Religions

14 pages, 369 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rethinking Moral Responsibility: The Case of the Evil-Natured Tyrants in Confucian Thought

by Yunwoo Song

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1062; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081062 (registering DOI) - 16 Aug 2025

In general, the justification for the divine punishment in the Christian cosmos hinges on the notion of free will. Despite doctrinal complexities involving sin, grace, and divine sovereignty, individuals are held morally responsible for choosing evil over good. According to an ancient Chinese [...] Read more.

In general, the justification for the divine punishment in the Christian cosmos hinges on the notion of free will. Despite doctrinal complexities involving sin, grace, and divine sovereignty, individuals are held morally responsible for choosing evil over good. According to an ancient Chinese legend, however, the tyrant King Zhou (11th C. BCE) who lost his throne due to a changed mandate from Heaven was born with extreme evil tendencies. But if his evilness was determined before his birth and all his evil deeds are consequences of his natural tendencies, what might justify his punishment? Through an examination of Confucian responses to this question, this essay argues that Confucians did not ground moral responsibility in volitional freedom but rather in the extremity of one’s moral conduct. Their framework reveals a distinctive form of compatibilism—one in which blame is assigned not on the basis of freedom to choose otherwise but on how radically one’s actions deviate from shared ethical expectations. This suggests that the assumption of free will as a necessary condition for moral responsibility may reflect culturally specific intuitions, rather than a universal moral standard. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue On the Problem of Hell: Comparative Historical and Philosophical Perspectives)

16 pages, 278 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Objective Moral Facts Exist in All Possible Universes

by Richard Carrier

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1061; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081061 (registering DOI) - 16 Aug 2025

Abstract

The question of whether a God is needed to justify or ground moral facts is mooted by the fact that true moral facts exist in all possible universes that contain rational agents. This can be demonstrated in three stages. First, it is necessarily [...] Read more.

The question of whether a God is needed to justify or ground moral facts is mooted by the fact that true moral facts exist in all possible universes that contain rational agents. This can be demonstrated in three stages. First, it is necessarily the case that true moral facts can only be described as the imperatives that supersede all other imperatives. Second, it is necessarily the case that for any rational agent there will always be true hypothetical imperatives that supersede all other imperatives. And third, if there are true hypothetical imperatives that supersede all other imperatives, they are then, necessarily, the only true moral facts. As this follows for any rational agent in any possible universe, the presence of God is irrelevant to the existence of moral facts. God could be more capable of identifying those true moral facts, but he cannot author or ground them. And though a God could casuistically alter moral imperatives by altering the corresponding physics, he is constrained in what he can make true this way by moral fundamentals that are always necessarily true. God is therefore not necessary for there to be moral facts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

15 pages, 219 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Moral Hope Argument

by Eric Reitan

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1060; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081060 (registering DOI) - 16 Aug 2025

Abstract

This essay develops a distinct moral argument for the reasonableness of believing in God (conceived as a perfectly good creator) inspired by the pragmatic argument for “the religious hypothesis” advanced by William James in “The Will to Believe.” It also contextualizes the argument [...] Read more.

This essay develops a distinct moral argument for the reasonableness of believing in God (conceived as a perfectly good creator) inspired by the pragmatic argument for “the religious hypothesis” advanced by William James in “The Will to Believe.” It also contextualizes the argument relative to familiar moral arguments, notably those of C.S. Lewis and Kant. Briefly, the argument developed here holds that when facing more than one coherent picture of reality, each of which could be true based on the arguments and evidence but only one of which fulfills the hope that in a fundamental way reality is on the side of moral goodness (what I call “the ethico-religious hope”), a reasonable person could opt to believe in the hope’s fulfillment and live accordingly. Following James’ approach, however, this argument does not imply that others who do not adopt such a picture are necessarily irrational or less rational. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

21 pages, 1108 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Conflict and Cooperation Between the Armenian and Byzantine Churches in the Late 9th and 10th Centuries

by Arman Samvel Yeghiazaryan

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1059; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081059 (registering DOI) - 16 Aug 2025

Abstract

The question of the relationship between the Armenian and Byzantine churches has always interested researchers, often becoming a problem of study. Since the chosen problem concerns not only the mentioned churches but was also a fierce problem of the entire Christian world in [...] Read more.

The question of the relationship between the Armenian and Byzantine churches has always interested researchers, often becoming a problem of study. Since the chosen problem concerns not only the mentioned churches but was also a fierce problem of the entire Christian world in the context of the debate between the supporters of Monophysitism and Dyophysitism, we set ourselves the goal of studying the issue in this context within the framework of the end of the 9th century and in the 10th century, when particularly important development took place. One of the main results of the article is that despite the accepted opinion that the Armenian Church has always insisted on its confession, based on political considerations, the Armenian political and religious leaders sometimes expressed readiness for a church union with Byzantium. The main method of this article is the genetic method, with the help of which the origin, sequence of events, and patterns of development of the phenomenon under research are studied. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interreligious Dialogue and Conflict)

8 pages, 164 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Can Ethics Exist Without God? A Thomistic Critique of James Sterba’s Axiomatic Morality

by Joseph Brian Huffling

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1058; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081058 (registering DOI) - 16 Aug 2025

Abstract

This essay explores the question: can we have an objective ethics without God? This question is raised by James Sterba, who argues in the affirmative. As an atheistic ethicist, Sterba is motivated to maintain an objective morality that is not based in theism [...] Read more.

This essay explores the question: can we have an objective ethics without God? This question is raised by James Sterba, who argues in the affirmative. As an atheistic ethicist, Sterba is motivated to maintain an objective morality that is not based in theism and that can withstand the problems with Darwinism. Sterba examines what he sees as one of the most popular theistic attempts to ground human morality, viz., divine command theory. In rejecting both divine command theory and theism, Sterba offers what he believes can offer objective morality: a basic moral norm that all people should adhere to. This article examines Sterba’s criticism of divine command theory along with his own efforts at establishing an objective morality in what he considers a universal abstract principle. In the end, this article argues that Sterba’s axiomatic principle is unclear as to its ontological foundation as well as its causal efficacy in attempting to obligate objective human ethics. It will be argued that Sterba is correct about human nature being the locus of morality, but that atheism fails at providing human teleology to account for such morality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

18 pages, 335 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Rise of Religious Nones and Its Impact on Interreligious Dialogue: Examining “Religious Literacy” and “Meditation” as Mediating Mechanisms

by Haeyoung Seong

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1057; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081057 (registering DOI) - 16 Aug 2025

Abstract

As interactions between Eastern and Western religions increase, “interreligious dialogue (IRD)” has become more prevalent. This study investigates the evolving religious landscape of South Korea, shaped by the growing presence of “religious nones” (or simply “nones”), through the framework of IRD. Since the [...] Read more.

As interactions between Eastern and Western religions increase, “interreligious dialogue (IRD)” has become more prevalent. This study investigates the evolving religious landscape of South Korea, shaped by the growing presence of “religious nones” (or simply “nones”), through the framework of IRD. Since the 1960s, IRD in South Korea has been predominantly led by Christian institutions and facilitated by experts, such as theologians and religious studies scholars. However, the rise of the nones is driving a profound shift in the dialogic paradigm. The traditional intellectual approach, which focused on identifying doctrinal similarities, is shifting toward an emphasis on practical dimensions, including personal religious experiences and the concept of salvation. In this shifting context, “religious literacy” and “meditation” are emerging as crucial points of convergence, not only for IRD but also for interactions between the religious and the nones. While the growing presence of the nones may initially lead to confusion and conflict, it has the potential, in the long run, to foster religious coexistence. South Korea serves as a notable case illustrating how IRD can open new pathways in the realm of praxis. Religious literacy enhances understanding and promotes a tolerant attitude toward the broader social relationships that religion cultivates, while meditation provides a shared platform for dialogue and engagement at the societal level. In this regard, Korea presents a particularly compelling case study, offering a critical examination of the feasibility of these possibilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Conflict and Coexistence in Korea)

19 pages, 3965 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Spatio-Temporal Heterogeneity and Trends of Global Catholic Development After WWII

by Xiaobiao Lin, Bowei Wu and Yifan Tang

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1056; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081056 - 15 Aug 2025

Abstract

Understanding the spatio-temporal dynamics of religion is crucial for explaining cultural and geopolitical transformations. Based on multi-source religious demographic data, this study analyzes the spatio-temporal dynamics of global Catholicism after WWII using gravity migration and standard deviational ellipse models, revealing spatial heterogeneity and [...] Read more.

Understanding the spatio-temporal dynamics of religion is crucial for explaining cultural and geopolitical transformations. Based on multi-source religious demographic data, this study analyzes the spatio-temporal dynamics of global Catholicism after WWII using gravity migration and standard deviational ellipse models, revealing spatial heterogeneity and tracing the migration of its developmental center. Spatial typology techniques are further employed to classify patterns of Catholic growth efficiency. Our findings reveal that: (1) The absolute number of global Catholics has steadily increased, exhibiting a west-heavy, east-light pattern, with particularly notable growth in the Americas and Sub-Saharan Africa. The proportion of Catholics has declined—especially in traditional strongholds such as Europe and the Americas—while rising in emerging missionary regions, notably in Africa. (2) The macro-trend of Catholic development demonstrates a continuous southward shift in its global center of gravity, transitioning from Europe to the Global South—particularly regions like Africa, Asia, and Latin America. The standard deviational ellipse reveals pronounced oscillation, with an increasing rotation angle and a southward tilt, suggesting an accelerating pace of change in the global distribution of Catholicism. (3) Post-WWII, Catholic growth outpaced population in 75.57% of countries, though modestly. Developmental efficiency temporally followed a trajectory of “broad weak positive—drastic polarization—weak equilibrium”, while spatially reflecting pronounced regional heterogeneity shaped by the combined effects of colonial legacies, social demands, political dynamics, and modernity shocks. Overall, our study provides empirical support for understanding the links between religious spatial patterns and social transformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Global Catholicism)

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11 pages, 211 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Perceptions of Early Career Teachers Regarding the Teaching of Religious Education in Catholic Schools in Western Australia

by John W. Topliss, Shane Lavery, Tania Hicks and Anisah Dickson

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1055; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081055 - 15 Aug 2025

Abstract

This study explored the perceptions of early career teachers (ECTs) regarding the teaching of Religious Education in Catholic schools in Western Australia. The study used a constructivist epistemology and an interpretivist theoretical perspective to explore participant perceptions. The methodology underpinning the study was [...] Read more.

This study explored the perceptions of early career teachers (ECTs) regarding the teaching of Religious Education in Catholic schools in Western Australia. The study used a constructivist epistemology and an interpretivist theoretical perspective to explore participant perceptions. The methodology underpinning the study was an instrumental case study. Data were collected through an online survey of 91 ECTs. The results highlighted reasons motivating participants to teach Religious Education, the enjoyable aspects and challenges they experienced, the personal and professional support they received in their teaching of Religious Education, their perceived relevance of university training, and how they believed their university helped improve their confidence in teaching Religious Education. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Engaging Religious Plurality within Australian and New Zealand Catholic Schools: Particularity in Dialogue with Diversity)

17 pages, 220 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Critique of the Neo-Platonist Theory of Moral Value

by Kai Michael Büttner and David Benjamin Dolby

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1054; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081054 - 15 Aug 2025

Abstract

Divine Command Theory holds that what is morally right is what is commanded by God. This view faces a form of the Euthyphro dilemma: either God commands actions because they are right, in which case moral standards are independent of God, or actions [...] Read more.

Divine Command Theory holds that what is morally right is what is commanded by God. This view faces a form of the Euthyphro dilemma: either God commands actions because they are right, in which case moral standards are independent of God, or actions are right because God commands them, in which case morality appears arbitrary. A currently influential response among theistic philosophers draws on a distinction between moral duties and moral values. On this view, duties arise from God’s commands, while values are understood—following a neo-Platonist approach—to be grounded in God’s nature. Proponents of this account appeal to an analogy with the role of the standard metre in the metric system: just as a metre is defined by reference to a paradigmatic length, so goodness is defined by reference to God’s character. On this basis, they argue that the existence of moral value depends on God’s existence, and that moral objectivity requires theism. We argue, however, that moral language cannot be understood as involving God in a structurally analogous way to the standard metre. Moreover, the neo-Platonist account does not provide a successful explanation of the normativity of moral language. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

10 pages, 196 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is Ethics Possible Without God?

by Whitley Kaufman

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1053; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081053 - 14 Aug 2025

Abstract

This essay defends the position that ethics must be grounded in God, where the notion of ‘God’ is understood as a transcendental source of normativity, though not necessarily a personal being who ‘commands’ moral behavior. The essay argues that the true debate is [...] Read more.

This essay defends the position that ethics must be grounded in God, where the notion of ‘God’ is understood as a transcendental source of normativity, though not necessarily a personal being who ‘commands’ moral behavior. The essay argues that the true debate is between the naturalistic reduction of ethics and the idea of a transcendental ground for moral normativity. I claim that only the latter can provide a sufficient basis for morality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Is an Ethics without God Possible?)

17 pages, 273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Parallels Between the Glossolalia and the Theatre of the Absurd

by Antonia Čačić

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1052; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081052 - 14 Aug 2025

Abstract

The primary focus of this article is on the deconstruction of language within the context of glossolalia and the Theatre of the Absurd. Following World War II, the expression of absurdity in the literature and theatre gave rise to the Theatre of the [...] Read more.

The primary focus of this article is on the deconstruction of language within the context of glossolalia and the Theatre of the Absurd. Following World War II, the expression of absurdity in the literature and theatre gave rise to the Theatre of the Absurd as an anti-literary movement. Glossolalia appears both in the first Christian communities and within the charismatic renewal movement in modern times and refers to the gift of speaking in tongues. The objective of comparing these two occurrences is to identify their similarities and differences in their treatment of the language. Both glossolalia and the Theatre of the Absurd contain destructive aspects as they disintegrate language, but they also contain creative elements; glossolalia is prayer, and the Theatre of the Absurd has artistic merit. To consider the extent to which language deconstruction might serve as a prelude to creative endeavours, this analogy appears to be significant. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

15 pages, 1613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Verse to Vision: Exploring AI-Generated Religious Imagery in Bible Teaching

by Mariusz Chrostowski and Andrzej Jacek Najda

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1051; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081051 - 14 Aug 2025

Abstract

This article critically analyses the use of generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI)—specifically, the DALL·E system within the ChatGPT-4o environment—for creating visualisations of biblical scenes for teaching purposes. As part of a case study examining the Baptism of Jesus in the Jordan (Mt 3:13–17; cf. [...] Read more.

This article critically analyses the use of generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI)—specifically, the DALL·E system within the ChatGPT-4o environment—for creating visualisations of biblical scenes for teaching purposes. As part of a case study examining the Baptism of Jesus in the Jordan (Mt 3:13–17; cf. Mark 1:9–11; Luke 3:21–22; John 1:31, 34) and the Last Supper (Mt 26:17–30; cf. Mark 14:12–16; Luke 22:7–13), four AI-generated images are analysed. Two were created using general, non-specific prompts, while the other two were based on more precise queries containing references to Catholic symbolism and the images’ intended educational use. A comparison of these variants reveals a lack of theological depth and symbolic oversimplification in AI-generated images, as well as a tendency to reproduce Western cultural stereotypes. Despite their aesthetic appeal and quick availability, these images do not reflect the complexity of the biblical or spiritual contexts of the scenes depicted. This study aims to evaluate the theological, symbolic, and pedagogical value of AI-generated images and to provide practical recommendations for their responsible use in Bible didactics. In conclusion, the authors argue that GenAI can support biblical teaching when used consciously, critically, and reflectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Communities and Artificial Intelligence)

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15 pages, 427 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pentecostal Social Practice in Nigeria: The Story of Redeemed Christian Church of God, Nigeria

by K. Francis Adebayo

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1050; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081050 - 14 Aug 2025

Abstract

The myth that linked Pentecostal apathy towards public and civil engagement with the contradiction between otherworldliness and this-worldliness is being challenged. This falsity presented as a fact was connected to the idea that Pentecostal eschatology is incompatible with a cosmology that seeks to [...] Read more.

The myth that linked Pentecostal apathy towards public and civil engagement with the contradiction between otherworldliness and this-worldliness is being challenged. This falsity presented as a fact was connected to the idea that Pentecostal eschatology is incompatible with a cosmology that seeks to improve this world. However, recent research has dismantled this view by asserting that both early and contemporary Pentecostals were not unaware of social practice. One observation is that these Pentecostals grossly overlooked articulating their social vision, especially as part of their missional activities. Some Pentecostal churches in the global South have established programmes aimed at addressing endemic poverty in their regions. These churches are responding to concerns about the relationship between Pentecostal spirituality and persistent poverty. Given the proliferation of Pentecostal mega-churches in sub-Saharan Africa, there are opinions that the leaders of these churches are perpetuating poverty through messages of prosperity. Others, however, criticize these leaders for spiritualizing the root causes of poverty and relying on foreign aid to the region. This research focuses on the social engagement of the Redeemed Christian Church of God in Nigeria (RCCG). RCCG was founded in 1952 from an Aladura church and transformed into a Pentecostal church in the 1980s under an educated leader, who employed Pentecostalism and a core of educated middle-class individuals as new pastoral leaders to expand it into a religious denomination. In 2017, RCCG introduced CSR as its comprehensive programme of social engagement, encompassing health care, education, and charitable activities. In partnership with the Nigerian government, RCCG renovated some government-owned public health facilities and provides specialized medical care to Nigerians. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue African Voices in Contemporary and Historical Theology)

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25 pages, 441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Why Sacrifice?—Early Confucianism’s Reinterpretation of Sacrificial Rites and Human–Guishen (鬼神, Spirits and Deities) Relations Through Qing (情, Sentiment)

by Li Feng

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1049; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081049 - 13 Aug 2025

Abstract

This paper examines how early Confucianism reinterpreted sacrificial rites and reconstructed the relationship between humans and spirits through the lens of qing (情, sentiment). Traditional scholarship often views the Confucian reinterpretation of sacrifice as a shift from religious belief to a human-centered framework [...] Read more.

This paper examines how early Confucianism reinterpreted sacrificial rites and reconstructed the relationship between humans and spirits through the lens of qing (情, sentiment). Traditional scholarship often views the Confucian reinterpretation of sacrifice as a shift from religious belief to a human-centered framework of rationality, morality, and humanism—emphasizing its role in moral education and social governance and thereby marginalizing or even denying the existence of guishen (鬼神, spirits and deities) and the transcendent realm they represent. Although some scholars have emphasized the religious dimensions of Confucianism, few have addressed how Confucians managed to affirm the existence of spirits while simultaneously endowing sacrificial rites with moral and humanistic meaning—that is, how they navigated the inherent tension between the human and the divine realms. Against this background, this study argues that early Confucians neither denied the existence of spirits nor reduced sacrifice to a purely ethical or political instrument. By contrast, they regarded human sentiment as the universal foundation of sacrificial practice and, through a profound and creative transformation, redirected the meaning of sacrifice toward the human world (rendao 人道), thereby establishing a new model of human–divine relations—one that affirms human agency and dignity while preserving the sanctity of the spiritual. Drawing on close readings of classical Confucian texts such as The Analects, The Book of Rites, and Xunzi, this paper identifies three core dimensions of sacrificial sentiment: remembrance, gratitude, and reverence and awe. Together, these sentiments form a relational structure between humans and guishen that enables communication and interaction while maintaining clear boundaries. In this way, Confucian sacrificial rites become a space for emotional expression without degenerating into a “carnival of emotions” or transgressing the proper separation between the human and the divine. Confucian sacrificial thought thus affirms human dignity and moral agency while upholding the transcendence of the sacred. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Multiple Images and Forms of Classical Confucian and Daoist Ethics for Living)

24 pages, 363 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus and Christology

by Robert Fastiggi

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1048; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081048 - 13 Aug 2025

Abstract

This article examines the Christological implications of Catholic devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. After exploring the biblical significance of the heart, it provides an overview of the development of Sacred Heart devotion in Catholic history. It then turns to the Christological [...] Read more.

This article examines the Christological implications of Catholic devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus. After exploring the biblical significance of the heart, it provides an overview of the development of Sacred Heart devotion in Catholic history. It then turns to the Christological significance of devotion to the Sacred Heart of Jesus in light of papal teachings. The Christological significance is explored under nine categories: (1) the hypostatic union; (2) the infinite love of Jesus for humanity; (3) the humanity of Christ; (4) the motivation to love Jesus and others more deeply; (5) the link to Divine Mercy; (6) the link to the Paschal Mystery; (7) acts of reparation; (8) the Eucharist; and (9) the union of the Sacred Heart of Jesus with the Immaculate Heart of Mary. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Christology: Christian Writings and the Reflections of Theologians)

22 pages, 393 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Historical Evolution and Indigenous Pathways of Christian–Buddhist Dialogue in China: A Perspective from Religious Dialogue Theories

by Zhenjie Shang and Limin Liu

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1047; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081047 - 13 Aug 2025

Abstract

The early encounters between Buddhism and Christianity in China were primarily characterized by mutual exclusivity and competition. By the Republic of China era, both traditions faced mounting pressures—Buddhism under the impact of modernization, and Christianity in its efforts toward indigenization—which prompted a shift [...] Read more.

The early encounters between Buddhism and Christianity in China were primarily characterized by mutual exclusivity and competition. By the Republic of China era, both traditions faced mounting pressures—Buddhism under the impact of modernization, and Christianity in its efforts toward indigenization—which prompted a shift toward inclusive engagement and mutual learning. However, their interactions often remained limited to superficial formalities due to an instrumental approach that treated the other as a means to an end. During the early modern period, some pioneering thinkers began exploring core doctrines from a pluralistic perspective: Zhang Chunyi’s concept of “Buddhicized Christianity” sought to deconstruct essentialist views using the Buddhist wisdom of śūnyatā (emptiness), offering an Eastern philosophical pathway for religious dialogue. Xu Dishan, on the other hand, employed the literature as a medium to transcend doctrinal differences by emphasizing shared ethical practices, thereby constructing what can be termed “aestheticized pluralism”. In the contemporary context of globalization, scholars increasingly rely on comparative theology and comparative religious studies to enable deeper mutual interpretation of core doctrines, bringing more mature forms of interfaith dialogue. These dialogue practices demonstrate unique paradigm shifts and reflections on Western theories of religious dialogue, contributing Eastern-inspired insights for contemporary religious dialogue. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Otherness-Reception and Self-Rediscovery in the Dialogue and Comparative Study of Christianity and Buddhism)

23 pages, 368 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Religious Belief in the Later Wittgenstein—A ‘Form of Life’, a ‘Hinge’, a ‘Weltanschauung’, Something Else or None of These?

by Anja Weiberg

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1046; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081046 - 12 Aug 2025

Abstract

Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later remarks on religious belief (from around the mid-1930s onwards) have often been and continue to be interpreted in connection with other terms he used in his later philosophy. The most common interpretations argue that Wittgenstein understands religious belief as a [...] Read more.

Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later remarks on religious belief (from around the mid-1930s onwards) have often been and continue to be interpreted in connection with other terms he used in his later philosophy. The most common interpretations argue that Wittgenstein understands religious belief as a language-game or a group of language-games, as (part of) a form of life, and/or as a hinge/part of a world-picture. The term ‘Weltanschauung’ is also occasionally used to interpret Wittgenstein’s remarks on religious belief, and finally, Wittgenstein himself sporadically uses the term ‘style of thinking’ in connection with religious belief. In this paper, I will first conduct a meta-analysis of the secondary literature, presenting examples of the various lines of interpretation and criticism of these approaches. Subsequently, the various interpretations are examined to see whether or not they can actually be read from Wittgenstein’s remarks. The result of this investigation is that those interpretations which pursue a systematizing presentation of Wittgenstein’s remarks are, to a certain extent, reductive representations insofar as they can only draw on some of Wittgenstein’s remarks to support their interpretation, while other remarks stand in tension with the respective interpretation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)

15 pages, 249 KiB

Open AccessReview

The Social Mind: Scientific Investigation and Spiritual Interventions

by Anne Böckler-Raettig

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1045; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081045 - 12 Aug 2025

Abstract

Psychology as an empirical science has targeted human cognition for more than a century. Typically, the focus of these investigations was on isolated mental processes, which were studied in individual participants in confined laboratory settings. The present commentary aims to show how a [...] Read more.

Psychology as an empirical science has targeted human cognition for more than a century. Typically, the focus of these investigations was on isolated mental processes, which were studied in individual participants in confined laboratory settings. The present commentary aims to show how a relatively recent paradigm shift, the (renewed) conception of humans as fundamentally social, can shape our understanding of the mind and our scientific approach to studying spirituality. In the first sections, I will shortly review advances of psychological research in core processes and capacities of social understanding (empathy, compassion, perspective taking) and social interaction (communication, cooperation) that are also considered relevant in spiritual practices and traditions. Subsequently, a large-scale intervention study, the Resource Project, is presented to exemplify how the investigation of meditation-based mental trainings can decidedly include social practices (so-called contemplative dyads) and how these practices benefit interpersonal capacities. Arguing that cognition, spirituality, and scientific endeavors are not confined to individual minds and brains but arise in the dynamic in-between of interacting agents, I will outline possible avenues for future inter-disciplinary research at the interface of religious sciences/theology and psychology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Consciousness between Science and Religion)

18 pages, 813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dual Structure and Paradigm Breakthrough: Reconstructing the Intellectual History of Dependent Origination in Sectarian Buddhism

by Yinyin Zhao and Luming Liu

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1044; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081044 - 12 Aug 2025

Abstract

The evolution of the theory of dependent origination in sectarian Buddhism (部派佛教) follows two logical threads: one is the debate on the ontological nature of dharmas, which drove the shift towards a “non-substantiality” (Nairātmyavāda 無體論) interpretation of dependent origination; the other is [...] Read more.

The evolution of the theory of dependent origination in sectarian Buddhism (部派佛教) follows two logical threads: one is the debate on the ontological nature of dharmas, which drove the shift towards a “non-substantiality” (Nairātmyavāda 無體論) interpretation of dependent origination; the other is the discussion of the nature of dependent origination, which led to a shift towards a theory of unconditioned (Asaṃskṛtavāda 無為論). On the ontological nature of dharmas, the Sarvāstivāda (有部), rooted in the doctrine of “substantial existence in three times” (Trikāla-dravyāstitva 三世實有), established a “substantial dependent origination” (有體緣起論), arguing through three principles: self-nature inclusion (自性攝), substance without function (有體無用), and the real existence of causes and conditions (因緣實有). In contrast, schools such as the Mahāsāṃghika (大眾部), Dārṣṭāntika (譬喻師), and Sautrāntika (經量部) introduced theories like the “simultaneous arising of two minds” (二心俱生), “cognition having no object” (緣無境), and “seed-function”, propelling the shift towards a theory of non-substantialism. Concerning the nature of the law of dependent origination, the Sarvāstivāda asserted that “dependent origination is conditioned”, while the Vibhajyavāda (分別說部) pioneered the notion that “dependent origination is unconditioned”, abstracting the law of dependent origination from the phenomenal world into a transcendental existence, initiating a shift towards a theory of unconditioned and giving rise to two interpretative paths: one is the Mahāsāṃghika’s “intrinsic nature of the links of dependent origination” (緣起支性), leading to the construction of the “relational unconditioned” (關係性無為); the other is the Mahīśāsaka’s (化地部) “dependent origination as suchness” (緣起真如), leading to the construction of the “principle-based unconditioned” (理體性無為). The deep interaction of these two turns not only propelled the diverse development of sectarian Buddhism theories of dependent origination but also provided theoretical prototypes for Mahayana Buddhism’s (大乘佛教) theories, such as the theory of “dependent origination under ultimate reality” (實相緣起), “suchness-based dependent origination” (真如緣起), and “innate pure mind dependent origination” (自性清淨心緣起). Full article

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