love.” Four revisions follow. First, Platonic philosophy was not radically dualistic. Second, it was not aggressively rationalist, and secularist, informed by a blanket opposition to myth, to poetry, and to religious images. Third, it aspired to illumination without breezily claiming to bathe in that light. And fourth, it embraced and ennobled the ecstatic transport vouchsafed to embodied creatures by eros, that subtle species of desire that was, if not divine, then surely sublime. Full article

27 pages, 410 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Turkish Mythology to Alevi–Bektashi Sacred Narratives: A Phenomenological Analysis of Animal Imagery

by Haktan Kaplan

Religions 2026, 17(2), 155; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020155 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

In this study, which focuses on animal symbolism in Alevi–Bektashi menakıpnames (hagiographies), the objective was to investigate animal symbolism, which is not unfamiliar but not fully understood. In this context, the study examined Abdal Musa Velayetnamesi, Menakıbu’l Kudsiyye, Demir Baba Velayetname, Hacı Bektaş [...] Read more.

In this study, which focuses on animal symbolism in Alevi–Bektashi menakıpnames (hagiographies), the objective was to investigate animal symbolism, which is not unfamiliar but not fully understood. In this context, the study examined Abdal Musa Velayetnamesi, Menakıbu’l Kudsiyye, Demir Baba Velayetname, Hacı Bektaş Veli Velayetname, Hacım Sultan Menakıpname, Koyun Baba Velayetname, Otman Baba Velayetname, Saltıkname, Seyyid Ali Sultan Velayetname, Şuaceddin Veli Velayetname, and Veli Baba Menakıpname. This study, which aims to reveal the animals featured in Alevi–Bektashi menakıpnames and the symbolic perceptions attributed to them, uses phenomenology (the study of phenomena) from qualitative research designs. Within the scope of the research, data was collected through secondary sources, and elements considered meaningful and thought to contain animal symbolism were identified and presented in the findings section through direct and indirect transfers. The analysis revealed that the following animals are used as symbolic animals in the aforementioned menakıpnames and menkıbes: horse, deer, sheep, ram, lion, wolf, dog, pig, crane, pigeon, rooster, snake/dragon, salamander, crocodile, fish, and ox. Although animals such as wolves and sheep have taken on different functions and symbolic meanings under the influence of Islamic tradition, all other animals have retained their symbolic meanings in Turkish mythology in Alevi–Bektashi legends. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Divine Encounters: Exploring Religious Themes in Literature)

22 pages, 1684 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Symmetrical, Integrated, and Pre-Sexual Body Concept: From the Vitality Narrative in Daoist Female Alchemy

by Yuerong Xin and Tao Xu

Religions 2026, 17(2), 154; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020154 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

Daoist female alchemy (nüdan 女丹) texts articulate a bodily paradigm in which humans and nature mutually enfold one another, and in which yin and yang interact in harmonious complementarity. Through an analysis of three key dimensions, the yin-yang cosmology embedded in these [...] Read more.

Daoist female alchemy (nüdan 女丹) texts articulate a bodily paradigm in which humans and nature mutually enfold one another, and in which yin and yang interact in harmonious complementarity. Through an analysis of three key dimensions, the yin-yang cosmology embedded in these texts, the ways menstruation, desire, and the female breasts are reconceived in the course of cultivation, and the ideal of gestating an a priori (xiantian 先天) embryo, this article argues that nüdan writings present a gender-symmetrical, pre-sexual symbolic culture. This culture both acknowledges gender difference and ultimately transcends it, seeking a return to the undifferentiated, yin-yang combined condition of primordial Dao. These texts reveal that women and men possess complementary yin and yang attributes that must be reintegrated in order to return to the a priori state and attain infinite vitality. They likewise suggest that both women and men harbor active, originary desire, and that only through equivalent processes of bodily transformation, reverting the sexualized, adult bodies into the unsexualized bodies of the girl and boy, can practitioners acquire the power to gestate the inner elixir, symbolizing inexhaustible vitality. In this sense, nüdan writings develop a pre-sexual narrative centered on vitality, offering a resonant response to concerns within postmodern feminism regarding how to dismantle centralized, phallogocentric narratives while enriching non-gender-centralized symbolic cultures. They thus provide a special path to reconsider gender not by advancing forward, but by stepping back into a more primordial, integrated ideal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)

20 pages, 476 KB

Open AccessArticle

Worldly Ethics and Transcendental Liberation: Yinguang’s “Eight-Verse Guiding Principles” in the Pure Land Path

by Jia Liu and Jing Wang

Religions 2026, 17(2), 153; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020153 - 29 Jan 2026

Abstract

This article reinterprets Yinguang’s (1861–1940) “Eight-Verse Guiding Principles” as a program that integrates worldly ethics with supramundane liberation in modern Chinese Buddhism. On the ethical level, Yinguang established “fulfilling one’s duties and preserving sincerity” as the fundamental code, insisting that moral responsibility and [...] Read more.

This article reinterprets Yinguang’s (1861–1940) “Eight-Verse Guiding Principles” as a program that integrates worldly ethics with supramundane liberation in modern Chinese Buddhism. On the ethical level, Yinguang established “fulfilling one’s duties and preserving sincerity” as the fundamental code, insisting that moral responsibility and the guarding of right mindfulness revealed the innate luminosity of the mind. Building on this, the article looks at “eliminating selfish desires and manifesting illustrious virtue” (gewu zhizhi 格物致知) as a way to connect ontology to practice, highlighting the significance of “refraining from all evils and cultivating all virtues.” The practitioner made progress toward the ultimate objective of “purifying the mind” by following these steps. On the liberation level, the bodhi-mind functions as vow-power oriented toward Buddhahood for self and others. This dual aspiration functioned as the inner motivation for rebirth in the Pure Land and the attainment of Buddhahood. The triad of “faith, vows, and practice” furnishes an accessible soteriological pathway for ordinary beings who rely on Amitābha’s vow-power to achieve rebirth with karmic burdens. Methodologically, the study combines close reading of primary writings with modern theories of religious ethics and lived religion to show how name recitation (chiming nianfo 持名念佛) concentrates the mind and conduces to the samādhi of recitation, where “the whole mind is Buddha, and the whole Buddha is mind.” Framed within the broader dynamics of Republican-era moral reform and global Pure Land transmission, the article argues that Yinguang’s eight-verse guiding principles embodied the ideal of “reaching Buddhahood by way of the human path,” providing a historically grounded yet contemporary salient model for understanding Chinese religious culture today. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Origins and Development of the Pure Land Tradition Through the Lens of Sacred Site Transference)

37 pages, 1108 KB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporating Daoist Practices into Zen: Hakuin Ekaku’s Adaptation of Inner Alchemy and Its Cross-Cultural Impact

by Ruda Lin

Religions 2026, 17(2), 152; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020152 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

Hakuin Ekaku 白隠慧鶴, the reviver of the Japanese Rinzai school 臨濟宗, introduced Chinese Daoist cosmology and views on the body through the narrative persona of the immortal Hakuyūshi 白幽子 in works such as Yasen Kanna 夜船閑話 (Chats on a Night Boat). [...] Read more.

Hakuin Ekaku 白隠慧鶴, the reviver of the Japanese Rinzai school 臨濟宗, introduced Chinese Daoist cosmology and views on the body through the narrative persona of the immortal Hakuyūshi 白幽子 in works such as Yasen Kanna 夜船閑話 (Chats on a Night Boat). He elaborated on specific techniques of Daoist internal alchemy (nèidān 內丹), such as focusing the mind on the dāntián 丹田 (elixir field) and regulating the breath to enter a state of tranquility, as methods to address “Zen sickness” and nurture both body and mind. This approach to self-cultivation exerted a profound influence in Japan. From the late Meiji into the Taishō period (early 20th century), practitioners such as Futaki Kenzo 二木謙三, Fujita Reisai 藤田靈齋, and Okada Torajirō 岡田虎二郎 developed their own health methods based on their respective understandings, forming practices such as the “abdominal breathing method” 腹式呼吸法 and the “method of harmonizing breath and mind” 息心調和法. These contributions promoted the popularization of quiet sitting within Japanese society. Related books were subsequently translated and introduced to China, inspiring modern scholars such as Jiang Weiqiao 蔣維喬 to reinterpret Chinese traditional self-cultivation methods in a new language, leading to the publication of health-preserving works like The Yinshizi’s Method of Quiet Sitting 因是子靜坐法. At the same time, the Chinese self-cultivation community engaged in reflection on and correction of potential drawbacks in the practice of sitting meditation. By tracing this cross-religious and cross-regional process of cultural transmission and transformation, this paper reveals the enduring vitality of Daoist practices during East Asia’s modernization, as well as their universal significance beyond the confines of any single religious tradition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Interplay Between Narrative, Ritual, and Religiosity in East Asian Literary and Cultural Traditions)

18 pages, 6947 KB

Open AccessArticle

Introducing Gregorian Chant to a Malaysian Methodist Congregation: A Case Study

by Cecilia Ting, Eleanor J. Giraud and Helen Phelan

Religions 2026, 17(2), 151; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020151 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study explores the feasibility of introducing Gregorian chant into contemporary Chinese Methodist worship in Malaysia. Using ethnographic methods including participant observation, interviews, and focus groups, this article documents a pilot study conducted at Sing Ang Tong Methodist Church in Sibu, Sarawak, where [...] Read more.

This study explores the feasibility of introducing Gregorian chant into contemporary Chinese Methodist worship in Malaysia. Using ethnographic methods including participant observation, interviews, and focus groups, this article documents a pilot study conducted at Sing Ang Tong Methodist Church in Sibu, Sarawak, where seven singers learned and performed the communion chant Gustate et videte. Three different transcription editions were created to bridge the gap between medieval square notation and modern Western notation, which is more familiar to the participants. The chant was translated into Chinese alongside the original Latin text. The majority preferred the quaver-crotchet notation edition and supported performing the chant in both Latin and Chinese to balance authenticity with accessibility. Participants found the modal melodic structure and free rhythm challenging initially but developed appreciation for the chant’s meditative qualities. The performance during Holy Communion services in October 2022 received mixed congregational responses, with many describing it as creating a “calm and prayerful atmosphere” while some expressed discomfort with the unfamiliar musical style. The study demonstrates that Gregorian chant can be successfully integrated into Chinese Methodist worship contexts, particularly during solemn liturgical occasions, when approached with appropriate liturgical sensitivity and cultural adaptation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sacred Music: Creation, Interpretation, Experience)

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16 pages, 351 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Mandate of Heaven: One of the Fundamental Beliefs in Confucian China

by Jun Zhang

Religions 2026, 17(2), 150; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020150 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

The mandate of Heaven (tianming 天命) is one of the fundamental beliefs of ancient China. Its origin can be traced back to at least the Shang and Zhou dynasties. During the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought, it was developed into [...] Read more.

The mandate of Heaven (tianming 天命) is one of the fundamental beliefs of ancient China. Its origin can be traced back to at least the Shang and Zhou dynasties. During the era of the Hundred Schools of Thought, it was developed into a philosophical concept by Confucianism. Nevertheless, its religiosity was still inherited and developed by Confucianism, particularly the form of Confucianism that served as the state religion since the Han Dynasty. Hence, these two distinct yet intertwined Confucian perspectives on tianming coexist harmoniously. This symbiotic relationship serves a dual purpose: it nurtures the humanistic spirit and belief among the intellectual elite while simultaneously offering a universal religious belief accessible to the common people. The underlying essence that enables Confucianism to accommodate these two disparate spiritual temperaments lies in its core tenets of unremitting self-improvement and profound humanistic concern. The Confucian concepts of tianming and related religious ideas inherently encapsulate a humanistic spirit that resonates with the ethos of modern society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)

15 pages, 228 KB

Open AccessArticle

Resurrecting the Digital Dead: Ethical Boundaries of AI and Theological Insights of the Russian Religious Renaissance

by Walter N. Sisto

Religions 2026, 17(2), 149; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020149 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

Artificial intelligence is poised to transform not only how we live but also how we die, with emerging “Death Tech” applications—such as deadbots, deepfake memorials, and AI-driven resurrection/immortality projects—reshaping postmortem experiences. Global warning that AI dominance could make one the “ruler of the [...] Read more.

Artificial intelligence is poised to transform not only how we live but also how we die, with emerging “Death Tech” applications—such as deadbots, deepfake memorials, and AI-driven resurrection/immortality projects—reshaping postmortem experiences. Global warning that AI dominance could make one the “ruler of the world” takes on new significance in this context, as these technologies raise profound ethical questions about the dignity of the dead, freedom, and the sacredness of death. To critically assess these challenges, this paper turns to two thinkers from the Russian Religious Renaissance (RRR)—Nikolai Fedorov (1829–1903) and Fr. Sergius Bulgakov (1871–1944)—whose theological engagement with technology, death, and resurrection offers a counterpoint to the consumerist logic driving the Death Tech industry. Fedorov’s vision of a “Common Task” to overcome death through science and Bulgakov’s warnings against mangodhood and criticism of Fedorov provide insights into evaluating what is gained and what is lost in digitizing the afterlife and attempts to resurrect the dead. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Systematic Theology and Social Ethics: On the Unity of Theory and Praxis)

15 pages, 259 KB

Open AccessArticle

Is Sport Really Religion? Critical Assessments

by Terry D. Shoemaker

Religions 2026, 17(2), 148; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020148 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

Some scholars argue, over the past four decades, broadly that sport constitutes religious activity or, more specifically, that specific sports qualify as religious activity. In this paper, I provide two critical discussions which question the “sport as religion” position. These counterarguments are not [...] Read more.

Some scholars argue, over the past four decades, broadly that sport constitutes religious activity or, more specifically, that specific sports qualify as religious activity. In this paper, I provide two critical discussions which question the “sport as religion” position. These counterarguments are not based in theological-insider considerations supposing that religion is qualitatively distinct or sui generis as a means of defending religion’s uniqueness; rather, I provide a postcolonial rebuttal followed by a feminist critique of the “sport as religion” claims. These arguments combined demonstrate the continued colonial and patriarchal legacies attached to a “sport as religion” claim. None of these counterarguments, in as much as I can find, have been engaged by scholars holding the “sport as religion” position. My overall goal relates more to continuing a deeper discussion of religion, sport, and the potential interactions, overlaps, and engagements of these cultural phenomena rather than fully dismissing the “sport as religion” argument. In the end, I invite further consideration of the included arguments from scholars interested in sport and religion discourse. Full article

23 pages, 1482 KB

Open AccessArticle

“Caravans of Care”: Religiosity, Meaning in Life, and Family Functioning in Parental Burnout

by Wioletta Tuszyńska-Bogucka and Roman Ryszard Szałachowski

Religions 2026, 17(2), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020147 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

Religiosity has been proposed as a meta-resource that may help parents endure chronic caregiving demands by anchoring parenting in meaning, values, and a sense of purpose—an idea compatible with Frankl’s view that suffering becomes more bearable when it is intelligible and oriented toward [...] Read more.

Religiosity has been proposed as a meta-resource that may help parents endure chronic caregiving demands by anchoring parenting in meaning, values, and a sense of purpose—an idea compatible with Frankl’s view that suffering becomes more bearable when it is intelligible and oriented toward a “why.” In a cross-sectional sample of Polish parents (N = 339), we examined whether religiosity related to parental burnout through existential resources (presence and searching for meaning in life) and family-level resources (family functioning) while accounting for basic sociodemographic factors. The zero-order religiosity–burnout association was small and not statistically significant. Yet an indirect-only pattern emerged: higher religiosity was linked to lower parental burnout primarily through higher presence of meaning in life and better family functioning, including a small but reliable serial connection between these two resources. By contrast, global perceived support and generic searching for meaning did not add explanatory value once core resources were considered. In meaning-centred terms, religious faith may operate less as a direct “shield” against burnout and more as a pathway to sustaining everyday family practices and a stable sense of meaning that helps parents carry long-term demands. In other words, religiosity appears linked to lower burnout mainly indirectly via meaning and everyday family functioning, rather than through a sizable direct association. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viktor Frankl and the Future of Religion)

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21 pages, 393 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Midrashic and Patristic Journey: Towards an Ethic of Peace Beyond Just War

by David Meyer and Krisztián Fenyves

Religions 2026, 17(2), 146; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020146 - 28 Jan 2026

Abstract

This paper seeks to foster an interpretative dialogue between Judaism and Christianity on an audacious theological dynamic: the shift from an ethics of war to an ethics of peace. Beginning with a hermeneutical examination of a brief midrashic text from the Tanhuma collection, [...] Read more.

This paper seeks to foster an interpretative dialogue between Judaism and Christianity on an audacious theological dynamic: the shift from an ethics of war to an ethics of peace. Beginning with a hermeneutical examination of a brief midrashic text from the Tanhuma collection, the article argues that the dynamic momentum initiated by the midrash, suggesting a path of transformation from war to peace, finds a powerful echo and development in a contemporary Catholic theological movement rooted in Augustine’s notion of “bellum iustum,” as reoriented by the Magisterial teaching’s emphasis on “just peace” from Pope Benedict XV onward. The authors suggest that the early midrashic dynamic, and the theological audacity it expresses—which will be further explicated—is enriched and given new dimensions when brought into conversation with the Church’s current effort to move beyond the traditional framework of “just war” toward a renewed insistence on peace as the primary ethical horizon. This case study highlights the potential for mutual theological enrichment when the inner movements of both traditions are brought into dialogue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Ethics of War and Peace: Religious Traditions in Dialogue)

14 pages, 306 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rejecting, Welcoming, Accepting, or Affirming? Theological Orientation, Marginalized Identity, and Attitudes Toward Religion

by Selbi Kurbanova, Rachel Limke and Alicia McLean

Religions 2026, 17(2), 145; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020145 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

This study examined how Protestant theological orientation and marginalized social identity influence attitudes toward Christian denominations and religion more broadly. We tried to test whether greater theological openness predicts more affirming attitudes and whether marginalized identity moderates this relationship. A total of 479 [...] Read more.

This study examined how Protestant theological orientation and marginalized social identity influence attitudes toward Christian denominations and religion more broadly. We tried to test whether greater theological openness predicts more affirming attitudes and whether marginalized identity moderates this relationship. A total of 479 adults completed measures of Protestant Theological Orientation (PTS), Attitudes Toward Denominations (ATD), Attitudes Toward Religion (ATR), Defensive Theology (DTS), and Attachment to God (AGI). Regression and MANOVA analyses tested hypotheses regarding the predictive roles of theology and marginalization (non-cisgender and/or non-heterosexual status). Contrary to expectations, higher biblical literalism (higher PTS scores) predicted stronger affirming attitudes toward both denominations and religion overall. Marginalized participants expressed significantly lower ATD scores but did not differ in ATR. Interaction analyses revealed that marginalized status moderated the relationship between theology and denominational attitudes, suggesting that literalism was especially affirming for marginalized participants. Marginalized individuals also reported higher defensive theology and greater attachment anxiety toward God. Findings challenge assumptions that theological openness fosters affirmation, instead showing that biblical literalism predicts more positive denominational and religious attitudes, particularly among marginalized groups. Results show the complex interplay of theology, social identity, and spiritual resilience, with implications for counseling, pastoral care, and interfaith engagement. Full article

16 pages, 400 KB

Open AccessArticle

Silence in Philadelphians

by Jonathon Lookadoo

Religions 2026, 17(2), 144; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020144 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

The letters of Ignatius of Antioch contain disparate references to silence. Silence is variously associated with God, bishops, and the notion of authenticity, while at other times silence interacts with speech or provides the backdrop against which God’s salvific activity is worked out. [...] Read more.

The letters of Ignatius of Antioch contain disparate references to silence. Silence is variously associated with God, bishops, and the notion of authenticity, while at other times silence interacts with speech or provides the backdrop against which God’s salvific activity is worked out. Prior studies have synthesized the role silence plays in Ignatius’s thought by reading silence univocally across the letters. This article critiques such synthetic readings of silence for failing to account adequately for the individuated nature of how Ignatius’s letters were sent and, thus, how they were encountered by their first readers. The article then interprets silence as it is used in one Ignatian letter, namely, Philadelphians. Silence in Philadelphians must be understood in light of Ignatius’s expansive understanding of unity, which is emphasized throughout the letter, as well as the conflict that Ignatius experienced while there. In this light, the silence of the Philadelphian bishop is not primarily an attempt to whitewash a character flaw. Rather, it is a reason to laud the bishop and his interaction with schismatic teachers. Whereas Ignatius confronted those same teachers verbally and must now write to account for his actions in the letter, the Philadelphian bishop acts wisely and in keeping with the advice of other Greco-Roman ethicists by not speaking garrulously and simply refusing to engage with false teachers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Theologies)

24 pages, 3992 KB

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The Wooded Mountains, Ancestral Spirits and Community: Yi Religious Ecology in the “ꑭꁮ” (xiō bū) Ritual

by Hua Cai and Hao Zhang

Religions 2026, 17(2), 143; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020143 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Based on extensive ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Mianning County, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture between 2023 and 2024, this paper analyzes the “xiō bū” (ꑭꁮ) ritual of the Liangshan Yi people. Framed within contemporary approaches to religious anthropology and social memory theory, the study [...] Read more.

Based on extensive ethnographic fieldwork conducted in Mianning County, Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture between 2023 and 2024, this paper analyzes the “xiō bū” (ꑭꁮ) ritual of the Liangshan Yi people. Framed within contemporary approaches to religious anthropology and social memory theory, the study explores how this ritual constructs Yi ecological ethics, social integration, and cultural identity through nature worship, ancestral spirit beliefs, and ritual practices. The ethnographic evidence reveals that the “xiō bū” ritual, by designating wooded mountains as sacred space and performing sacrifices to nature deities and ancestral spirits, integrates “humans—nature—ancestors” into a symbiotic system of the “community of life.” This reflects the Yi people’s relational ontology and embedded ecological knowledge. The sacrificial offerings, shared meals, and purification practices in the ritual not only reinforce reverence for nature through symbolic acts but also unify the community through Durkheimian “collective effervescence,” thereby restoring the community’s spiritual order. As a carrier of social memory, the “xiō bū” ritual, through epic chanting, symbolic performances (such as clothing, ritual implements), and bodily practices (like the ritual specialist’s movements), embeds individual memories into the collective historical narrative of the group, dynamically constructing the cultural boundaries of the “Yi” people. The ritual specialists (Bimo or Suni), as intermediaries of knowledge and power, maintain religious authority through bricolage-like symbolic reorganization and foster the creative transformation of tradition in response to the challenges of modernity. The study further reveals that while the ritual faces challenges in the contemporary context, such as secularization and population mobility, it continues to activate ethnic identity by simplifying rituals, preserving core symbols, and coupling with ecological discourses, offering a model for the modern adaptation of traditional religions. This paper argues that ritual studies should engage with contemporary theoretical approaches like the ontological turn, focus on the agency of individuals, and reflect on the insights traditional knowledge systems offer in the face of globalization and ecological crises. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)

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23 pages, 548 KB

Open AccessArticle

Banished Immortal 謫仙: The Representation of Exilic Imagery in Bai Yuchan’s Shenxiao Thunder Rites 神霄雷法 and Inner Alchemy Teachings

by Jingyi Fan

Religions 2026, 17(2), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020142 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Bai Yuchan (白玉蟾, 1134?–1229?), a prominent figure of the Southern Lineage of Golden Elixir Sect 金丹派南宗 during the Southern Song dynasty, established a unique synthesis of Shenxiao Thunder Rites and Inner Alchemy by cultivating the persona of a “Banished Immortal”. By framing himself [...] Read more.

Bai Yuchan (白玉蟾, 1134?–1229?), a prominent figure of the Southern Lineage of Golden Elixir Sect 金丹派南宗 during the Southern Song dynasty, established a unique synthesis of Shenxiao Thunder Rites and Inner Alchemy by cultivating the persona of a “Banished Immortal”. By framing himself as a celestial thunder officer exiled to the human realm, he grounded his ritual authority in a narrative of divine origin. Central to this system was the “Heart 心,” which served as the essential bridge between internal cultivation and ritual efficacy. Bai argued that the ability to command thunder relied not on mere technique, but on the alchemical refinement of the practitioner’s own spirit and qi 氣/炁. Bai’s writings, especially the Qu Gong Poems 曲肱詩, express his dual identity and his earthly life as a period of spiritual transcendence. Distinctively, Bai embraced genuine emotion and literati aesthetics. He used the “banished immortal” trope to translate the fierce, internal power of thunder into a socially recognized form. This theological and literary construction not only legitimized his public performance of rainmaking and exorcism but also forged a durable identity for the Southern Lineage that continued to shape Daoist traditions well into the Ming dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Daoist Inner Alchemy Atlas: Practice and Related Medicine, Thunder Rites and Iconology)

15 pages, 242 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Epistemic Priority of Suffering in Christian Political Discernment: Ellacuría’s Hermeneutics of Violence in the Reality of El Salvador

by Sónia da Silva Monteiro

Religions 2026, 17(2), 141; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020141 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

In a context marked by polarization and diminished trust in nonviolent solutions, this article examines whether Christian political discernment can offer a viable response to the apparent inevitability of war. In light of Pope Francis’s critique of the applicability of just war reasoning [...] Read more.

In a context marked by polarization and diminished trust in nonviolent solutions, this article examines whether Christian political discernment can offer a viable response to the apparent inevitability of war. In light of Pope Francis’s critique of the applicability of just war reasoning amid today’s global arm’s race and advanced technology, this study investigates how Ignacio Ellacuría confronted the question of violence in El Salvador and reflects on its transnational relevance for Christian ethics in the face of contemporary conflicts. Through a close reading of Ellacuría’s philosophical and theological writings, informed by Xavier Zubiri’s philosophy, this article reconstructs the ambiguities and multiple meanings of violence that arise in situations of structural injustice and limit situations. Ellacuría’s commitment to the historical reality reveals his critique of the deficiencies of abstract or universal theories, including the appeal to legitimate defense, in favor of a praxis of discernment grounded in the lived experience of the poor. This study finds that Ellacuría locates the epistemic center of political judgment in the suffering of victims. This article concludes that Ellacuría’s provides an important contribution for renewing Christian political ethics in the 21st century by prioritizing the voices of those who suffer as the fundamental criterion for responding ethically to democratic crises and structural oppression. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Latin American Theology of Liberation in the 21st Century—2nd Edition)

23 pages, 476 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Thematic and Rhetorical Transformation of ‘Aṣabiyya in Early Islamic Poetry

by Ramazan Aslan and Ismail Araz

Religions 2026, 17(2), 140; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17020140 - 27 Jan 2026

Abstract

Classical Arabic poetry played a powerful social role in Arab society, particularly during the Jāhiliyya (pre-Islamic) period, due to its high level of eloquence (faṣāḥa) and balāgha. Within this poetic tradition—shaped around themes such as heroism (ḥamāsah), boasting (fakhr), satire (hijā’), and love [...] Read more.

Classical Arabic poetry played a powerful social role in Arab society, particularly during the Jāhiliyya (pre-Islamic) period, due to its high level of eloquence (faṣāḥa) and balāgha. Within this poetic tradition—shaped around themes such as heroism (ḥamāsah), boasting (fakhr), satire (hijā’), and love (tashbīb)—‘aṣabiyya occupied a central position as a means of constructing and preserving tribal identity through language. Poets exalted their own tribes and disparaged rival ones by employing persuasive and emotionally charged expression. With the revelation of the Qur’an in 610 CE, this literary and cultural heritage, grounded in aesthetic and expressive power, was reconfigured within a new religious framework. The Qur’an’s challenge-oriented discourse entered into direct interaction with existing poetic sensibilities. Against this background, the present study examines the transformation of ‘aṣabiyya in classical Arabic poetry during the early Islamic period. It offers a comparative analysis of lineage-centered ‘aṣabiyya in Jāhiliyya poetry and the emergence of an ummah-centered discourse of unity in Islamic poetry, drawing on poems by different poets from both periods. Using content analysis, rhetorical text analysis, and inductive methods, the study demonstrates that the Qur’an’s influence on Arabic poetry was neither uniform nor one-dimensional but significantly shaped poetic themes and authorial attitudes. By focusing on ‘aṣabiyya, the article aims to contribute to a renewed understanding of the Qur’an–poetry relationship in early Islam. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Classical Arabic Texts and the Pre-Modern Islamic Rhetorical Tradition: Rethinking the Qur’an and Early Arabic Poetry as Cultural Foundations)

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