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20 pages, 455 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Translation of Physics Texts by Western Missionaries During the Late Ming and Early Qing Dynasties and Its Enlightenment of Modern Chinese Physics

by Yafeng Li and Jingmin Fu

Religions 2025, 16(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16010025 - 30 Dec 2024

Viewed by 475

Abstract

Christian culture is viewed as a translated cultural practice that has become intricately intertwined with the local culture over the course of historical development in China. Currently, many research findings focus on the translation of missionary religious texts during the late Ming and [...] Read more.

Christian culture is viewed as a translated cultural practice that has become intricately intertwined with the local culture over the course of historical development in China. Currently, many research findings focus on the translation of missionary religious texts during the late Ming and early Qing dynasties. However, the translation of non-religious texts by Western missionaries from the same period also plays a pivotal role in the development of Chinese society and culture. In order to verify the above point of view, this paper focuses on the translation of physics texts by Western missionaries during the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties. Examining the choice of physics texts translated by missionaries reveals the missionary motivations in evangelization. On the basis of analyzing the translation motivation, this study classifies the overall translation practice of Western missionaries in translating physical texts during that period, presenting the physical scientific knowledge brought to China at the time. Additionally, it explores how the translation of Western physical science enlightened the transformation and development of Chinese physics in modern times. Furthermore, the paper argues that the translations by Western missionaries played a crucial role in introducing new ideas and knowledge, contributing to the enlightenment of modern scientific knowledge in China, so as to underscore the value of the non-religious texts translated by Western missionaries to the society and culture in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

20 pages, 407 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Jesuit Missionary Aleni’s Argumentation Strategy on the Concept of Common Sense: Focusing on the Analysis of Xingxue Cushu

by Qi Zhao

Religions 2024, 15(12), 1529; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15121529 - 13 Dec 2024

Viewed by 574

Abstract

In the late Ming Dynasty, Jesuit missionary Giulio Aleni introduced Western classical psychology to China, with the theory of the sensitive soul being his core focus. Scholars have conducted in-depth analyses of the textual sources, fundamental theories and pivotal influences of Xingxue cushu [...] Read more.

In the late Ming Dynasty, Jesuit missionary Giulio Aleni introduced Western classical psychology to China, with the theory of the sensitive soul being his core focus. Scholars have conducted in-depth analyses of the textual sources, fundamental theories and pivotal influences of Xingxue cushu concerning Aleni’s theory of the sensitive soul. Nevertheless, there is a lack of research in academia on the essence of common sense. In Aleni’s Xingxue cushu, common sense not only determines the essence of a sensitive soul but also builds a bridge between a sensitive soul and rational soul. Consequently, common sense is a crux in Aleni’s soul theory. As far as the purpose is concerned, this article combines macro and micro perspectives, exploring Aleni’s argumentation strategy on the concept of common sense. Although Aleni regards common sense as the internal sense of human beings, he starts from the principle of wholeness in Xingxue cushu and regards common sense as the whole of the five external senses, indicating that the principle of wholeness is not contradictory to the principle of internality in the category of common sense. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

16 pages, 338 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A French Jesuit in China: The Case of André Yverneau 1948–1951

by Timothy Pickard Baycroft

Religions 2024, 15(10), 1239; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101239 - 12 Oct 2024

Viewed by 868

Abstract

During the many centuries of interaction and exchange between China and Europe, one of the most complex and ambiguous relationships was that of the Catholic Church and its missionaries in China. On one hand, they contributed to and can be seen as a [...] Read more.

During the many centuries of interaction and exchange between China and Europe, one of the most complex and ambiguous relationships was that of the Catholic Church and its missionaries in China. On one hand, they contributed to and can be seen as a part of the European imperial project of world colonisation, but on the other hand, they were instrumental in sharing and exchanging knowledge, as well as creating schools and other institutions in the places they created missions. At the same time, attempts were being made within the Catholic Church to promote the development of a Chinese clergy, although this issue remained divisive. This article examines these complex relationships through the eyes of a French Jesuit, André Yverneau, who was in China between 1948 and 1951 and who left a collection of letters back to his family describing these years. His experiences, observations, reactions and attitudes towards China and the mission are presented and analysed in order to re-evaluate some of the main debates surrounding the mission in China in the mid-twentieth century: education, language, indigenisation, and politics, both internal to the Catholic Church and with its relations in China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

25 pages, 12234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Spatial Expansion, Planning, and Their Influences on the Urban Landscape of Christian Churches in Canton (1582–1732 and 1844–1911)

by Yonggu Li

Religions 2024, 15(10), 1183; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101183 - 28 Sep 2024

Viewed by 1207

Abstract

Canton (present-day Guangzhou, China) has a long history as a trading port and serves as a window for studying the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. Canton was a city built under Confucian orders, leading to significant differences (when compared to Christian cities) in [...] Read more.

Canton (present-day Guangzhou, China) has a long history as a trading port and serves as a window for studying the history of Sino-Western cultural exchanges. Canton was a city built under Confucian orders, leading to significant differences (when compared to Christian cities) in urban functional zoning, layout, urban landscape, and methods for shaping spatial order. Therefore, the churches constructed by Christian missionary societies in Canton merit particular attention in missionary history research and urban planning history. Based on local gazetteers, historical maps, export paintings, Western travelogues, and archives at that time, from a cultural landscape perspective, this article compares and analyzes the spatial expansion of Christian churches and their influences on the urban landscape in Canton in two stages. In the late Ming and early Qing dynasties, the spatial layout of the churches indicated an active integration into Canton City. After the Opium War, churches were not only used for religious purposes but also served as symbols asserting the presence of Christians and Western powers (which made the situation more complicated). Missionary societies attracted believers through the construction of public facilities, building Christian communities centered around churches, thereby competing with authorities for spatial power and influencing the urban functional system and spatial layout controlled by the authorities. Comparatively, the Roman Catholic Cathedral has profoundly changed the traditional landscape order in Canton, while the Protestant Dongshan Church interacted more closely with the city. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

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14 pages, 362 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Three Shanghai General Meetings and Catholic Publishing in the First Half of the Twentieth Century

by Zhiyuan Pan

Religions 2024, 15(10), 1178; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15101178 - 27 Sep 2024

Viewed by 786

Abstract

The Catholic publishing undertaking in China experienced significant growth in the first half of the twentieth century, both in the scale and in the form of organization. This effort’s importance is twofold: for the Church in China back then, publications facilitated communications both [...] Read more.

The Catholic publishing undertaking in China experienced significant growth in the first half of the twentieth century, both in the scale and in the form of organization. This effort’s importance is twofold: for the Church in China back then, publications facilitated communications both inside and outside the Church; for researchers today, these files contain a vast amount of information on Catholic life, valuable for the enrichment of historical understanding. This paper uncovers the internal driving mechanism of this process through three Shanghai general meetings: the Plenary Council in 1924, the All-China General Congress of Catholic Action in 1935 and the Catholic Press Convention in 1947. The co-ordination fostered by these meetings generated resilience and efficiency for publishing activities allowing them to be sustained and to prosper during an unsettling period. The Council heralded cross-congregational and cross-national co-operation by standardizing publishing practices and forming designated central organizations. Inheriting these guidelines, Catholic journalist delegates of the Catholic Action Congress in 1935 gathered to discuss practical methods, leading to a proliferation of Catholic publications. Despite setbacks during the Sino-Japanese War, Catholic publishing quickly resumed following the Press Convention held in 1947, which reinforced collaboration regardless of affiliations through a central organization. The three general meetings not only showcase the historical trajectory of Catholic publishing, but also the constant endeavor to bridge gaps between communities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

14 pages, 354 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Different Narratives: The Pingli Missionary Case in Wenshi Ziliao and Private Expression

by Boyi Pang

Religions 2024, 15(8), 962; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15080962 - 8 Aug 2024

Viewed by 964

Abstract

Wenshi Ziliao (Cultural and Historical Materials) are spaces where contemporary Chinese official discourse and local self-expression are coordinated. But these spaces are extremely limited on religious issues. The Pingli missionary case in the Shaanxi Wenshi Ziliao is seen as an anti-imperialist patriotic movement. [...] Read more.

Wenshi Ziliao (Cultural and Historical Materials) are spaces where contemporary Chinese official discourse and local self-expression are coordinated. But these spaces are extremely limited on religious issues. The Pingli missionary case in the Shaanxi Wenshi Ziliao is seen as an anti-imperialist patriotic movement. However, by re-examining this conflict through the analysis of other materials, this article finds that the outbreak of the Pingli case is closely related to local power structures, the conditions of missionaries and Pontifical Institute for Foreign Missions (P.I.M.E.), and the socio-cultural atmosphere. These hidden stories, although overlooked by the compilers of Wenshi Ziliao, are re-emphasized by priests of the local church, revealing attempts by Christians to continually adjust their self-expression in response to official discourse under the contemporary Chinese church–state relationship. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

16 pages, 841 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Indigenization Policy of Propaganda Fide: Its Effectiveness and Limitations in China (1622–1742)

by Rui Zhang

Religions 2023, 14(12), 1453; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14121453 - 23 Nov 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2242

Abstract

The papal Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide, founded in 1622, marks a milestone in the history of Christianity by promoting a new way of organizing “apostolic missionaries”, which represented a major shift from colonial missions to purely ecclesiastical missions. The emphasis on the [...] Read more.

The papal Sacred Congregation de Propaganda Fide, founded in 1622, marks a milestone in the history of Christianity by promoting a new way of organizing “apostolic missionaries”, which represented a major shift from colonial missions to purely ecclesiastical missions. The emphasis on the indigenization of clergy was a central element in its vision right from the founding documents. Propaganda Fide, bypassing the old patronage system, sought to extend the indigenization policy worldwide, though it faced difficulties and obstacles from religious orders and secular powers. This article introduces the history of the development of Propaganda Fide’s indigenization policy and analyzes the early attempts to apply the policy in China, evaluating both its effectiveness and limitations across the first 120 years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

19 pages, 877 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Central Hunan Lutheran Church’s Progress toward Self-Reliance (1902–1951): A Study Based on the Archives of the Norwegian Missionary Society

by Wuna Zhou

Religions 2023, 14(9), 1135; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14091135 - 4 Sep 2023

Viewed by 1421

Abstract

In 1902, the Norwegian Missionary Society (NMS) sent its first missionaries to central Hunan, China, to preach and set up a local Lutheran Church. Missionaries in China traditionally had a sense of religious superiority. At that time, Chinese Christians were experiencing a series [...] Read more.

In 1902, the Norwegian Missionary Society (NMS) sent its first missionaries to central Hunan, China, to preach and set up a local Lutheran Church. Missionaries in China traditionally had a sense of religious superiority. At that time, Chinese Christians were experiencing a series of national crises, and their desire for self-reliance correlated with a rise in the national consciousness. Hunan’s Christians demanded autonomy for the Church, causing tension with the Western missionaries’ sense of superiority. The Central Hunan Lutheran Church realized a balanced transfer of authority through contradiction and dialogue. The establishment of a Chinese and Western Council aided gradual realization of Hunan Christians’ demand for self-reliance, and in 1922, the rise of an anti-Christian movement with strong anti-imperialist sentiments triggered further moves toward Church independence. However, local churches faced many difficulties and progress was slow, owing to the economic situation, the lack of material foundation, local Christians’ weak theological foundation and a highly mobile population. This article examines how Christians in Hunan responded to the huge gap between their own will and the conditions they faced, illustrating the historical process of cross-cultural cooperation as cultures collided. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

13 pages, 785 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Is There Life? Is There Spirit? Debating Belief and Being a Good Christian in Watchman Nee’s ‘Little Flock’

by Christine Lee, Yujing Ma and Jianbo Huang

Religions 2023, 14(7), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14070844 - 27 Jun 2023

Viewed by 1421

Abstract

Christian, especially Protestant, identity is often framed through the lens of belief, particularly belief understood as an interior orientation. Through an examination of the non-denominational Protestant group, the ‘Little Flock’, founded by Watchman Nee in the early 20th century, we trace enduring aspects [...] Read more.

Christian, especially Protestant, identity is often framed through the lens of belief, particularly belief understood as an interior orientation. Through an examination of the non-denominational Protestant group, the ‘Little Flock’, founded by Watchman Nee in the early 20th century, we trace enduring aspects of Little Flock theology in contemporary Chinese Protestant practice. In particular, we attend to conceptions of and debates surrounding belief and how to determine the quality of one’s faith—whether or not one might be considered not just a Christian, but a ‘good’ one. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Christianity: From Society to Culture)

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