Religions

15 pages, 325 KB

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From Divination to Virtue and Action: The Confucian Hermeneutic Approach to the Yijing Through Decisive Phrases (Duanci 斷辭)

by Yiwen Sun, Wenzhen Jin and Dimitra Amarantidou

Religions 2025, 16(7), 943; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070943 - 21 Jul 2025

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Abstract

The Confucian hermeneutic approach to the Yijing 易經 (or Book of Changes) delineates a transition from the pursuit of divinatory meaning to the cultivation of virtue and action. As an integral part of the Yijing’s semantic framework, decisive phrases (Duanci [...] Read more.

The Confucian hermeneutic approach to the Yijing 易經 (or Book of Changes) delineates a transition from the pursuit of divinatory meaning to the cultivation of virtue and action. As an integral part of the Yijing’s semantic framework, decisive phrases (Duanci 斷辭)—such as those denoting auspiciousness or ominousness—not only reflect historical efforts to ascertain the significance of divinatory cases, but also embody a distinct normative orientation inherent in the text’s teachings. This orientation not only guides human action but also shapes moral character, which in turn provides the foundation for virtuous and effective action. The interpretive paradigm initiated by Confucian exegetes thus offers valuable insights for contemporary theories of ethics and practical philosophy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ethical Concerns in Early Confucianism)

20 pages, 313 KB

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Energy-Based Practices and the Medicine of Movement—The Cases of 5Rhythms and Core Energetics

by Géraldine Mossière

Religions 2025, 16(7), 942; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070942 - 21 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This paper discusses the role of energy and movement in facilitating experiences of well-being from an anthropological perspective that considers energy as a situated form of knowledge. Drawing on fieldwork among Core Energetics (CE) and 5Rhythms (5R) groups, I examine how the circulation [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the role of energy and movement in facilitating experiences of well-being from an anthropological perspective that considers energy as a situated form of knowledge. Drawing on fieldwork among Core Energetics (CE) and 5Rhythms (5R) groups, I examine how the circulation of energy is achieved through bodily movements and dances, attention to the senses, somatic self-cultivation, and deep experiences of consciousness. Focus is hold on the ritual elements, including a specific spacetime framework and intersubjective exercises that facilitate energetical experiences that renew the subjective and intersubjective relationship to the self in a restorative way. I argue that mind–body–energy groups conflate two Western sources: on the one hand, the legacy of early Western medical offshoots that have been marginalized by mainstream biomedicine, and on the other, discursive references to contemporary interpretations of quantum physics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Spirituality and Medicine: Insights into Contemporary Perspectives)

16 pages, 325 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spiritual Loving and Mental Health: A Schelerian Perspective

by Kobla Nyaku

Religions 2025, 16(7), 941; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070941 - 21 Jul 2025

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Abstract

In this paper, I question what the relationship between psychology and spirit would mean for mental well-being if the ideas of the human being and the notion of spirit are viewed from the perspective of Max Scheler’s philosophical anthropology. Scheler provides a view [...] Read more.

In this paper, I question what the relationship between psychology and spirit would mean for mental well-being if the ideas of the human being and the notion of spirit are viewed from the perspective of Max Scheler’s philosophical anthropology. Scheler provides a view of the human being and of spirit that differs radically from the generally held views, and his philosophical anthropology provides intellectual nourishment. This approach means that I do not look at spirituality as a religious activity or technique, but rather as a dimension of what constitutes the human being, and I explore how this view of spirituality is related to mental health. This paper is therefore divided into two parts. In the first part, I provide a summary of Scheler’s view of five ideologies of the human being in the history of Western philosophy that he identified, pointing out what he saw as their shortcomings. Next, I examine Scheler’s own philosophical anthropology that views the human being as the meeting place of the interpenetrating movements of spirit and impulsion, and as ens amans—a loving being. After that, I explore Scheler’s notion of spirit and personalism, drawing attention to the crucial role of what he describes as the dimension of spirit in his anthropology. In the second part of this paper, I explore the basic theories of well-being—hedonism, desire theories, and objective list theories—and question what a reading of spirituality as the participation in the movement of love would mean to addressing mental health. I conclude that spirituality should not be viewed as just another source of practices and techniques that could enhance human mental health. Rather, spirituality should be understood as a human being’s execution of the act that constitutes the core of his or her being. Spirituality viewed as the execution of the spiritual act of love—spirituality as loving being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Interdisciplinary Approaches to Spirituality and Mental Health in Secular Societies)

15 pages, 336 KB

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Affective Governance Through Ritual Praxis: A Comparative Study of Confucian Sacrificial Systems and Western Social Cohesion Theories

by Chao Jia and Jingting Zhang

Religions 2025, 16(7), 940; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070940 - 21 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Sacrificial rituals provide a critical perspective for examining the fundamental characteristics and evolutionary trajectory of Chinese civilization. The Functionalist and Annales schools, through theoretical frameworks such as “natural necessity theory” and “social-centric theory”, have explored the origins of sacrificial practices and their role [...] Read more.

Sacrificial rituals provide a critical perspective for examining the fundamental characteristics and evolutionary trajectory of Chinese civilization. The Functionalist and Annales schools, through theoretical frameworks such as “natural necessity theory” and “social-centric theory”, have explored the origins of sacrificial practices and their role in social cohesion. When these schools investigate Chinese sacrificial rituals, they identify significant differences in the humanistic and ethical dimensions compared to in Western intellectual traditions, thereby revealing how these distinctions propelled China onto a unique civilizational path. The sacrificial system underwent a process of humanization and moralization during the Shang and Zhou dynasties, culminating in the recognition of benevolence–righteousness attributes within human nature, primarily characterized by affection and reverence. The interplay between intrinsic human dispositions and ritualized sacrificial practices established the foundational structure for the social order, spanning from familial units to political society in China. This synthesis ultimately shaped the distinctive philosophical characteristics of Chinese civilization, emphasizing the principles of benevolent love, reciprocal loyalty, and harmonious coexistence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Sociological Study of Religion)

27 pages, 8742 KB

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Body, Cosmos, and Ritual in Local Taoism Since the Qing Dynasty: The Chart of the Taoist Rituals of Lord Lao in the Border Region of Hunan and Jiangxi Provinces

by Nengchang Wu

Religions 2025, 16(7), 939; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070939 - 20 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This paper discusses the Chart of the Taoist Rituals of Lord Lao, or “chart of Lord Lao” for short, a document drawn up, preserved, and utilized by a local Taoist altar in the border region of Hunan and Jiangxi provinces in southeastern [...] Read more.

This paper discusses the Chart of the Taoist Rituals of Lord Lao, or “chart of Lord Lao” for short, a document drawn up, preserved, and utilized by a local Taoist altar in the border region of Hunan and Jiangxi provinces in southeastern China. This chart illustrates the body of the Most High Lord Lao (Taishang Laojun), with various parts labelled with sacred spaces, deity names in textual form, and ritual instructions. As such, the document elucidates the interconnectedness between the body, cosmos, and rituals within local Taoist beliefs. This article aims to analyze the chart of Lord Lao by comparing it with ritual texts, the liturgical tradition of the Taoist altar, and texts from the Ming dynasty Taoist Canon. Through this analysis, it becomes evident that the chart of Lord Lao and its associated practices reflect an intricate relationship between different layers of Taoist traditions. This includes the connections between classical Taoism and the emerging ritual traditions of exorcism during the Song and Yuan dynasties, as well as the interplay between these emerging traditions, such as the Correct Rites of the Heart of Heaven, and more local traditions of exorcism, such as the Rites of Mount Lü. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Transformations in Daoist Ritual Texts and Other Daoist Literature Since the Ming and Qing Dynasties)

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14 pages, 308 KB

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Confucian Depth Ecology as a Response to Climate Change

by James D. Sellmann

Religions 2025, 16(7), 938; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070938 - 20 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Aside from a few passages addressing animals or the environment, Confucian philosophy appears to lack an environmental ethics perspective. Li Zhehou’s (李澤厚) contemporary work in Confucian philosophy continues this lacuna by limiting his understanding of community to the human realm. Using the common [...] Read more.

Aside from a few passages addressing animals or the environment, Confucian philosophy appears to lack an environmental ethics perspective. Li Zhehou’s (李澤厚) contemporary work in Confucian philosophy continues this lacuna by limiting his understanding of community to the human realm. Using the common liberal humanism that limits moral actions to the interpersonal human realm misses the importance of inclusive moralities such as animal rights and environmental ethics. I propose that if we return to the original shared common cultural roots of Confucian and Daoist philosophy that a Confucian understanding of the natural world can embrace the non-human environment within the scope of Confucian morality. Extricating ideas from the Yijing, the Shijing, Xunzi, Dong Zhongshu, Wang Chong, and later scholars, the concept of the mutual resonance and response (ganying 感應) between the natural world and humans developed into the unity of heaven and humanity (tianren heyi 天人合一). An inclusive Confucian depth ecology opens new ways of thinking that can be deployed to envision deeper dimensions for understanding the self’s inner life, its connections to the outer life of the self–other relationship, and its extension to a kin relationship with the environment. This paper explores how these old and new ways of thinking can change our behavior and change our moral interactions with others including the environment and thereby enhancing freedom as an achievement concept derived from graceful moral action. Full article

15 pages, 1019 KB

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Micro-Yizkor and Hasidic Memory: A Post-Holocaust Letter from the Margins

by Isaac Hershkowitz

Religions 2025, 16(7), 937; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070937 - 19 Jul 2025

Viewed by 654

Abstract

This paper examines a previously unknown anonymous Hebrew letter inserted into a postwar edition of Shem HaGedolim, found in the library of the Jewish University in Budapest. The letter, composed in Győr in 1947, consists almost entirely of passages copied from Tiferet Chayim, [...] Read more.

This paper examines a previously unknown anonymous Hebrew letter inserted into a postwar edition of Shem HaGedolim, found in the library of the Jewish University in Budapest. The letter, composed in Győr in 1947, consists almost entirely of passages copied from Tiferet Chayim, a hagiographic genealogy of the Sanz Hasidic dynasty. Although derivative in content, the letter’s form and placement suggest it was not meant for transmission but instead served as a private act of mourning and historiographical preservation. By situating the letter within the broader context of post-Holocaust Jewish and Hasidic memory practices, including yizkor books, rabbinic memoirs, and grassroots commemorative writing, this study proposes that the document constitutes a “micro-yizkor”: a bibliographic ritual that aimed to re-inscribe lost tzaddikim into sacred memory. Drawing on theories of trauma, religious coping, and bereavement psychology, particularly the Two-Track Model of Bereavement, the paper examines the letter as both a therapeutic and historiographical gesture. The author’s meticulous copying, selective omissions, and personalized touches (such as modified honorifics and emotive phrases) reflect an attempt to maintain spiritual continuity in the wake of communal devastation. Engaging scholarship by Michal Shaul, Lior Becker, Gershon Greenberg, and others, the analysis demonstrates how citation, far from being a passive act, functions here as an instrument of resistance, memory, and redemptive reconstruction. The existence of such a document can also be examined through the lens of Maurice Rickards’ insights, particularly his characterization of the “compulsive note” as a salient form of ephemera, materials often inserted between the pages of books, which pose unique challenges for interpreting the time capsule their authors sought to construct. Ultimately, the paper argues that this modest and anonymous document offers a rare window into postwar Ultra-orthodox religious subjectivity. It challenges prevailing assumptions about Hasidic silence after the Holocaust and demonstarates how even derivative texts can serve as potent sites of historical testimony, spiritual resilience, and bibliographic mourning. The letter thus sheds light on a neglected form of Hasidic historiography, one authored not by professional historians, but by the broken-hearted, writing in the margins of sacred books. Full article

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18 pages, 246 KB

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Defiance (2008) and the Cultural Memory of Resistance in the Holocaust

by William Stewart Skiles

Religions 2025, 16(7), 936; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070936 - 19 Jul 2025

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Abstract

The film Defiance (2008) explores the true story of the Bielski Partisans in the Second World War, led by the brothers Tuvia and Zus Bielski. While the film is in many ways a conventional action-packed war story of resistance to Nazi domination during [...] Read more.

The film Defiance (2008) explores the true story of the Bielski Partisans in the Second World War, led by the brothers Tuvia and Zus Bielski. While the film is in many ways a conventional action-packed war story of resistance to Nazi domination during the war, the filmmakers conscientiously depicted the myriad and sundry ways Jews resisted Nazi racial hatred and the attempted extermination of European Jewry. The Bielski partisans are portrayed as violently opposing the Nazi domination and their Belorussian supporters in armed conflict; as engaging in acts of sabotage and destruction to hamper the Axis war effort; as preserving and engaging in Jewish culture and religion to ensure its propagation, even in the most extreme of circumstances; and as continually struggling for survival against Nazi efforts to murder them. Their struggle for freedom from oppression inspires these acts of resistance. Furthermore, the filmmakers explore the theological problem of understanding the Jews as God’s chosen people as they fight for their lives against Nazi policies of extermination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Post-Holocaust Theologies of Jews and Judaism)

14 pages, 400 KB

Open AccessArticle

Questions of Truth vs. Questions of Trust: Nuancing the Influences of Religiosity, Political Conservatism, and Christian Nationalism on Attitudes Towards Science

by Christopher P. Scheitle, Katie E. Corcoran and Bernard D. DiGregorio

Religions 2025, 16(7), 935; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070935 - 19 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Religiosity and political conservatism are often hypothesized to be negatively associated with attitudes towards science. Yet, past research has often failed to distinguish between trust in science versus the acceptance of science as a source of truth. Using data generated from a probability [...] Read more.

Religiosity and political conservatism are often hypothesized to be negatively associated with attitudes towards science. Yet, past research has often failed to distinguish between trust in science versus the acceptance of science as a source of truth. Using data generated from a probability survey of U.S. adults, we identify four latent factors within a battery of items asking about individuals’ views on science. Two of these represent science’s power as a source of truth, while the other two represent trust in science and scientists. A structural equation model finds that, all else being equal, measures of religiosity tend to be negatively associated with an individual’s view of science as a source of truth and unrelated to their trust in science. Adherence to Christian nationalism is negatively associated with an individual’s trust in science, while political conservatism and Republican identification is negatively associated with both trust in science and seeing science as a source of truth. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Health/Psychology/Social Sciences)

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22 pages, 291 KB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship Between Secularization and the Level of Perceiving Religious Influence Among Individuals Receiving Higher Religious Education

by Muhammet Fatih Genç, Hüseyin Okur and Latife Vurgun

Religions 2025, 16(7), 934; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070934 - 19 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This study investigates the complex relationship between levels of religiosity and attitudes toward secularization among individuals receiving higher religious education in Türkiye. Secularization is defined as the diminishing influence of religion in public life and the rise of critical attitudes toward religious norms, [...] Read more.

This study investigates the complex relationship between levels of religiosity and attitudes toward secularization among individuals receiving higher religious education in Türkiye. Secularization is defined as the diminishing influence of religion in public life and the rise of critical attitudes toward religious norms, a process that accelerated particularly during the modernization period following the establishment of the Republic. The primary aim of the research is to analyze whether there is a significant relationship between secular attitudes and the perceived influence of Islam among theology faculty students. The study employs a quantitative, descriptive survey design and includes a sample of 380 undergraduate, graduate, and doctoral students from the faculties of theology at Kocaeli, Sakarya, Marmara, and Istanbul universities. Data were collected using the “Perceived Influence of Religion Scale” and the “Secular Attitude Scale,” both of which demonstrated acceptable reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.70). Demographic variables such as age, gender, marital status, parental education level, type of education (formal or distance), and economic status were also incorporated into the analysis. The findings revealed statistically significant differences based on marital status, parental education level, type of education program, and previous educational background. For instance, single students reported perceiving a higher influence of religion compared to their married counterparts, while students with fathers who held university degrees perceived a lower influence of religion. These results offer valuable insights into how modern social transformations influence religious attitudes and practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Examining Religion's Influence in Non-formal and Informal Educational Contexts: Beliefs, Practices and Narratives)

17 pages, 284 KB

Open AccessArticle

Becoming God in Life and Nature: Watchman Nee and Witness Lee on Sanctification, Union with Christ, and Deification

by Michael M. C. Reardon and Brian Siu Kit Chiu

Religions 2025, 16(7), 933; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070933 - 18 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This article examines the theological trajectories of Watchman Nee (1903–1972) and Witness Lee (1905–1997) on sanctification, union with Christ, and deification, situating their contributions within recent reappraisals of the doctrine of theosis in the academy. Though deification was universally affirmed by the early [...] Read more.

This article examines the theological trajectories of Watchman Nee (1903–1972) and Witness Lee (1905–1997) on sanctification, union with Christ, and deification, situating their contributions within recent reappraisals of the doctrine of theosis in the academy. Though deification was universally affirmed by the early church and retained in various forms in medieval and early Protestant theology, post-Reformation Western Christianity marginalized this theme in favor of juridical and forensic soteriological categories. Against this backdrop, Nee and Lee offer a theologically rich, biblically grounded, and experientially oriented articulation of deification that warrants greater scholarly attention. Drawing from the Keswick Holiness tradition, patristic sources, and Christian mysticism, Nee developed a soteriology that integrates justification, sanctification, and glorification within an organic model of progressive union with God. Though he does not explicitly use the term “deification”, the language he employs regarding union and participation closely mirrors classical expressions of Christian theosis. For Nee, sanctification is not merely moral improvement but the transformative increase of the divine life, culminating in conformity to Christ’s image. Lee builds upon and expands Nee’s participatory soteriology into a comprehensive theology of deification, explicitly referring to it as “the high peak of the divine revelation” in the Holy Scriptures. For Lee, humans become God “in life and nature but not in the Godhead”. By employing the phrase “not in the Godhead”, Lee upholds the Creator–creature distinction—i.e., humans never participate in the ontological Trinity or God’s incommunicable attributes. Yet, in the first portion of his description, he affirms that human beings undergo an organic, transformative process by which they become God in deeply significant ways. His framework structures sanctification as a seven-stage process, culminating in the believer’s transformation and incorporation into the Body of Christ to become a constituent of a corporate God-man. This corporate dimension—often overlooked in Western accounts—lies at the heart of Lee’s ecclesiology, which he sees as being consummated in the eschatological New Jerusalem. Ultimately, this study argues that Nee and Lee provide a coherent, non-speculative model of deification that integrates biblical exegesis, theological tradition, and practical spirituality, and thus, present a compelling alternative to individualistic and forensic soteriologies while also highlighting the need for deeper engagement across global theological discourse on sanctification, union with Christ, and the Triune God. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Christian Theologies of Deification)

15 pages, 279 KB

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Religious Minorities in the Spanish Public Sphere: Ethnographic Contributions for Improving the Public Management of Religious Diversity

by Óscar Salguero Montaño and Carmen Castilla Vázquez

Religions 2025, 16(7), 932; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070932 - 18 Jul 2025

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Abstract

When designing, implementing and assessing public policies, and, in particular, those affecting the public management of religious diversity, it is increasingly common to include ethnographic approaches from the field of social anthropology and the broader social sciences. Ethnographic practice can provide more representative [...] Read more.

When designing, implementing and assessing public policies, and, in particular, those affecting the public management of religious diversity, it is increasingly common to include ethnographic approaches from the field of social anthropology and the broader social sciences. Ethnographic practice can provide more representative and accurate perspectives on the actors, settings, and social phenomena subject to regulation. This article presents the findings of an ethnographic study on two minority religious communities, conducted by a team of anthropologists within the framework of a broader research project on religious freedom in Spain, led by jurists. Based on two case studies—the teaching of Evangelical religion in state schools and Islamic burial practices—our study analyses the implications of the varying degrees of public recognition, as well as how this recognition actually manifests in the everyday practice of religious groups within a context of religious diversity. The study also examines the barriers to the full participation of these communities in public institutions and civil society, as well as the discourses, strategies, and practices they develop to overcome these challenges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Approaches to Religious Pluralism: Integrating Law, Policies and Practice)

14 pages, 217 KB

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Eco-Spiritual Threads: Karma, Dharma, and Ecosystem in Amitav Ghosh’s Gun Island

by Muhammad Hafeez ur Rehman

Religions 2025, 16(7), 931; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070931 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 432

Abstract

This paper examines Amitav Ghosh’s Gun Island through a Hindu eco-spiritual framework to explore how ancient cosmological concepts illuminate contemporary environmental crises. Building upon the legend of Bonduki Sadagar and Manasa Devi, Ghosh narrates the rupture of sacred human–nature relationships in both colonial [...] Read more.

This paper examines Amitav Ghosh’s Gun Island through a Hindu eco-spiritual framework to explore how ancient cosmological concepts illuminate contemporary environmental crises. Building upon the legend of Bonduki Sadagar and Manasa Devi, Ghosh narrates the rupture of sacred human–nature relationships in both colonial and postcolonial contexts. This study employs a tripartite conceptual lens of karma, dharma, and ecosystem drawn from Hindu philosophy to analyze how the novel frames environmental degradation, human moral failure, and ecological interconnectedness. Karma, as the law of cause and effect, is used to depict the consequences of human exploitation through natural disasters, climate migration, and the collapse of ecosystems. Dharma emerges as a principle advocating ecological responsibility and symbiosis between humans and nonhuman life. This paper argues that Ghosh tactfully intertwines Hindu metaphysics with contemporary ecological science to critique capitalist modernity’s environmental violence. The novel’s depiction of floods, the sinking of Venice, and the global refugee crisis dramatizes karmic consequences, while its evocation of myth–science convergence offers a vision of sacred interdependence. Ultimately, this paper concludes that Gun Island provides an urgent eco-spiritual model for reimagining planetary ethics and responding to the Anthropocene through humility, relationality, and spiritual responsibility. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Postcolonial Literature and Ecotheology)

16 pages, 242 KB

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Disentangling Multispecies Landscapes in Arunachal Pradesh: Religion, Ecology, Ethics

by Swargajyoti Gohain

Religions 2025, 16(7), 930; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070930 - 18 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This article considers the dilemma between advocating for a religion-based environmentalism in the Himalayas and recognising that the different cultural traditions in the region make a uniform religious environmentalism difficult to uphold. Conservationists often attempt to mobilise local communities for environmental protection by [...] Read more.

This article considers the dilemma between advocating for a religion-based environmentalism in the Himalayas and recognising that the different cultural traditions in the region make a uniform religious environmentalism difficult to uphold. Conservationists often attempt to mobilise local communities for environmental protection by building on their religious and cultural beliefs. Yet, such forms of mobilisation tend to homogenise plural traditions by forcing them within a single fold. What is the way out of this dilemma? I offer some reflections, drawing on my empirical work in the Buddhist Himalayas, and focusing on the case studies of the yak and the black-necked crane respectively, two species which hold a special significance in Arunachal Pradesh, India. Examining these multispecies relations in Arunachal Pradesh reveal not only Buddhist values at work, but plural and evolving entanglements. The question, then, is not to see if the value is religious but if the value is more-than-human in its orientation, taking into account the entangled lives of human and non-human habitations. My broad argument is that an ethics of the environment need neither to be removed from religious ethics, nor enclosed by it. Rather than force environmental thought and behaviour into silos of particular religious traditions or conservation science paradigms, how can one see these as the function of plural habitations? Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Himalayan Ecospiritual Knowledges and Ethics of Sustainability in the Anthropocene)

19 pages, 321 KB

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Understanding the Catholic Church’s Behavior Under the Dictatorships of Argentina, Chile, and Brazil: Rethinking the Religious Economy Explanation

by Ishama Medilien and Timothy John Steigenga

Religions 2025, 16(7), 929; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070929 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 547

Abstract

During the 1970s’ military dictatorships in Chile and Brazil, the Catholic Church took the position of moral opposition to the authoritarian regimes, while in Argentina, the Church sided with the dictatorship. In his pathbreaking book utilizing the religious economy model, Anthony Gill theorized [...] Read more.

During the 1970s’ military dictatorships in Chile and Brazil, the Catholic Church took the position of moral opposition to the authoritarian regimes, while in Argentina, the Church sided with the dictatorship. In his pathbreaking book utilizing the religious economy model, Anthony Gill theorized that the Church in Chile adopted a critical stance against the regime due to competition from Protestant Churches. Subsequently, Gill’s specific arguments and the religious economy model in general have been widely applied but also critiqued by sociologists of religion. Through a deeper analysis of the three case studies of Argentina, Chile, and Brazil, we support and extend theoretical critiques of the religious economy model. We argue that that the religious economy model as applied by Gill is an insufficient predictor of church and state behavior because it lacks specificity on the amount of competition necessary to warrant taking progressive action, lacks specificity about the timing of Protestant competition, ignores the pre-existing position of the Catholic Church, treats the demand side of the religious market as inelastic, assumes the Catholic Church intentionally implemented progressive policies in response to competition, presumes the Church is a unitary actor, and disregards the impact of a perceived Marxist threat on both church and state actors. Our critique of the religious economy model points to refinements of the model and alternative approaches to understanding church and state behavior in Latin America and elsewhere. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion and Politics: Historical Developments and Contemporary Transformations)

18 pages, 276 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Soul at Prayer

by Richard G. T. Gipps

Religions 2025, 16(7), 928; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070928 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 390

Abstract

Wittgenstein lists prayer as a distinct language-game, but leaves to others the investigation of its character. Formulating it as “conversation with God” is correct but potentially unhelpful, in part because it presupposes that we can understand what God is independently of knowing what [...] Read more.

Wittgenstein lists prayer as a distinct language-game, but leaves to others the investigation of its character. Formulating it as “conversation with God” is correct but potentially unhelpful, in part because it presupposes that we can understand what God is independently of knowing what it is to pray. But by situating the language-game in the context of our human form of life we make better progress. The discussion of this paper, the focus of which is Christian prayer, first reminds us of what it is to have a soul life—i.e., a life in which hope, conscience, and vitality are interpenetrating elements. It next sketches a more distinctly Christian anthropology in which our lives our understood as marred by pride, lack of trust and openness, and ingratitude. Against this backdrop, prayer can be understood for what it is as the soul coming out of its proud retreat, speaking in its own voice, owning its distortions, acknowledging its gratitude, and pleading its true desires. And God can be understood as (inter alia) that to which prayer is principally offered. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)

15 pages, 2563 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Pārijāta Tree: A Giant Tree in the Heavenly Realm

by Yang Gao

Religions 2025, 16(7), 927; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070927 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 280

Abstract

Focusing on the Pārijāta Tree on the summit of Mount Sumeru, the centre of Asian cosmology, this study analyses its depictions and images. These include Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, the most notable depictions in the handscrolls from the Dūn Huáng and Harvard [...] Read more.

Focusing on the Pārijāta Tree on the summit of Mount Sumeru, the centre of Asian cosmology, this study analyses its depictions and images. These include Chinese translations of Buddhist texts, the most notable depictions in the handscrolls from the Dūn Huáng and Harvard Art Museums, its representations in Japanese classical literature and early modern Japanese illustrations of Mount Sumeru. Finally, drawing from the discussions on trees in the Buddhist texts, A Forest of Pearls from the Dharma Garden [法苑珠林, Fǎ yuàn zhū lín], the study also addresses various issues surrounding tree felling, which are relevant to the current concerns of environmental protection. I argue that the Pārijāta Tree, positioned as the heavenly king of trees, holds significance as a core figure at the centre of the cosmos. The Pārijāta Tree can be said to serve as a metaphor for the supreme state pursued by Buddhist practitioners. Furthermore, this study suggests that issues related to Asian cosmology or worldviews should be pursued as important subjects in future research on environmental literature. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Religions and Humanities/Philosophies)

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20 pages, 2832 KB

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Knowledge Transmission and Transformation of Chinese Architecture by Expatriates and Missionaries in Late Qing English and Chinese Newspapers

by Mingqi Lu

Religions 2025, 16(7), 926; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070926 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 418

Abstract

Expatriates and missionaries in China played a significant role in the development and transformation of Chinese architecture in the Late Qing period. However, a systematic comparison of their discourses and proposals on Chinese architecture has been hindered by a lack of historical literature [...] Read more.

Expatriates and missionaries in China played a significant role in the development and transformation of Chinese architecture in the Late Qing period. However, a systematic comparison of their discourses and proposals on Chinese architecture has been hindered by a lack of historical literature and the complexities of fragmented data and methodologies. This article examines and compares the two most influential non-native newspapers: The North-China Daily News in English, edited by expatriates, and The Review of the Times in Chinese, founded by missionaries. By analyzing these two groups’ discourses and narratives on Chinese architecture, the study explores their similarities and distinctions, revealing the characteristics, strategies, attitudes, interests, and opinions of expatriates, missionaries, and non-missionaries in China on the transmission and transformation of architecture knowledge. The research highlights differences in their preferences for specific text types, subjects, and themes on Chinese architecture, as well as their attitudes toward native and foreign architecture, professional education, and architecture regulations in individual and official spheres. Despite these differences, overlapping characteristics and proposals existed among the three groups. The study further investigates the underlying reasons and mechanisms for their similar or divergent mindsets and behavioral patterns, drawing on human responsive psychology rather than relying on postcolonial or cultural theories. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity and Knowledge Development)

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22 pages, 268 KB

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Religious Pluralism, the Nondelegation Rule, and Fulton v. Philadelphia

by Emily R. Gill

Religions 2025, 16(7), 925; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070925 - 18 Jul 2025

Viewed by 340

Abstract

In Fulton v. City of Philadelphia, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the city of Philadelphia could not exclude a Catholic Social Services agency from the city’s foster care system because it would not work with same-sex couples. Access to foster [...] Read more.

In Fulton v. City of Philadelphia, the United States Supreme Court ruled that the city of Philadelphia could not exclude a Catholic Social Services agency from the city’s foster care system because it would not work with same-sex couples. Access to foster care agencies, however, is a public benefit that should not involve religious qualifications interposed by a nongovernmental organization. When aided by public funds, religious organizations should not receive exemptions from nondiscrimination laws to deny potential clients services because they disagree with these clients’ religious beliefs, sexual orientations, or marital status. First, equal access to public funds is not neutral when it allows religious entities to limit the life plans of others who do not share their convictions. Second, religious entities should certainly be able to advance religion but not on the public dollar. Finally, although exemptions for these entities augment the free exercise of religion, especially when accompanied by public funds, they also amount to what has been termed a “shadow establishment”. Full article

24 pages, 383 KB

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Reflections on Universal Empathy: The Relevance of Shinran’s Thought for Contemporary Society

by Amy L. Umezu

Religions 2025, 16(7), 924; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070924 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 441

Abstract

Through an examination of his core doctrinal points, I argue that Shinran’s conception of Pure Land Buddhism (Jōdo Shinshū) should not be so readily dismissed as one that is only salvific in an otherworldly sense, with no relevance to contemporary, everyday life, nor [...] Read more.

Through an examination of his core doctrinal points, I argue that Shinran’s conception of Pure Land Buddhism (Jōdo Shinshū) should not be so readily dismissed as one that is only salvific in an otherworldly sense, with no relevance to contemporary, everyday life, nor should it be reduced to a purely ethnic form of Buddhism without any reference to its universal dimension. Through this analysis, we will find that Shinran’s adoption of a unique and honest evaluation of our inner lives through receiving the wisdom and compassion of Amida Buddha can offer people of today’s world a way to embrace a spirit of self-acceptance so that one can live with confidence, integrity, and a modest joy, despite the manifold shortcomings of the human condition. Through the radical transformation of one’s dissatisfaction and suffering, an uncontrived ethical impulse is able to emerge, accompanied by a keen awareness of deep empathy for others, leading to an existence informed by empathy instead of animosity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Approaches to Buddhist Philosophy and Ethics)

13 pages, 286 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Contemporary Discourse of Public Theology in the Face of Technological and Socio-Environmental Crises

by Jesús Sánchez-Camacho

Religions 2025, 16(7), 923; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070923 - 17 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This study explores the role of public theology in addressing contemporary societal challenges, emphasizing ethical dialogue in response to secularization, pluralism, technological transformation, and social and environmental issues. It situates pastoral theology in the Christian tradition as an active social practice aimed at [...] Read more.

This study explores the role of public theology in addressing contemporary societal challenges, emphasizing ethical dialogue in response to secularization, pluralism, technological transformation, and social and environmental issues. It situates pastoral theology in the Christian tradition as an active social practice aimed at promoting justice, equality, and the common good. The study highlights the emergence of public theology as a response to the participation of religious discourse in the public arena, considering communication and digital technology, and articulating theological reflection with real-world social issues. Additionally, it examines the profound significance of dialogue within religious discourse and stresses the importance of ethical reflection in technological advancements, particularly concerning AI (Artificial Intelligence). Moreover, Catholic social thought and the concept of integral ecology are analyzed in dialogue with the SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals), underlining the potential of public theology to promote socio-environmental justice through a holistic approach. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Culture and Spirituality in a Digital World)

19 pages, 300 KB

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The Ravidassia in Italy: History, Geography, and Identity Politics of the Largest Punjabi Dalit Diaspora in the EU

by Annamaria Laudini

Religions 2025, 16(7), 922; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070922 - 17 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This article discusses caste dynamics within the Punjabi diaspora in Italy—the largest in the EU—by focusing on the case of the Ravidassia community and describing its evolving relations with the local Sikh community. Previous research on Punjabi migration to Italy mainly focused on [...] Read more.

This article discusses caste dynamics within the Punjabi diaspora in Italy—the largest in the EU—by focusing on the case of the Ravidassia community and describing its evolving relations with the local Sikh community. Previous research on Punjabi migration to Italy mainly focused on issues of labor exploitation, intermediation, and Sikh identity, often conflating the entire Punjabi population with its majoritarian—but far from exclusive—Sikh-Jatt component, thereby overlooking its internal heterogeneity of caste, religion, and class. Despite the growing number of Ravidassia-Chamar migrants in Italy—evidenced by the proliferation of Ravidassia temples and associations across the country—their migratory experiences, employment patterns, socioreligious practices, and inter-caste relationships remained unexplored. This article offers, for the first time, an overview of the history, geography, and identity politics of the Ravidassia in Italy. Drawing on data collected with Punjabi migrants during multi-sited ethnographic fieldwork, it illustrates the alternative strategies adopted by the Ravidassia to assert their identity in this diasporic context, focusing on cases in which their relations with the Sikh manifested their complex nature. It concludes by discussing the advantages and drawbacks of each strategy, in light of the history of power relations between the Ravidassia and the Sikh. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sikhi, Sikhs and Caste: Lived Experiences in a Global Context)

16 pages, 420 KB

Open AccessArticle

Translating Euclid’s Elements into Chinese: Western Missionaries and the Enlightenment for Modern Chinese Mathematics During the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties

by Jiyun Huang, Shangqing Hu and Yafeng Li

Religions 2025, 16(7), 921; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070921 - 17 Jul 2025

Viewed by 1237

Abstract

During the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, China underwent a period of broad-based economic and societal transformation. Among the cultural forces at play, the Christian culture has significantly impacted the trajectory of Chinese history. At the time, responding to a distinct socio-political [...] Read more.

During the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties, China underwent a period of broad-based economic and societal transformation. Among the cultural forces at play, the Christian culture has significantly impacted the trajectory of Chinese history. At the time, responding to a distinct socio-political environment, Western missionaries employed a variety of religious methodologies to pursue the goal of proselytizing. As part of missionary efforts, they introduced Western scientific and cultural knowledge into China alongside Christian doctrines, coinciding with a period of political and cultural transformation and development in China. Accordingly, this influx of new ideas from the West had a far-reaching impact on Chinese society. This paper focuses on the Chinese translation of Euclid’s Elements, examining the intercultural dissemination of Western mathematical knowledge through missionary activities. Furthermore, the study also elucidates the positive impact of Western mathematics carried with religious efforts on the Chinese traditional mathematical system via presenting a comparison of paradigms in mathematics. Finally, this study argues that the translation practice by Christian emissaries from the West in the natural sciences during the Ming and Qing Dynasties engendered novel intellectual currents, thereby facilitating the development of a contemporary Chinese knowledge framework and a shift in religious research toward comprehensive perspectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity and Knowledge Development)

20 pages, 1859 KB

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Disenchantment and Preservation of Monastic Discipline: A Study of the Buddhist Monastic Robe Reform Debates in Republican China (1912–1949)

by Yanzhou Jiang

Religions 2025, 16(7), 920; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070920 - 16 Jul 2025

Viewed by 350

Abstract

The Republican era of China witnessed three primary positions regarding Buddhist monastic robe reform. Taixu advocated preserving canonical forms (法服) for ritual garments while adapting regular robes (常服) to contemporary needs; Dongchu proposed diminishing ritual distinctions by establishing a tripartite hierarchical system—virtue-monk robes [...] Read more.

The Republican era of China witnessed three primary positions regarding Buddhist monastic robe reform. Taixu advocated preserving canonical forms (法服) for ritual garments while adapting regular robes (常服) to contemporary needs; Dongchu proposed diminishing ritual distinctions by establishing a tripartite hierarchical system—virtue-monk robes (德僧服), duty-monk robes (職僧服), and scholar-monk robes (學僧服); and Lengjing endorsed the full secularization of monastic robes. As a reformist leader, Taixu pursued reforms grounded in both doctrinal authenticity and contextual responsiveness. His initial advocacy for robe modifications, however, rendered him a target for traditionalists like Cihang, who conflated his measured approach with the radicalism of Dongchu’s faction. Ultimately, the broader Buddhist reform collapsed, with robe controversies serving as a critical lens into its failure. The reasons for its failure include not only wartime disruption and inadequate governmental support, but also the structural disadvantages of the reformists compared to the traditionalists, which proved decisive. This was due to the fact that the traditionalists mostly controlled monastic economies, wielded institutional authority, and commanded discursive hegemony, reinforced by lay Buddhist alignment. These debates crystallize the core tension in Buddhist modernization—the dialectic between “disenchantment” and “preservation of monastic discipline”. This dynamic of negotiated adjustment offers a vital historical framework for navigating contemporary Buddhism’s engagement with modernity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monastic Lives and Buddhist Textual Traditions in China and Beyond)

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41 pages, 424 KB

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Rationalising the First Crusade (1095–1099): Rupert of Deutz, the Roman Conquest of Jerusalem, and the Twists of Salvation History

by Alexander Marx

Religions 2025, 16(7), 919; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070919 - 16 Jul 2025

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Abstract

Many contemporaries considered the crusader conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 as a significant moment in Salvation History. This article investigates how the reception of the Roman conquest of the city (70 CE) contributed to such an understanding. The important Benedictine exegete Rupert of [...] Read more.

Many contemporaries considered the crusader conquest of Jerusalem in 1099 as a significant moment in Salvation History. This article investigates how the reception of the Roman conquest of the city (70 CE) contributed to such an understanding. The important Benedictine exegete Rupert of Deutz (c. 1070–1129) refers to the Roman conquest in 79 passages within his opus, notably in his various biblical commentaries. This case study shows how the past event provided a rationale, exegetical and providential in nature, to understand three dimensions: (a) the role of the Jews, especially that it had been necessary to deprive them of the Holy Land; (b) the current situation of and purpose of Christians in the Holy Land; and (c) the End of Time, which was expected in Jerusalem, and which Rupert anchored already significantly in his own present. His commentary on John’s Revelation even asserted that the Roman conquest had opened the sixth of seven seals (Rev. 6:12). Therefore, the Apocalypse had been ongoing since 70 CE—but only in the Holy Land, a fact that made it necessary for Christians to travel there. The article thus demonstrates that biblical commentaries are potent sources for both crusade studies and historical research in general. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue University of Konstanz, International Conference (25 October, 31 October, 8 November 2024): Emerging Historical Perspectives on Christian-Muslim Interactions in and Around the Mediterranean (c. 630–1614))

15 pages, 242 KB

Open AccessArticle

Narrating Conversion in Augustine’s Notes on Job

by Nataliya D. Pratsovyta

Religions 2025, 16(7), 918; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070918 - 16 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This article explores the themes of repentance and conversion in Augustine’s Notes on Job. Despite its fragmentary and often improvisational character, Augustine’s theological vision in the Notes presents Job as an exemplum of ongoing conversion. Though not portrayed as a sinner, Job [...] Read more.

This article explores the themes of repentance and conversion in Augustine’s Notes on Job. Despite its fragmentary and often improvisational character, Augustine’s theological vision in the Notes presents Job as an exemplum of ongoing conversion. Though not portrayed as a sinner, Job undergoes spiritual transformation, embodying the human need for continual repentance and deeper understanding of God. This treatment aligns with Augustine’s depiction of other biblical figures, such as St. Paul and the Prodigal Son, whose stories serve as models of conversion. By closely examining the rhetorical and theological function of Job in the Notes, the article suggests that Augustine’s portrayal was meant to guide readers on the path toward salvation. In doing so, it contributes to a broader understanding of how Augustine constructs conversion narratives within his biblical commentaries. Full article

24 pages, 327 KB

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Pope Francis’s Communication Strategies During His Middle East Pilgrimages: An Analysis of Interreligious Discourse and Pontifical Diplomacy

by Aldona Maria Piwko

Religions 2025, 16(7), 917; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070917 - 16 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This article examines the communication strategies of religious diplomacy used by Pope Francis in his diplomatic relations with the countries of the Middle East from 2013 to 2025. The study identifies and characterizes key elements of papal communication, taking into account both verbal [...] Read more.

This article examines the communication strategies of religious diplomacy used by Pope Francis in his diplomatic relations with the countries of the Middle East from 2013 to 2025. The study identifies and characterizes key elements of papal communication, taking into account both verbal and nonverbal dimensions, in the context of the complex geopolitical and religious situation of the region. Based on the analysis of official documents, speeches, foreign visits and diplomatic initiatives, specific communication patterns are identified that distinguish Francis’ pontificate from that of his predecessors. The research results indicate an innovative approach of the Pope, combining traditional Vatican diplomacy with direct personal engagement, the use of symbolism of gestures and the promotion of interreligious dialogue as a tool for building peace and intercultural understanding. Full article

27 pages, 480 KB

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Navigating the Tension Between Christianity and Confucianism in Walter Henry Medhurst’s Translation of The Shoo King

by Yanlin Zhang and Guilu Ge

Religions 2025, 16(7), 916; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070916 - 16 Jul 2025

Viewed by 481

Abstract

Walter Henry Medhurst’s translation of The Shoo King (尚書/書經) represents the first complete English rendering of this classic Chinese text. However, limited attention has been given to how Medhurst navigated the tension between Confucian thought in The Shoo King and his own religious [...] Read more.

Walter Henry Medhurst’s translation of The Shoo King (尚書/書經) represents the first complete English rendering of this classic Chinese text. However, limited attention has been given to how Medhurst navigated the tension between Confucian thought in The Shoo King and his own religious beliefs, as well as his treatment of this tension in comparison to James Legge, Joseph de Prémare, Walter Gorn Old, and his interpretation in contrast to Cai Shen’s annotated edition of The Shoo King. This study adopts a “history of the book” approach to examine how Medhurst, as a Protestant missionary, translated key Confucian anthropocentric concepts, including “Ren” (仁), the Doctrine of Mind-Nature, people-centered governance, and religious ideas related to the divine. Through extensive textual analysis and comparison with other scholars’ translations, this study finds that Medhurst adhered to the principle of textual fidelity, striving to minimize the interference of his religious stance with the original meaning of Confucian philosophy. His translation of terms varied according to the context, especially reflecting the shift in The Shoo King from the idea of “Heaven’s mandate is inviolable” to “Heaven is not trustworthy.” Additionally, he enhanced the communication of the original text’s meanings through paratextual elements such as illustrations and footnotes, while retaining Cai Shen’s historical background interpretations and significantly reducing the philological commentary, presenting a “concise and focused” annotation approach. These findings highlight Medhurst’s unique contribution to the cross-cultural transmission of the Confucian canonical text. Full article

16 pages, 516 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Rebuilding of the Kaʻba During the Period of Sulṭān Murād IV in the Context of the ʻUlamāʼ-Umarāʼ Discussions

by Abdullah Çakmak

Religions 2025, 16(7), 915; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070915 - 16 Jul 2025

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Abstract

The last stop on the Muslim pilgrimage is the Kaʻba. Like all other holy and religious places, the Kaʻba has survived due to the repairs it has undergone since its construction. However, the Kaʻba has been rebuilt at times when it was destroyed [...] Read more.

The last stop on the Muslim pilgrimage is the Kaʻba. Like all other holy and religious places, the Kaʻba has survived due to the repairs it has undergone since its construction. However, the Kaʻba has been rebuilt at times when it was destroyed for various reasons. Since the interruption of the pilgrimage would undermine the legitimacy of the caliph, Muslims attached great importance to rebuilding the Kaʻba in such cases. The Kaʻba was last rebuilt by the Ottoman Sulṭān Murād IV after the flood of 1039/1630. However, the rebuilding process has not been without its controversies. Although the Ottoman Empire attempted to rebuild the Kaʻba out of necessity, some scholars objected to this initiative. Ibn ʻAllān, one of the leading Shafiʻi muftis of Mecca, followed the rebuilding work day by day and did not hesitate to intervene when necessary. Riḍwān Agha, who carried out the rebuilding of the Kaʻba, was able to overcome Ibn ʻAllān’s objections with fatwas from the muftis of the four sects (four Sunni schools of law) and thus completed the building work. After the Kaʻba was rebuilt, Turkish works on its history began to be produced. In this way, the public was informed that the Kaʻba could be rebuilt if necessary, and attempts were made to anticipate and prevent any potential reactions. This study aims to contribute to the history of the Kaʻba by analysing its rebuilding after the flood of 1039/1630 through debates between scholars (ʻulamāʼ) and administrators (umarāʼ) during this period. Access to the details of this issue from the works of the ʻulamāʼ who witnessed the rebuilding makes this paper unique. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pilgrimage: Diversity, Past and Present of Sacred Routes)

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15 pages, 216 KB

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Freedom as Social Practice: Reconstructing Religious Freedom in Everyday Life

by Michele Garau and Giacomo Bazzani

Religions 2025, 16(7), 914; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16070914 - 16 Jul 2025

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Abstract

This article examines how religious freedom is enacted and redefined through everyday practices in pluralistic urban settings. Moving beyond the classical notion of negative liberty as non-interference, it explores the social conditions that enable or constrain the practical expression of religious life. Drawing [...] Read more.

This article examines how religious freedom is enacted and redefined through everyday practices in pluralistic urban settings. Moving beyond the classical notion of negative liberty as non-interference, it explores the social conditions that enable or constrain the practical expression of religious life. Drawing on forty-three qualitative interviews with religious leaders and civic actors in Florence, Italy, the study analyses how religious freedom is experienced across institutional contexts such as hospitals, schools, prisons, workplaces, and sport facilities. The findings reveal a persistent tension between formal legal rights and their uneven implementation in daily life. While legal guarantees are generally upheld, structural barriers and discretionary practices often hinder access to religious expression. At the same time, informal interactions, local networks, and dialogical engagement play a key role in supporting the concrete exercise of religious freedom. The article argues that freedom is not simply a legal status but a social process, realized through relational and institutional arrangements. By foregrounding the role of everyday interaction in shaping the conditions of freedom, this study contributes to broader sociological debates on pluralism, normativity, and the social foundations of institutional life. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Governance of Interreligious Dialogue and Freedom of/from Religion)

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Religions, Volume 16, Issue 7 (July 2025) – 139 articles

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