Religions

6 pages, 183 KB

Open AccessEditorial

by Ali Qadir

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1311; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101311 - 15 Oct 2025

Studies of mysticism have been in a state of turmoil for years [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mysticism Reloaded: Innovative Approaches, Methods, and Theories to Study Mysticism)

17 pages, 361 KB

Open AccessArticle

Celibacy, Chastity and Self-Cultivation in the Thought of Jesuits and Chinese Catholics in Late Ming and Early Qing China

by Biyun Dai

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1310; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101310 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

This article examines Catholic celibacy from the late Ming to early Qing dynasty, revealing how Jesuit missionaries and Chinese Catholics interpreted and advocated for chastity. It highlights how missionaries such as Matteo Ricci and Giulio Aleni connected chastity with the ethical knowledge of [...] Read more.

This article examines Catholic celibacy from the late Ming to early Qing dynasty, revealing how Jesuit missionaries and Chinese Catholics interpreted and advocated for chastity. It highlights how missionaries such as Matteo Ricci and Giulio Aleni connected chastity with the ethical knowledge of self-cultivation and the doctrine of salvation, while adapting it to Chinese culture through Confucian concepts like subduing one’s self. The article also explores the conflicts and integrations of chastity ideals among different intellectual traditions, such as the critiques by Buddhist monk Yunqi Zhuhong and Confucian scholar Xu Dashou, as well as how supporters like Yang Tingyun and Zhu Zongyuan reconciled Christian chastity with Confucian ideals of self-restraint and virtuous conduct. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity and Knowledge Development)

18 pages, 273 KB

Open AccessArticle

Kant on the Ontological Argument for the Existence of God: Why Conceivability Does Not Entail Real Possibility

by Lucas Thorpe and Zübeyde Karadağ Thorpe

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1309; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101309 - 15 Oct 2025

Abstract

In the ontological argument for the existence of God, Descartes famously argues that the idea of God is the idea of a perfect being. As such, the idea of God must combine all of the perfections. Now, as (necessary) existence is a perfection, [...] Read more.

In the ontological argument for the existence of God, Descartes famously argues that the idea of God is the idea of a perfect being. As such, the idea of God must combine all of the perfections. Now, as (necessary) existence is a perfection, God must exist. Leibniz criticized Descartes’ argument, pointing out that it rests upon the hidden assumption that God is possible. Leibniz argues, however, that God is really possible because realities cannot oppose one another, and so there could be no real opposition between the perfections. So, at least in the case of God, conceivability entails real possibility. Kant rejects this assumption and insists that the non-contradictoriness of an idea is not an adequate criterion for the real possibility of the object of the idea, for although predicates may be combined in thought to form a concept, this does not entail the properties they indicate may be so combined in reality. For this reason, Kant believes that it is impossible to prove the real possibility of God, and so the ontological argument is not sound. In this paper, I examine Kant’s reasons for reaching this conclusion. I pay particular attention to Kant’s argument in the Amphiboly, which deals with the concepts of agreement and opposition, and where Kant stresses the importance of the distinction between logical and real opposition. I will argue that this distinction plays a crucial role in Kant’s rejection of the ontological argument and rationalist Leibnizian–Wolffian metaphysics in general. I also show how Kant’s rejection of the possibility of what he calls the complete determination of a concept in the Ideal of Pure Reason, plays a role in his rejection of the conceivability entails real possibility principle. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Kant’s Critique of Rational Theology and His Project of Moral Religion)

18 pages, 492 KB

Open AccessArticle

Liquid Spirituality in Post-Secular Societies: A Mental Health Perspective on the Transformation of Faith

by Pavel Eder and Petr Činčala

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1308; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101308 - 14 Oct 2025

Abstract

What happens when the church no longer speaks to the soul, yet the soul keeps searching? Across post-religious Europe, a new kind of spirituality is rising: fluid, fragmented, and deeply personal. It offers comfort where doctrine no longer resonates, and healing where institutions [...] Read more.

What happens when the church no longer speaks to the soul, yet the soul keeps searching? Across post-religious Europe, a new kind of spirituality is rising: fluid, fragmented, and deeply personal. It offers comfort where doctrine no longer resonates, and healing where institutions feel distant. As mental health struggles grow, these alternative spiritualities flourish, reflecting the emotional landscape of late modernity, while institutional religion struggles to respond in meaningful, preventive ways. This article first explores the philosophical and cultural shifts that have led from church pews to yoga mats and mindfulness apps. Then it presents new data from some of Europe’s most secular countries, examining the relationship between faith, spirituality, and psychological well-being. Finally, it proposes a renewed form of Christian spirituality—one that is emotionally attuned, Spirit-led, and culturally rooted in the liquid realities of our time. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Approaches to Spirituality and Mental Health in Secular Societies)

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31 pages, 350 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Diaconia and Christian Social Practice in a Global Perspective: Concluding Synthesis of Emerging Topical Issues and Themes

by Johannes Eurich and Ignatius Swart

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1307; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101307 - 14 Oct 2025

Abstract

Trust in politics and institutions, as well as the upholding of social cohesion, is presently under pressure globally [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Diaconia and Christian Social Practice in a Global Perspective)

18 pages, 301 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Institutionalization of Religious Minorities in Spain: The Recognition of the Bahá’í Community’s Notorio Arraigo

by Óscar Salguero Montaño

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1306; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101306 - 14 Oct 2025

Abstract

On 18 September 2023, the Spanish State recognised the Notorio Arraigo (firmly established, or literally, notorious deep rootedness) of the Bahá’í Community of Spain through a Ministerial Order, integrating it into the group of recognised religious denominations, albeit without any signed cooperation agreements. [...] Read more.

On 18 September 2023, the Spanish State recognised the Notorio Arraigo (firmly established, or literally, notorious deep rootedness) of the Bahá’í Community of Spain through a Ministerial Order, integrating it into the group of recognised religious denominations, albeit without any signed cooperation agreements. This milestone reflects the evolving legal–political frameworks of religious freedom since the arrival of the Bahá’í Faith in Spain in the mid-20th century, as well as the strategies employed to consolidate and institutionalise itself as a religious denomination, influenced by Bahá’í principles. This paper examines how these principles have inspired the Community’s secular strategies throughout different historical phases: from a restrictive Catholic confessional framework to the current non-confessional state, which guarantees religious freedom. It also analyses the actions undertaken to obtain recognition of Notorio Arraigo and considers the challenges and needs faced by the Bahá’í Community at this new level of recognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)

7 pages, 143 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Christian Missions and the Environment

by David Onnekink

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1305; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101305 - 14 Oct 2025

Abstract

The spiny babbler is a bird species that only lives in Nepal, mainly among scrubs and small trees [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Christian Missions and the Environment)

14 pages, 289 KB

Open AccessArticle

Injustice in Contemporary Islamic Theology: Explanation, Punishment and the Hereafter

by Abdessamad Belhaj

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1304; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101304 - 14 Oct 2025

Abstract

Since the 1980s, a theology of injustice has gained prominence in Islamic thought as a large body of literature has been written on the subject. One of the main tenets of this theology is the punishment of injustice in the afterlife, which emphasizes [...] Read more.

Since the 1980s, a theology of injustice has gained prominence in Islamic thought as a large body of literature has been written on the subject. One of the main tenets of this theology is the punishment of injustice in the afterlife, which emphasizes how unjust individuals will endure different punishments, including suffering in darkness on the Day of Resurrection. Some theologians use the divine punishment of unjust individuals in the hereafter as a rhetorical method of dissuasion from injustice in conjunction with warnings against the injustices that Muslims are currently facing or committing. Taking an ethical and normative stand, other theologians prohibit injustice, including violence against innocent people. Other Muslim theologians adopt an analytical perspective, developing concepts to understand the causes, effects, and ways to prevent injustice, including via God’s love. All theologians agree that God will punish the unjust on Earth and in the hereafter. This article discusses how injustice is explained in modern Muslim theology and closely examines and critically analyzes twelve contemporary theological Muslim texts in Arabic that have been produced in recent decades. In addition, I will place these modern theological discussions within the context of the development of modern Islamic thought and in relation to the ongoing discussions about theodicy, ethics, and the imagery of (after) death in modern society. This article argues that the theology of injustice has two purposes: it calls the unjust to accept responsibility and promises the victim delayed justice and retribution. I conclude that the punitive stance on injustice can be explained by the ongoing political and social struggles in the Muslim world as well as the spreading of traditionalist Islamic theology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Question of “Theodicy” in Contemporary Society: The Imagery of (after) Death in Religion and New Forms of Spirituality)

42 pages, 13705 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanisms of Creativity: Interpretive Malleability in Guan Di Worship on the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia

by Xiang Li, Siew Kian Ong and Danny Tze Ken Wong

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1303; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101303 - 14 Oct 2025

Abstract

This multidisciplinary study investigates the enduring vitality of Guan Di worship on Peninsular Malaysia’s West Coast by proposing and systematically testing ‘Interpretive Malleability’ as a core explanatory mechanism. This is achieved through an integrated methodology combining historical anthropology, GIS spatial data, and a [...] Read more.

This multidisciplinary study investigates the enduring vitality of Guan Di worship on Peninsular Malaysia’s West Coast by proposing and systematically testing ‘Interpretive Malleability’ as a core explanatory mechanism. This is achieved through an integrated methodology combining historical anthropology, GIS spatial data, and a dual comparative analysis. By examining cases across different regions and historical periods, this analysis, both synchronic and diachronic, assesses how the mechanism operates in varied contexts. The study defines ‘Interpretive Malleability’ as a two-part process: an ‘Inherent Potential’ within the symbol, rooted in the ‘Persistence of the Human Prototype’, and a ‘Local Generative Process’ activated by local actors. Findings reveal that the uniqueness and vitality of Guan Di’s cult are forged in practice-oriented domains through the creative agency of its followers. Ultimately, this study offers a mechanism-based, agency-centered framework for understanding religious resilience, highlighting the dynamic interplay between a symbol’s intrinsic structure and local creative engagement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Creativity)

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2 pages, 123 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Epilogue: After Sixty Years—An Eastern Catholic “Pope Leo Moment”

by Ines Angeli Murzaku and Ana Victoria Sima

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1302; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101302 - 14 Oct 2025

Abstract

When Dr [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Light from the East: The Catholic Eastern Churches Sixty Years After Vatican II)

33 pages, 1303 KB

Open AccessArticle

Doomed Power and Eternal Wisdom in Late Antiquity: Intertwining Representations of Luqmān in Light of the Qurʾānic Tradition

by Maxim Yosefi

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1301; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101301 - 13 Oct 2025

Abstract

This article explores the underlying ideas conveyed by the literary representations associated with Luqmān b. ʿĀd and Luqmān the Sage in classical Arabic sources. It avoids conflating them or collapsing all portrayals of Luqmān b. ʿĀd into a single composite figure. At the [...] Read more.

This article explores the underlying ideas conveyed by the literary representations associated with Luqmān b. ʿĀd and Luqmān the Sage in classical Arabic sources. It avoids conflating them or collapsing all portrayals of Luqmān b. ʿĀd into a single composite figure. At the same time, it resists imposing a rigid dichotomy between these representations, instead examining possible mutual influences and conceptual continuities. To assess the range of divergent Luqmān images in light of the Qurʾānic tradition, the article treats them as manifestations of diverse local and regional narrative currents, woven together within a broader pan-Arabic reservoir of motifs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Classical Arabic Texts and the Pre-Modern Islamic Rhetorical Tradition: Rethinking the Qur’an and Early Arabic Poetry as Cultural Foundations)

19 pages, 279 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Journey into African Spirituality: An Exploration of Its Key Values, Traditions, and Healing Methodologies

by Nokwanda Mthethwa and Raisuyah Bhagwan

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1300; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101300 - 13 Oct 2025

Abstract

This paper explores African spirituality by examining its core values, traditions, and healing methodologies. Employing a qualitative research design and ethnographic method, data were collected through individual interviews with twelve parents (Sample 1) and a focus group discussion with fifteen community members and [...] Read more.

This paper explores African spirituality by examining its core values, traditions, and healing methodologies. Employing a qualitative research design and ethnographic method, data were collected through individual interviews with twelve parents (Sample 1) and a focus group discussion with fifteen community members and traditional leaders (Sample 2) in a deeply rural African community in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Participants were recruited with the assistance of community elders for their in-depth knowledge of this faith tradition. Thematic analysis generated three overarching themes: understanding African spirituality; spiritual beliefs and practices within African spirituality; and healing methodologies. The findings reveal a complex system of interconnected beliefs and practices that shape African communal life, highlighting the role of spiritual rituals in sustaining the well-being of families and communities. Full article

15 pages, 279 KB

Open AccessArticle

«Bishops & Priests Are Truly Gods on Earth»: John of Kronstadt’s Theology of the Orthodox Priesthood

by Alexey Iv. Černyi

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1299; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101299 - 13 Oct 2025

Abstract

Challenges caused by secularization, ideological pluralism and the transformation of religious institutions in the modern world have raised the question of what role the Christian priesthood plays in a changing society. The focus of this study is the Orthodox priesthood in Russia in [...] Read more.

Challenges caused by secularization, ideological pluralism and the transformation of religious institutions in the modern world have raised the question of what role the Christian priesthood plays in a changing society. The focus of this study is the Orthodox priesthood in Russia in the context of its historical development and theological conception. The article analyzes the position of the parish clergy, which, despite its theoretically exalted and sacred status in the Russian Empire, remained socially vulnerable and dependent on both the state and the community of believers. Particular attention is paid to St. John of Kronstadt, whose ministry became a model for a new type of pastoral care. This combined ascetic strictness, Eucharistic revival, and deep involvement in the lives of the laity. An analysis of Fr. John’s diaries reveals the following: in contrast to the Western tradition, where the crisis of the priesthood is often associated with its excessive sacralization and separation from the laity, in Russian Orthodoxy the response to the challenges of modernity was the sacralization of both the clergy and the entire parish community. This author suggests that, under the circumstances of revolution and persecution, the ideal of the ascetic priest and spiritual father contributed to the formation of stable church communities, which remains relevant in the context of contemporary discussions on the place of religion in the secular world. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Theologies)

13 pages, 305 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sorcery and Speculation: On Deceit and Dignity in the Economy

by Stuart Patrick Chalmers

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1298; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101298 - 13 Oct 2025

Abstract

In combination with recent Catholic social teaching, this paper will explore the thought of the philosopher Emmanuel Levinas on the role of ethics in the economy to challenge forms of aggressive profiteering by illusion, deceit or exploitation. Levinas draws upon the Talmud and [...] Read more.

In combination with recent Catholic social teaching, this paper will explore the thought of the philosopher Emmanuel Levinas on the role of ethics in the economy to challenge forms of aggressive profiteering by illusion, deceit or exploitation. Levinas draws upon the Talmud and its teaching on sorcery and on profiting from falsehood as a starting point for his reflections on modern society, reckless market speculation and on the need for the members of society to grow in their mutual responsibility and respect for each other’s unique and incomparable dignity. Levinas’s ethic of generosity calls us to move away from the self-interested model of “greed is good” and to strive for ever-greater justice in our monetary society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Continental Philosophy and Catholic Theology)

19 pages, 281 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Religious Socialization on the Crisis of Faith: The Case of Young Turks in Türkiye

by Muhammed Babacan

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1297; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101297 - 13 Oct 2025

Abstract

This study examines the influence of religious socialization on the crises of faith among Turkish youth in Türkiye. Drawing on qualitative interviews with 20 participants, it adopts a process-oriented approach, conceptualizing a crisis of faith not merely as an abrupt disruption but as [...] Read more.

This study examines the influence of religious socialization on the crises of faith among Turkish youth in Türkiye. Drawing on qualitative interviews with 20 participants, it adopts a process-oriented approach, conceptualizing a crisis of faith not merely as an abrupt disruption but as a gradual process shaped by the complex and sometimes conflicting dynamics within religious socialization. Young individuals are not simply passive agents in the traditionally one-way transmission of faith; instead, they become more autonomous and dynamic as they encounter negative attitudes and behaviors, often leading to a crisis of faith. The analysis highlights the roles of authoritarian parenting, perceived inconsistencies in religious teachings, peer and social media influence, and gender inequalities within patriarchal contexts. The findings suggest that while religious socialization provides an initial framework for faith, it also poses challenges that prompt Turkish youth to re-evaluate or distance themselves critically from traditional religion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Transmission Across Generations: Challenges, Continuities, and Changes)

10 pages, 200 KB

Open AccessArticle

Solidarity with the Marginalized: The Spiritual Implications of Liberation Theology Within a Christian Context

by Ishraq Ali and Mahdi Ganjvar

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1296; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101296 - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

Christian Liberation Theology highlights a spirituality that is deeply tied to the fight for socio-political freedom. This perspective argues that spirituality, when practiced as a way of life, is essential for meaningful liberation. It represents a fresh take on Christian faith and discipleship, [...] Read more.

Christian Liberation Theology highlights a spirituality that is deeply tied to the fight for socio-political freedom. This perspective argues that spirituality, when practiced as a way of life, is essential for meaningful liberation. It represents a fresh take on Christian faith and discipleship, one that arises from the lived realities of the poor and oppressed. This approach has significantly influenced both Catholic and evangelical communities, blending spiritual and political elements into a unique theological framework. The research underscores that within this context, Liberation Theology redefines faith and spirituality as active, lived experiences that contribute to tangible social change. Spiritual people are not detached or indifferent to the struggles of others. They express their love for God by caring deeply for His creation. Just as God aligns with and supports the oppressed, spiritual individuals take a stand against injustice and those who perpetuate it. In this way, spirituality and the struggle for socio-political justice are inseparably connected to the message of Liberation Theology. The present article intends to refute the erroneous claim that Christian liberation theology is unrelated to spirituality and faith. The article highlights the intrinsic connection between spirituality and faith within this theological framework and subsequently analyzes the spiritual outcomes it produces. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)

14 pages, 235 KB

Open AccessArticle

Looking Under the Religion–Family Nexus: Syrian Christian Articulations in India

by Nidhin Donald

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1295; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101295 - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

What does one learn about religion through a study of Syrian Christian family cultures? How do religion and family—both as historically shaped ideological frames and social classifiers—inflect each other in Syrian Christian articulations about their past and present? What do these inflections tell [...] Read more.

What does one learn about religion through a study of Syrian Christian family cultures? How do religion and family—both as historically shaped ideological frames and social classifiers—inflect each other in Syrian Christian articulations about their past and present? What do these inflections tell us about being Christian in Kerala and beyond? Does it offer a critique of religion and family as sui generis categories? Based on select examples of Syrian Christian articulations from digital family displays produced by family associations (or kudumbayogam), I will argue that the religion–family node (or more appropriately nexus) hovers over the muddle of social relations. On one hand, the triumph of religion as a state-cushioned, universal category separated from the realm of the social and the historical (or religion with a capital ‘R’) has meant a neat tucking away of Syrian Christian households under the rubric of a reified Christianity. Similarly, the invocation of the patrilineal, patriarchal family as a universal category bereft of specificities works in tandem with this ironed-out Christianity in Syrian Christian family cultures. On the other hand, beyond their function as easy explainers, the religion–family nexus includes particular details which complicate the universality of the categories. These details recover family and religion in their heterogeneous elements expressed in place-sensitive caste idioms. I argue that the ‘universal’ in family and religion is sustained by the ‘particular’. A dialectical process of differentiation and homogenisation is critical to the Syrian Christian embrace of the religion–family nexus. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)

17 pages, 293 KB

Open AccessArticle

Psychedelic Mystical Experiences Are Authentic

by Hans Van Eyghen

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1294; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101294 - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

The paper critically discusses whether mystical experiences induced by psychedelics should be considered inauthentic or counterfeit forms of mystical experiences. It examines three arguments against the authenticity of these experiences: pimes are too easy; pimes do not have lasting spiritual or moral effects; [...] Read more.

The paper critically discusses whether mystical experiences induced by psychedelics should be considered inauthentic or counterfeit forms of mystical experiences. It examines three arguments against the authenticity of these experiences: pimes are too easy; pimes do not have lasting spiritual or moral effects; pimes do not involve divine grace. Positive arguments for the authenticity of pimes discussed are as follows: pimes rely on similar neural mechanisms as other mystical experiences; pimes are phenomenologically similar to other mystical experiences. The paper argues that the positive arguments are more convincing than the negative ones. It thereby presents a case in favor of the authenticity of psychedelically induced mystical experiences. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Psychedelics and Religion)

28 pages, 348 KB

Open AccessArticle

Transmission and Transformation of Religion Among Muslims in Canada and West Germany

by Alyshea Cummins and Linda Hennig

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1293; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101293 - 11 Oct 2025

Abstract

In many countries across the Western world, religion is in decline, with public secular environments increasingly outweighing family-based religious socialization. Canada and West Germany exemplify this trend, where younger generations often perceive religion as something to be justified within predominantly nonreligious peer groups. [...] Read more.

In many countries across the Western world, religion is in decline, with public secular environments increasingly outweighing family-based religious socialization. Canada and West Germany exemplify this trend, where younger generations often perceive religion as something to be justified within predominantly nonreligious peer groups. Muslims, as a religious minority, display greater resilience to secularization, yet their religiosity is also subject to transformation. Drawing on narrative family interviews spanning two to three generations, this study examines the conditions shaping religious continuity and discontinuity within Muslim families in Canada and West Germany. Focusing on second- and third-generation Muslims, we find that practicing religion with children is the most significant factor in successful transmission, especially when rituals are woven into daily life. Yet family practice alone is insufficient: embedding children in faith-based community networks and fostering open dialogue about religion prove crucial for sustaining confidence, belonging, and adaptability. Religious transmission also intersects with ethnic and cultural identity, though ethnic ties alone do not guarantee continuity. Ultimately, we observe that transmission involves transformation: parents are changing the way they approach religion, placing a greater emphasis on their children making their own choices. Muslim families, like other faith communities, shift toward more individualized and reflective forms of religiosity, negotiating their identities within secular and often critical societal contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Transmission Across Generations: Challenges, Continuities, and Changes)

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