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17 pages, 446 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Breakdown and Reconciliation of Ouyang Jingwu and Wang Enyang, 1940–1942: An Analysis Based on Newly Discovered Correspondence

by Changchun Pei and Shaowei Wu

Religions 2026, 17(1), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17010074 - 9 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Wang Enyang, together with Lv Cheng, was long regarded as one of Ouyang Jingwu’s closest disciples, often described as his “right- and left-hand man.” Scholarly consensus has generally assumed that their teacher–disciple relationship remained harmonious throughout Ouyang’s lifetime. However, newly published correspondence from [...] Read more.

Wang Enyang, together with Lv Cheng, was long regarded as one of Ouyang Jingwu’s closest disciples, often described as his “right- and left-hand man.” Scholarly consensus has generally assumed that their teacher–disciple relationship remained harmonious throughout Ouyang’s lifetime. However, newly published correspondence from Chen Mingshu’s Correspondence with Friends and Colleagues on Scholarly Matters reveals that after 1940 their relationship grew increasingly strained, culminating in a near-complete rupture. Although Wang, under the persuasion of Ouyang, Chen, and Lv, later expressed contrition and sought reconciliation, the rift was never fully repaired. Even at the time of Ouyang’s death, their once intimate bond had not been restored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

22 pages, 1221 KB

Open AccessArticle

Composed in China, Circulated in Asia: The Dissemination Landscape of the Apocryphal Scripture Bayang jing 八陽經 and the Causal Dynamics Behind It

by Mujun Luo

Religions 2026, 17(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel17010006 - 20 Dec 2025

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Abstract

Copies of the Foshuo tiandi bayang shenzhou jing 佛説天地八陽神咒經 (Scripture of the Divine Spell of the Eightfold Yang of Heaven and Earth Spoken by the Buddha) (hereafter Bayang jing) recovered from Dunhuang, Turfan, Khara-Khoto, and other regions demonstrate that this scripture was [...] Read more.

Copies of the Foshuo tiandi bayang shenzhou jing 佛説天地八陽神咒經 (Scripture of the Divine Spell of the Eightfold Yang of Heaven and Earth Spoken by the Buddha) (hereafter Bayang jing) recovered from Dunhuang, Turfan, Khara-Khoto, and other regions demonstrate that this scripture was one of the most popular Chinese compositions in Dunhuang and its surrounding areas during the Tang and Song dynasties (618–1279). Medieval manuscripts of the Bayang jing are also preserved in Japan, Korea, and Vietnam. By collecting and analyzing manuscripts of this scripture discovered in Dunhuang and the Central Plains, and material found in transmitted texts and folk sources, this paper supplements the understanding of the extensive circulation and profound influence of this scripture in China. The widespread dissemination of the Bayang jing is primarily attributable to four factors: its pragmatic adaptation to secular concerns, which addressed the needs of devotees; its translations and textual modifications, which enhanced its disseminative potency; its diversification of formats, which expanded transmission pathways; and its integration into ritual contexts, which sustained its vitality. The dissemination of this Chinese indigenous composition epitomizes the disseminative potency and vitality of Chinese Buddhism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

16 pages, 720 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cheng 竀 or Kui 窺: A Study of Master Cheng Emerging from the Shadow of the Renowned Yogācāra Master Kuiji 窺基 (632–682)

by Zhengning Liu

Religions 2025, 16(12), 1548; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16121548 - 9 Dec 2025

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Abstract

The name “Kuiji 窺基”, usually attributed to the famous monk Master Ci’en慈恩法師 in the Tang Dynasty, has long been a subject of scholarly debate. Textual and manuscript evidence, however, reveals that “Kuiji” is not a single figure but a conflation of two distinct [...] Read more.

The name “Kuiji 窺基”, usually attributed to the famous monk Master Ci’en慈恩法師 in the Tang Dynasty, has long been a subject of scholarly debate. Textual and manuscript evidence, however, reveals that “Kuiji” is not a single figure but a conflation of two distinct disciples of Xuanzang 玄奘: Master Cheng 竀 and Master Ji 基. During 661–664 CE, the monk Cheng, affiliated with Great Ci’en Monastery 大慈恩寺, served as a core member of Xuanzang’s translation workshop, as well as a trusted assistant who submitted memorials on Xuanzang’s behalf. Early records state that Xuanzang instructed his disciple(s) “Cheng” or “Cheng and Ji” to present memorials to the throne. However, because the character “Cheng 竀” was uncommon and visually similar to “Kui 窺”, “Cheng and Ji” was misidentified as a composite name “Kuiji” roughly since the late Tang period. This study not only traces the origin of the name “Kuiji” but also recovers the important yet overlooked figure of Master Cheng 竀法師, thereby making a crucial correction to our understanding of Xuanzang’s disciples. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

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17 pages, 529 KB

Open AccessArticle

The East Asian Transmission of the Chuanlao Song (川老頌) of the Diamond Sūtra: Centering on Versions from Premodern Korea and Edo Japan

by Mingjia Li

Religions 2025, 16(11), 1456; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111456 - 17 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The Chuanlao Song, composed by the Southern Song Chan monk Daochuan 道川 (1104–1163, Southern Song), represents a hybrid form of exegetical lecture text from the Diamond Sūtra (金剛經). Neither a standard commentary (zhu 註) nor a ritual manual (keyi 科儀), [...] Read more.

The Chuanlao Song, composed by the Southern Song Chan monk Daochuan 道川 (1104–1163, Southern Song), represents a hybrid form of exegetical lecture text from the Diamond Sūtra (金剛經). Neither a standard commentary (zhu 註) nor a ritual manual (keyi 科儀), it fuses rhetorical features of Chan sermons with versified praise, often associated with chanting. From the twelfth century onward, the Chuanlao Song circulated across China, Korea, and Japan, yet its textual identity has long been obscured. In particular, the Zokuzōkyō (續藏經) recension misclassified it as a commentary, resulting in interpretive confusions that have persisted into modern scholarship. This study reconsiders the Chuanlao Song within broader contextual frameworks of textual form, ritual practice, and editorial strategy. While grounded in philological analysis, three regional trajectories are highlighted: the Chuanlao Song’s preservation in China as an appended text within collective annotations; its transformation in Korea through royal patronage and the multiplication of textual forms; and its reinterpretation in Edo-period Japan as an object of sectarian commentary. By tracing these transregional movements, this study argues that the Chuanlao Song offers a valuable case study of how Buddhist texts were circulated and adapted across East Asia, shedding light on the intra-Chinese domestication and, beyond China, regional vernacularization and recontextualization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

34 pages, 939 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rising from the Margins: The Formation of the Institutional Features of Religious Organizations—A Case Study of the Development of Chan Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism in the Early Tang Dynasty

by Qixin Yang and Yanfei Sun

Religions 2025, 16(11), 1437; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111437 - 11 Nov 2025

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Abstract

How are the institutional features of religious organizations formed? In seeking to explain religious change and development, an increasing number of sociologists of religion emphasize the importance of organizational features. However, few scholars have examined how these institutional features take shape during the [...] Read more.

How are the institutional features of religious organizations formed? In seeking to explain religious change and development, an increasing number of sociologists of religion emphasize the importance of organizational features. However, few scholars have examined how these institutional features take shape during the early stages of religious organizations. Given that emerging religions often originate in marginalized contexts with scarce resources and limited support, this paper draws on the theory of interstitial space to analyze how such relatively unstructured and flexible environments—which provide greater freedom and adaptability for agents—affect religious development. The study finds that interstitial space fosters religious innovation and helps shape the institutional features of emerging religions. Furthermore, this paper proposes four explanatory mechanisms to illustrate how the interstitial space in multiple marginalized areas shapes the features of religious organizations. These mechanisms can shed light on the development of various religious sects, including Chan Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism in the early Tang dynasty. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

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39 pages, 679 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Buddhist Life and Thought of Chao Kung, the European Monk in China

by Xindong Xia

Religions 2025, 16(11), 1421; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111421 - 7 Nov 2025

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Abstract

This article constructs a timeline of Chao Kung’s Buddhist life in China and summarizes his Buddhist thought. In early 1931, he attained his Chinese monkhood. In June of that year, the Buddhist lectures he delivered in Beijing sparked controversy that ultimately led to [...] Read more.

This article constructs a timeline of Chao Kung’s Buddhist life in China and summarizes his Buddhist thought. In early 1931, he attained his Chinese monkhood. In June of that year, the Buddhist lectures he delivered in Beijing sparked controversy that ultimately led to his departure for Europe in late 1932. He returned to Shanghai in mid-1933 with twelve European followers and quickly secured high-profile support from Chinese religio-political celebrities, particularly Dai Jitao, who positioned them as foreign admirers of the ninth Panchen. Sent to Europe in early 1934, he and some of his followers were soon back in China several months later. From that point onward, Chao Kung led a precarious life until his death in 1943. He asserted that the sole Truth lay in the Buddha’s original teachings, which were essentially encapsulated in the doctrine of “no-self,” through which the problem of human suffering could be resolved. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

20 pages, 450 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Dual Facets of Religion–State Relations in a Wartime Context: A Case Study of Jinan’s Jingju Temple During the Sino-Japanese War

by Zhining Liu and Haitao Li

Religions 2025, 16(11), 1407; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111407 - 5 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Focusing on Jingju Temple (淨居寺) in Jinan, Shandong Province, from 1920 to 1948, this paper examines the complex interactions among Chinese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, and governmental authorities. As one of the key religious sites in Jinan during the Republican era, Jingju Temple traces [...] Read more.

Focusing on Jingju Temple (淨居寺) in Jinan, Shandong Province, from 1920 to 1948, this paper examines the complex interactions among Chinese Buddhism, Japanese Buddhism, and governmental authorities. As one of the key religious sites in Jinan during the Republican era, Jingju Temple traces its origins back to the Song dynasty. Although it was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt, the temple was restored in the 1920s by Pan Shoulian 潘守廉 (1845–1939) of Jining, becoming a “public monastery” (shifangcongli 十方叢林). Beginning in the 1930s, the Japanese government and its puppet regimes integrated Japanese rituals into Chinese Buddhism and established the Buddhist Tongyuan Association (Fojiao tongyuanhui 佛教同願會). By examining inscriptions, gazetteers, newspapers, and other historical records—focusing on negotiations between Jingju Temple, the association, and the Japanese Buddhist community—this study sheds light on the distinctive and multifaceted religious–political dynamics that arose as the temple was situated amid conflicting forces: the Japanese government, the puppet regimes, and the Republic of China. These findings provide a new perspective for understanding Buddhist interactions across East Asia and open avenues for further inquiry into this complex historical period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

13 pages, 295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Buddhism, Frontier and Nation-Building: The 1955 Visit of the “Indian Xuanzang” to China

by Huiyuan Bian

Religions 2025, 16(11), 1401; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16111401 - 4 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Raghu Vira’s 1955 visit to China stands as a significant chapter in the history of contemporary Sino-Indian Buddhist cultural exchange. The diary he kept in Hindi offers a detailed record of this journey. However, this episode remains scarcely mentioned in official narratives of [...] Read more.

Raghu Vira’s 1955 visit to China stands as a significant chapter in the history of contemporary Sino-Indian Buddhist cultural exchange. The diary he kept in Hindi offers a detailed record of this journey. However, this episode remains scarcely mentioned in official narratives of China today, largely because Vira gradually evolved into an emblematic hardline figure toward China within Indian political and cultural circles following his visit. What brought about this shift in Vira’s stance? Moreover, why did Vira, also an advocate of Buddhism, make no mention of the contemporary Navayāna Buddhism movement led by B. R. Ambedkar? This paper seeks to situate these questions within the broader context of Raghu Vira’s life trajectory and the more complex historical and cultural context of India, analyzing the intricate role Buddhism played in the process of Indian nation-building. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

25 pages, 6225 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Transmission and Development of Greco-Roman Motifs in Chinese Buddhist Art: A Focus on Figures in the Center of Double-Scroll Patterns

by Qiuhong Li

Religions 2025, 16(10), 1282; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16101282 - 8 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Not enough attention has been paid to the artistic approach of depicting human figures at the center of double-scroll patterns in Chinese Buddhist art. Originating from Greco-Roman culture, this motif entered China from the overland Silk Road around the late 5th century, evolving [...] Read more.

Not enough attention has been paid to the artistic approach of depicting human figures at the center of double-scroll patterns in Chinese Buddhist art. Originating from Greco-Roman culture, this motif entered China from the overland Silk Road around the late 5th century, evolving into two systems. The Hexi Corridor system, centered on Dunhuang, predominantly features lotus-born beings holding vines. The figural types evolved from lotus-born beings to celestial beings, bodhisattvas, and buddhas, with postures ranging from vine-holding to mudra-forming, lotus-tray-lifting, music-playing, and dancing, demonstrating a clear trajectory of development. The Northern Central Plains system, successively centered in Pingcheng, Qingzhou, and Yecheng, developed a relatively complete sequence only in buddha figures. The motif first spread through the Hexi Corridor before influencing the Northern Central Plains. It was adapted from its original Mediterranean context of mythological themes and funerary or temple use to illustrate Buddhist doctrines in China, absorbing elements of Han, Western Regions, and Central Asian cultures. By clarifying the motif’s origin, spread, evolution, and adaptation through systematic analysis of material evidence, this article reveals an intrinsic connection between Greco-Roman culture and Chinese Buddhist art, enriches the history of Sino-foreign cultural exchange, and reflects how Buddhism absorbed diverse cultural elements to achieve Sinicization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

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17 pages, 291 KB

Open AccessArticle

Glocal Chinese Buddhism in Italy: A Comparative Study of Two Private Buddhist Groups in Rome

by Joseph Chadwin

Religions 2025, 16(9), 1198; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16091198 - 18 Sep 2025

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Abstract

By examining two very different manifestations of Chinese Buddhism in Italy, this paper seeks to build upon and add a new dimension to Dessì’s “Glocal Buddhas” project and, more broadly, offer a rare insight into Chinese Buddhism in Italy. By offering a rare [...] Read more.

By examining two very different manifestations of Chinese Buddhism in Italy, this paper seeks to build upon and add a new dimension to Dessì’s “Glocal Buddhas” project and, more broadly, offer a rare insight into Chinese Buddhism in Italy. By offering a rare window into two private and non-official migrant Chinese Buddhist groups in Rome, this article will ultimately conclude that Chinese Buddhism can manifest in seemingly contrasting ways: by either embracing religious globalisation or, despite being a product of it, rejecting it. This paper also seeks to demonstrate that although official providers of Buddhism do exist in Italy, they by no means account for all Chinese Buddhists living in the country. As it is often private individuals that go unnoticed by larger studies or those who focus only on official institutions, this paper hopes to give voice to some of these somewhat hidden Buddhists. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

14 pages, 335 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Textual Composition of the “Practices of Secret Mantra Approach” in Jñānakīrti’s Tattvāvātara

by Chenye Lu

Religions 2025, 16(9), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16091133 - 30 Aug 2025

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Abstract

Jñānakīrti (Tib. Ye shes grags pa), an eminent monk of the late Indian Buddhist period, composed the Tattvāvātara (De kho na nyid la ’jug pa, Realizing Reality), of which only a Tibetan translation exists in the Tibetan Tripiṭaka-Tanjur. The [...] Read more.

Jñānakīrti (Tib. Ye shes grags pa), an eminent monk of the late Indian Buddhist period, composed the Tattvāvātara (De kho na nyid la ’jug pa, Realizing Reality), of which only a Tibetan translation exists in the Tibetan Tripiṭaka-Tanjur. The treatise is considered an exposition of the Mahāmudrā teachings, with the chapter entitled “Practices of the Secret Mantra Approach” (gSang sngags kyi sgo’i spyod pa) forms a large part. However, this part has been less frequently discussed. This chapter guides the practice of Mahāmudrā non-dual yoga, which is intended for practitioners with superior faculties. The core content of this chapter can be subsumed under the following two aspects: Mahāmudrā teachings involve practicing insight (prajñā), which represents the theory of meditation, i.e., the idea of emptiness (śūnyatā); it also involves practicing skillful means (upāya), which includes the methods of cultivation, such as tantric rituals such as Vajradhātu maṇḍala visualization. From the perspective of compositional length, the first half of the text contains numerous quotations of verses, with several being from Nāgārjuna’s Mūlamadhyamakakārikā, while the second half mainly draws references from the Tattvasaṃgrahatantra and the Guhyasamājatantra. More attention should be paid to the juxtaposition of the Mahāmudrā teachings with the Tattvasaṃgrahatantra and the Guhyasamājatantra, which reflect the early form of the Mahāmudrā teachings as they were introduced into Tibetan Buddhism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

24 pages, 540 KB

Open AccessArticle

An Exceptional Category of Central Monastic Officials in the Tang Dynasty: A Study of the Ten Bhadantas During the Reigns of Gaozu, Empress Wu, and Zhongzong

by Jiajia Zheng

Religions 2025, 16(8), 1040; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16081040 - 12 Aug 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1989

Abstract

In most periods of the Tang Dynasty, central monastic officials were typically appointed from among government officials, while Buddhist monks could only serve as the Three Monastic Superintendents (sangang 三綱) in the Buddhist state monasteries at the local level. However, during the [...] Read more.

In most periods of the Tang Dynasty, central monastic officials were typically appointed from among government officials, while Buddhist monks could only serve as the Three Monastic Superintendents (sangang 三綱) in the Buddhist state monasteries at the local level. However, during the reigns of Gaozu, Empress Wu, and Zhongzong, a distinct group of monastic officials known as the “Ten Bhadantas” (shidade 十大德)—entirely composed of Buddhist monks—emerged as central monastic officials in exceptional political contexts, overseeing Buddhist affairs throughout the empire. Gaozu’s ten bhadantas were a temporary appointment, yet they constituted a centralized monastic administrative structure and institutional power center at the national level in Chang’an, tasked with supervising Buddhist affairs and monasteries across the empire. This arrangement provided substantial religious support and political guarantee at a time when religious policy remained unsettled and national governance was unstable during the early years of the Tang Dynasty. It helped the newly established regime overcome the difficulties of managing religious affairs in its formative period. Under Empress Wu, the ten bhadantas of the Dabiankongsi chapel offered powerful Buddhist theoretical support for her seizure of the Tang throne and the consolidation of the Wu-Zhou regime. They contributed to the sacralization, authorization, and legitimization of secular imperial power through appeals to heavenly mandate or Buddhist prophecy, thereby securing the reverence and acknowledgment of both monastic and lay communities. During Zhongzong’s reign, the ten bhadantas of the Linguang chapel aided him in leveraging Buddhism to expand his political influence and vigorously cultivating support from both monastic and lay Buddhist adherents within the government and across society, thereby consolidating his rule. Based on the above, this indicates that the ten bhadantas, a special institutional formation in the Tang Dynasty characterized by the functions and status of central monastic officials, exemplified a complex and tension-filled model of state–saṃgha relations. This model vividly reflected the ongoing historical process in which Buddhism was increasingly Sinicized and secularized. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

22 pages, 993 KB

Open AccessArticle

Local Perspectives on Monastic Practices in the Jianghuai Region During the Mid-to-Late Tang Period: Ordination Altars, Social Networks, and the Cult of Sengqie 僧伽

by Yimin Liu

Religions 2025, 16(6), 781; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060781 - 16 Jun 2025

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Abstract

The so-called “counterfeit monks and nuns” 僧尼偽濫 is regarded as an important reason for the “Huichang Persecution of Buddhism” 會昌滅佛, but it reflects the central views of the Tang Dynasty. When we delve into the local society of the Mid-to-Late Tang period, we [...] Read more.

The so-called “counterfeit monks and nuns” 僧尼偽濫 is regarded as an important reason for the “Huichang Persecution of Buddhism” 會昌滅佛, but it reflects the central views of the Tang Dynasty. When we delve into the local society of the Mid-to-Late Tang period, we find that they developed their own narrative logic. From the perspective of the imperial court, Li Deyu 李德裕 criticized Wang Zhixing 王智興 for establishing an ordination altar in Sizhou 泗州 for personal gain. However, in the biographical inscription of monk Mingyuan 明遠 in Sizhou, Wang Zhixing is portrayed as a key figure who collaborated with Mingyuan to ensure the survival of the Kaiyuan Monastery 開元寺, with the inauguration of the ordination altar 戒壇 serving as a necessary means to obtain financial resources. In fact, Mingyuan had previously undertaken a similar operation at the Lingju Monastery 靈居寺 in Liuhe County 六合縣, Yangzhou 揚州. The inscription of the Lingju Monastery Stele 大唐揚州六合縣靈居寺碑 reflects the cooperation between local monks and secular people at that time. During the process of rebuilding the monasteries, Mingyuan cleverly exploited the cult of the divine monk Sengqie 僧伽 within the Society of Jianghuai 江淮. The cult of Sengqie had become a national belief during the Mid-to-Late Tang period, and the existence of the Sengqie pagoda 僧伽塔 made the Kaiyuan Monastery in Sizhou uniquely significant. Later on, Youxuan 幽玄 also carried out similar initiatives by establishing an ordination altar for the restoration at the Baoli Monastery 寶曆寺 in Hongzhou 洪州. If we set aside the shadow of the overarching theme of the Huichang Persecution of Buddhism on the history of Buddhism during the Mid-to-Late Tang period, we may uncover a more vibrant picture of local Buddhism. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

16 pages, 417 KB

Open AccessArticle

Buddhism on a Countercurrent: A Case Study of the Hamon

by Donggyu Song

Religions 2025, 16(6), 683; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060683 - 27 May 2025

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Abstract

In 995, Yuanqing 源淸, a renowned master of the Tiantai school in China, requested the Japanese Buddhist community to critique his work, the Guanjing shu xianyao ji 觀經疏顯要記 (Xianyao ji). In response, Genshin 源信 and Kakuun 覚運, two prominent Japanese Tendai [...] Read more.

In 995, Yuanqing 源淸, a renowned master of the Tiantai school in China, requested the Japanese Buddhist community to critique his work, the Guanjing shu xianyao ji 觀經疏顯要記 (Xianyao ji). In response, Genshin 源信 and Kakuun 覚運, two prominent Japanese Tendai scholars, authored the Kan muryōju kyō sho kenyō ki hamon 観無量寿経疏顕要記破文 (Hamon) containing 21 critiques. This paper examines the historical context, content, and influence of the Hamon. The Hamon serves as an important example of Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchange, as it was the Chinese side that first initiated this intellectual engagement with the Japanese monks—and not the other way around. The analysis of the text indicates that the Hamon was not merely a critique but a platform for intellectual exchange. Genshin and Kakuun’s critiques reflect Silla’s Pure Land Buddhism, whereas Yuanqing’s Xianyao ji embodies the Chinese Tiantai commentary tradition on the Guan wuliangshou jing 觀無量壽經. Although not directly recorded in Chinese sources, some records suggest that the Hamon had reached China and potentially influenced Zhili’s 知禮 thought. This study aims to deepen our understanding of Sino-Japanese Buddhist exchanges during the late 10th and 11th centuries, illustrating what may be described as ‘Buddhism on a countercurrent.’ Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

36 pages, 9647 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mapping the Sacred Landscape: Spatial Representation and Narrative in Panoramic Maps of Mount Wutai and Mount Putuo

by Yiwei Pan

Religions 2025, 16(6), 671; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16060671 - 25 May 2025

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Abstract

In late imperial China, a type of painting known as “panoramic maps” (shengjing tu 聖境圖, literally “sacred realm maps”) depicted Buddhist sacred sites. Often surviving as woodblock prints, examples from Mount Wutai and Mount Putuo are particularly representative. Previous research has often [...] Read more.

In late imperial China, a type of painting known as “panoramic maps” (shengjing tu 聖境圖, literally “sacred realm maps”) depicted Buddhist sacred sites. Often surviving as woodblock prints, examples from Mount Wutai and Mount Putuo are particularly representative. Previous research has often viewed these images as pilgrimage guides or focused on the relationship between pictorial perspectives and actual geography. This study centers on panoramic maps of Mount Wutai and Mount Putuo, examining both vertical and horizontal layouts, to offer a preliminary understanding of this genre. This study argues that: (1) Unlike urban maps, panoramic maps emphasize significant monasteries and landscape features, incorporating local legends and historical narratives, thus possessing strong narrative qualities. (2) These images likely functioned as pilgrimage souvenirs. Diverging from practical roadmaps, their primary goal was not strict realism but rather to convey the site’s sacredness and associated information through landscape painting conventions, allowing viewers to perceive its sacredness. (3) The woodblock print medium facilitated affordable reproduction, accelerating the circulation of the sacred site’s significance among the populace and aiding in its promotion. This research contends that the panoramic maps primarily function as folk landscape paintings reflecting the sacred site, capable only of approximating the relative positions of features. The widespread adoption of late-period woodblock printing enabled the low-cost reproduction and dissemination of the sacredness inherent in these Buddhist landscapes, constructing idealized spatial representations shaped by religious belief and geomantic principles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

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14 pages, 616 KB

Open AccessArticle

Biography or Hagiography: The Story of Sengya 僧崖 in the Continuing Biographies of Eminent Monks

by Limei Chi

Religions 2025, 16(4), 508; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040508 - 15 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This paper examines how Daoxuan 道宣, the Tang Dynasty Buddhist historian and founder of the Nanshan Vinaya School, meticulously constructed the saintly image of Sengya 僧崖—a monk renowned for his auto-cremation—in his Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks (Xu gaoseng zhuan 續高僧傳). Drawing [...] Read more.

This paper examines how Daoxuan 道宣, the Tang Dynasty Buddhist historian and founder of the Nanshan Vinaya School, meticulously constructed the saintly image of Sengya 僧崖—a monk renowned for his auto-cremation—in his Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks (Xu gaoseng zhuan 續高僧傳). Drawing on a range of sources—including the now-lost Biography of the Bodhisattva Sengya and regional texts such as the Collection of Miscellaneous Records from the Shu Region—Daoxuan reconfigured Sengya’s narrative, presenting his auto-cremation as a profound religious sacrifice emblematic of transformative spiritual commitment. The analysis explores how Daoxuan navigated the doctrinal tensions between this extreme practice and the Vinaya precept of non-killing by emphasizing the practitioner’s mental state over the physical act. In doing so, he reframed self-immolation not as an aberration but as a legitimate, even exalted, path to liberation. This reinterpretation is situated within the broader context of Chinese Buddhist thought—particularly the ideas of the indestructibility of the spirit and the cosmological framework of “Heaven–Man Correspondence”—highlighting the interplay between religious symbolism, doctrinal adaptation, and lived practice. Crucially, this paper treats Daoxuan’s narrative not merely as biography, but as hagiography—a literary mode in which historical memory and religious narrative are inextricably entwined. By examining the rhetorical and ideological dimensions of this genre, this study contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how religious hagiography functioned as a tool for shaping sainthood, authorizing extreme religious practices, and negotiating the spiritual and social landscapes of medieval China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History)

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The Microcosm Holds Mountains and Seas: The Sinicization of Buddhism in ‘Multi-Layered Contextualization’ from Local to Global History

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