Religions

39 pages, 435 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“Medical Men in the New Age”: Alice Bailey’s Impact on Contemporary Energy Healing

by Dominic S. Zoehrer

Religions 2025, 16(5), 643; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050643 (registering DOI) - 19 May 2025

Energy healing refers to a globalising market of healing rituals that aim to stimulate the clients’ self-healing process. In the context of healing, the term ‘energy’ has multi-layered meanings and may denote physical, psychological, social, as well as spiritual principles of restoring well-being. [...] Read more.

Energy healing refers to a globalising market of healing rituals that aim to stimulate the clients’ self-healing process. In the context of healing, the term ‘energy’ has multi-layered meanings and may denote physical, psychological, social, as well as spiritual principles of restoring well-being. This article demonstrates how the idea of energy as a healing agent was embedded within the occult cosmology and anthropology of the British-American post-Theosophist Alice A. Bailey (1880–1949). Applying historical discourse analysis, Bailey’s impact on the emergence of energy healing is examined. Her theory of energy is explored against the backdrop of her esoteric grand narrative. It is demonstrated how Bailey’s principles of energy formed the basis for her vision of a “medicine of the future”. A concluding discussion proves the global influence of Bailey’s ‘energetic turn’ and how it modelled the approach of major holistic actors of the later twentieth century. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religion, Ritual, and Healing)

17 pages, 273 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Secularization, Profanation, and Knowledge of the Heart in Contemporary French Fiction

by Roy Peachey

Religions 2025, 16(5), 642; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050642 (registering DOI) - 19 May 2025

Abstract

Given the highly contested nature of the debate over secularization in modern literature, this paper examines the ways in which four contemporary French novelists address questions of human and divine absence in their fiction, focusing on Joël Egloff’s J’enquête, Gaspard-Marie Janvier’s Le [...] Read more.

Given the highly contested nature of the debate over secularization in modern literature, this paper examines the ways in which four contemporary French novelists address questions of human and divine absence in their fiction, focusing on Joël Egloff’s J’enquête, Gaspard-Marie Janvier’s Le dernier dimanche, Jérôme Ferrari’s Le sermon sur la chute de Rome, and Sylvie Germain’s Tobie des marais. It argues that some of the most pressing questions of our secular age—including questions of intersubjectivity and human and divine absence—are addressed in these competing narratives of secularization. It then examines Jean-Louis Chrétien’s notion of cardiognosie, or knowledge of the heart, and his argument that profanation, rather than secularization as such, is of central importance in the modern novel’s construction of meaning before concluding with a close reading of Jérôme Ferrari’s Le sermon sur la chute de Rome and a consideration of the heart in Sylvie Germain’s Tobie des marais as a first step toward establishing the means by which profanation has been faced and overcome in recent fictional texts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catholic Theologies of Culture)

16 pages, 280 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Psychedelic Churches Need Philosophy of Religion

by Eric Steinhart

Religions 2025, 16(5), 641; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050641 (registering DOI) - 19 May 2025

Abstract

Many new psychedelic religious organizations have recently emerged in the United States. These psychedelic churches operate in a legal gray area, which provides job opportunities not just for lawyers but also for philosophers of religion. To gain legal permission to use psychedelics, these [...] Read more.

Many new psychedelic religious organizations have recently emerged in the United States. These psychedelic churches operate in a legal gray area, which provides job opportunities not just for lawyers but also for philosophers of religion. To gain legal permission to use psychedelics, these churches need philosophically well-developed doctrines. Philosophers of religion can help develop these psychedelic doctrines. Looking at the law from a philosophical perspective, I derive six criteria which these psychedelic doctrines should satisfy. As an illustration, I show how a modernized Platonism can satisfy these criteria. Just as bioethicists can help in the practice of medicine, so philosophers of religion can help with the legal proceedings of new psychedelic churches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Psychedelics and Religion)

11 pages, 213 KiB

Open AccessArticle

‘Through Valley of the Shadow of Death’: Death In-Between and Betwixt “Life After Life” in Mind Uploading Immortality

by Chammah J. Kaunda and Minkyu Lee

Religions 2025, 16(5), 640; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050640 (registering DOI) - 19 May 2025

Abstract

This article engages the concept of death as a revolutionary transformation within the contexts of mind uploading (MU) and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin’s theology of the Omega Point. The focus is not on the Omega Point itself as a conceptual endpoint, nor on [...] Read more.

This article engages the concept of death as a revolutionary transformation within the contexts of mind uploading (MU) and Pierre Teilhard de Chardin’s theology of the Omega Point. The focus is not on the Omega Point itself as a conceptual endpoint, nor on what becomes of consciousness once it has been successfully uploaded into a digital substrate. To grasp the meaning of “death” within the context of MU, the article employs the notion of liminal speculative imagination to analyze death amid the liminality of biological mortality and digital immortality. It argues that death is more than just the end of life but rather as a transitional phase between different states of being. It contends that this liminal gap between life forms is an inherent aspect of existence that cannot be eliminated at a fundamental level. Instead of seeking to overcome death, the article suggests embracing the transformative nature of this liminality. In this view, death is seen as a natural and unavoidable part of life, serving as a mediator or catalyst for transitions into new forms of existence. Rather than focusing solely on achieving immortality, the article advocates for utilizing technology to facilitate evolution and advancement. By acknowledging the role of death in the process of transformation, particularly within the context of transhumanism, the article proposes that embracing liminality can lead to new possibilities for human evolution. This includes the potential emergence of transhuman life forms, such as those enabled by MU technologies. Full article

13 pages, 320 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Harmonizing Openness in the Zhuangzi: A Critique of Respecting Diversity

by Luyao Li and Paul J. D’Ambrosio

Religions 2025, 16(5), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050639 (registering DOI) - 19 May 2025

Abstract

In contemporary societies, increasing diversity is often accompanied by intensified conflicts across various public domains. While respecting differences is commonly proposed as a solution, this necessarily narrows the scope of shared values, which correspondingly decreases the chances of developing harmony. Indeed, harmony is [...] Read more.

In contemporary societies, increasing diversity is often accompanied by intensified conflicts across various public domains. While respecting differences is commonly proposed as a solution, this necessarily narrows the scope of shared values, which correspondingly decreases the chances of developing harmony. Indeed, harmony is frequently criticized for potentially requiring uniformity, which would undermine diversity. This article addresses this challenge by exploring philosophical and religious perspectives drawn from the Zhuangzi. Specifically, we find that a type of dynamic openness can be found in the Zhuangzi which shifts the focus away from embracing a more static “diversity”. Here, openness is understood as emphasizing interconnectedness, mutual influence, and collective transformation, offering a framework for resolving conflicts beyond mere respect for differences. In this article, we argue that one type of philosophical–religious perspective that can be derived from the Zhuangzi advocates for harmonizing openness—a process that achieves consensus while fully allowing for individual differences, rather than enforcing the type of uniformity found in many calls to respect diversity. This perspective offers valuable insights for the navigation of conflict in an increasingly pluralistic world and provides a critique of more popular contemporary approaches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)

15 pages, 639 KiB

Open AccessArticle

by Geneece L. Goertzen and Gaynor Yancey

Religions 2025, 16(5), 638; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050638 (registering DOI) - 18 May 2025

Abstract

Victims of domestic violence who bring their experiences to the attention of their spiritual communities and faith leaders have experienced both betrayal and courage from their religious institutions. There is much hurt in the betrayal and much to celebrate in the courage. Institutional [...] Read more.

Victims of domestic violence who bring their experiences to the attention of their spiritual communities and faith leaders have experienced both betrayal and courage from their religious institutions. There is much hurt in the betrayal and much to celebrate in the courage. Institutional betrayal can be embedded in systemic and organizational cultures that repeat themselves even with new leadership and across generations. When leadership hesitate to take actions to protect members, or values the institution above the individuals that depend on it, betrayal ensues. Alternatively, institutional courage can be implemented through improved practices and updated organizational policies. This is true in all communities, including those of faith. When clergy take supportive actions to ensure the safety and wellbeing of those within an institution, healing is more likely to follow. Faith leaders must seek to engage proactively, protect the vulnerable against injustice, and create cultures that benefit those who depend upon the institution. It takes courage to practice institutional courage! Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Faith and Sustainable Development: Exploring Practice, Progress and Challenges among Faith Communities and Institutions)

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22 pages, 384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Mystified Unknown—Sacralizing Influence in Soviet Science, Religion, and Ideology

by Maria Roginska

Religions 2025, 16(5), 637; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050637 (registering DOI) - 17 May 2025

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Abstract

This article investigates a distinctive discursive space within Soviet society where scientific inquiry and mystical thought coexisted, despite the state’s official commitment to atheism. Referred to as the mystified unknown, this space provides a framework for understanding the persistence and intertwining of [...] Read more.

This article investigates a distinctive discursive space within Soviet society where scientific inquiry and mystical thought coexisted, despite the state’s official commitment to atheism. Referred to as the mystified unknown, this space provides a framework for understanding the persistence and intertwining of religious and mystical elements within Soviet scientific discourse. By focusing on the concept of “influence”, the study examines discussions in Soviet psychology to demonstrate how the regime’s political need to influence the masses, coupled with its suspicion of foreign ideas and a covert desire to wield influence, shaped the development of certain scientific disciplines, particularly the imaginaries they produced. This environment, characterized by doublethink and secrecy, nurtured the growth of scientific fantasies and mysterious imaginaries, allowing mystical concepts to endure under the veneer of science. Consequently, Soviet society became more inclined to re-enchant science rather than uphold it strictly as a symbol of secularism. Full article

25 pages, 5686 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preparatory Guidelines for Meditation in Pre-Modern Sino-Tibetan Buddhist Traditions

by Ching-Hsuan Mei

Religions 2025, 16(5), 636; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050636 (registering DOI) - 17 May 2025

Viewed by 118

Abstract

This study offers a comparative analysis of preparatory practices in Buddhist meditation, focusing on the Tiantai tradition of medieval China and the Nyingma tradition of tenth-century Tibet. Challenging the view of meditation as solely a mental experience, it highlights the critical role of [...] Read more.

This study offers a comparative analysis of preparatory practices in Buddhist meditation, focusing on the Tiantai tradition of medieval China and the Nyingma tradition of tenth-century Tibet. Challenging the view of meditation as solely a mental experience, it highlights the critical role of the body in shaping contemplative training. Drawing on recent Buddhist studies and cultural embodiment theory, the paper argues that preparatory practices are essential stages of psychophysical transformation, not just preliminary steps. The study explores early Chinese Tiantai texts, particularly Zhiyi’s meditation manuals, which present twenty-five preparatory practices involving posture, diet, breath control, and ethical restraint. In parallel, the paper examines Nupchen Sangye Yeshe’s bSam gtan mig sgron from the Tibetan Nyingma tradition, highlighting its emphasis on physical integrity, ritual purity, four supportive conditions, and environmental harmony. While Tiantai sources provide a structured methodology, Nyingma practices integrate these elements within broader tantric and visionary frameworks. The paper concludes that these practices are not only supportive of meditation, but also performative enactments of Buddhist cosmology and ethics, positioning the body as central to meditation’s transformative potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism and Medicine from an Interdisciplinary and Global Historical Perspective)

31 pages, 13309 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Four Block-Printed Indic Script Mahāpratisarā Dhāraṇī (Chinese: 大隨求陀羅尼) Amulets Discovered in China

by Yuling Wu

Religions 2025, 16(5), 635; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050635 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2025

Viewed by 56

Abstract

This article examines four block-printed Mahāpratisarā dhāraṇī amulets from late Tang to early Song China, highlighting how Sanskrit-script texts circulated in everyday religious life. Through a philological and visual analysis, it reveals a decentralised dhāraṇī culture shaped by variant bījākṣara (seed syllable) arrangements, [...] Read more.

This article examines four block-printed Mahāpratisarā dhāraṇī amulets from late Tang to early Song China, highlighting how Sanskrit-script texts circulated in everyday religious life. Through a philological and visual analysis, it reveals a decentralised dhāraṇī culture shaped by variant bījākṣara (seed syllable) arrangements, divergent textual recensions, and diverse ritual uses—from burial and temple consecration to daily wear and cave enshrinement. Rather than static texts, these amulets reflect dynamic interactions among sacred sound, material form, and vernacular Buddhist practice, offering rare insight into non-canonical transmission and popular engagement with Indic scripture. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Old Texts, New Insights: Exploring Buddhist Manuscripts)

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16 pages, 1555 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Distribution of Zhicao 芝草 by Buddhist Ways After the Fengshan Ritual in Mount Tai, 1008–1016

by Rui Yang

Religions 2025, 16(5), 634; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050634 (registering DOI) - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

Between 1008 and 1016, for several times Emperor Zhenzong (968–1022, r. 997–1022) distributed Zhicao (Ganoderma Lucidum), acquired during the Fengshan 封禪 rituals. These grand-scale activities from central to local levels were completely different from the previous management of auspicious omens and calamities. Zhicao [...] Read more.

Between 1008 and 1016, for several times Emperor Zhenzong (968–1022, r. 997–1022) distributed Zhicao (Ganoderma Lucidum), acquired during the Fengshan 封禪 rituals. These grand-scale activities from central to local levels were completely different from the previous management of auspicious omens and calamities. Zhicao, serving as an auspicious symbol in the Confucian system of auspicious omens and calamities, underwent an elevation in status through its integration with the concept of longevity in Daoism. It began to play important roles in the political propaganda of Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1276) dynasties. On the one hand, the distribution was influenced by the political initiatives of Emperor Gaozong (628–683, r. 649–683) after his Fengshan ceremony, with the reason lying in the subtle influence of the Buddhist concept of sacred relics. By integrating the political propaganda of Three Teachings, Emperor Zhenzong reinforced the regime’s legitimacy and enhanced the personal authority of the monarch. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monastic Lives and Buddhist Textual Traditions in China and Beyond)

20 pages, 397 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Healing Through Letting Go: On the Maturation of a Certain Conception of Medicine in Indian Buddhism

by Eviatar Shulman

Religions 2025, 16(5), 633; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050633 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

“Illness itself is emptiness”, says Vīmalakīrti, in a statement that appears to reflect on the nature of sickness and disease. However, Vimalakīrti’s approach of non-duality may not satisfy the rising interest in Buddhist medicine, for which philosophical ideas of emptiness seem too far [...] Read more.

“Illness itself is emptiness”, says Vīmalakīrti, in a statement that appears to reflect on the nature of sickness and disease. However, Vimalakīrti’s approach of non-duality may not satisfy the rising interest in Buddhist medicine, for which philosophical ideas of emptiness seem too far removed from practical interventions with real people’s pain. Nevertheless, there may be more in Vimalakīrti’s ideas than mere sophistry, and the vision he expresses can connect to realistic practices of healing. In this article, I pursue one potent formulaic passage that appears in a number of early discourses preserved in Pāli (but not in Chinese), in order to examine some of the earlier antecedents of the idea that illness is a mental construction, and that the mind can contribute to recovery. The early discourses provide a more sober definition of the position expressed by Vimalakīrti, by showing how a variety of practitioners let go of their illness, through a change in attitude that was informed by Buddhist insight. With this these texts highlight an understanding regarding the powers of the mind over matter, which traces physical events to their mental apprehension. Not only monks, but also householders, can heal through letting go of the the inner causes that contribute to the disease. While such an understanding need not be generalized as a comprehensive statement on Buddhist medicine, it helps us understand the views and cogency of Buddhist doctrine in this context. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Buddhism and Medicine from an Interdisciplinary and Global Historical Perspective)

25 pages, 403 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Expanding the Scope of “Supernatural” Dreaming in the Light of the Cognitive and Evolutionary Study of Religion and Cultural Transmission

by Andreas Nordin

Religions 2025, 16(5), 632; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050632 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

A conundrum in the cognitive, evolutionary, and anthropological study of religion is how to propose descriptions and explanatory models of the structure and functions of supernatural dreaming and its relationship to action imagery, the use of experience, and, importantly, cultural transmission (factors) associated [...] Read more.

A conundrum in the cognitive, evolutionary, and anthropological study of religion is how to propose descriptions and explanatory models of the structure and functions of supernatural dreaming and its relationship to action imagery, the use of experience, and, importantly, cultural transmission (factors) associated with these representations. Research has long emphasized the important function and significance of dreams and dreaming in beliefs and practices related to religious phenomena. The literature of anthropology and religious studies shows that dreams, dream experiences, and narratives are often associated with religious ideas and practices, both in traditional societies and in the world religions. Indeed, at the very beginning of the anthropological study of human beings, scholars proposed that dreaming is a primary source of religious beliefs and practices. Another facet of this is the recurrent manifestations of divinities, spirits, ancestors, and demons—in short, imagery of various supernatural agents—together with the occasional ritualization of dreams in the waking state. However, we know less about the associated phenomenon of dreams about ritual imagery. The aim of this paper is to elucidate and map dream imagery about rituals, drawing on simulation theories from dream research and prominent models of ritual behavior in the cognitive and evolutionary science of religion (CESR). This theoretical and methodological endeavor is illustrated by examples from dream narratives collected in Nepal before and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Meaning, Mind and Evolution: New Perspectives in the Study of Religion)

15 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Religious Hinge Commitments and Ideology

by Duncan Pritchard

Religions 2025, 16(5), 631; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050631 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

In his final notebooks, published as On Certainty, Wittgenstein articulated a radical conception of the structure of rational evaluation, one that had arational hinge commitments at its heart. This proposal has recently been extended to the religious case, in the form of [...] Read more.

In his final notebooks, published as On Certainty, Wittgenstein articulated a radical conception of the structure of rational evaluation, one that had arational hinge commitments at its heart. This proposal has recently been extended to the religious case, in the form of quasi-fideism, which treats basic religious commitments as being hinge commitments. My interest in this paper is how religious hinge commitments relate to one’s fundamental ideological commitments, such as the kinds of basic political or economic certainties that prevail in a predominantly capitalist society. While I argue that there are significant overlaps between fundamental religious and ideological commitments, there are also some significant divergences, which is why the former tend to be more plausible candidates to be genuine hinge commitments. In particular, I maintain that while allowing that there can be religious hinge commitments extends hinge epistemology beyond the paradigm, commonsense, cases that was Wittgenstein’s focus in On Certainty, it doesn’t thereby open the door to there being ideological hinge commitments, given the important ways in which religious and ideological hinge commitments diverge in their properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Work on Wittgenstein's Philosophy of Religion)

20 pages, 426 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Different Perspective on Life Philosophy: Zhuangzi’s “Death-Life (死生)” Thought

by Tiantian Yu

Religions 2025, 16(5), 630; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050630 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

Modern society, dominated by rationalism, has led to the hollowing out of life’s meaning. In response to this predicament, the question of how to transcend instrumental rationality and reconstruct an understanding of human conditions becomes crucial. Among pre-Qin thinkers, Zhuangzi offers the most [...] Read more.

Modern society, dominated by rationalism, has led to the hollowing out of life’s meaning. In response to this predicament, the question of how to transcend instrumental rationality and reconstruct an understanding of human conditions becomes crucial. Among pre-Qin thinkers, Zhuangzi offers the most profound exploration of life-related issues. His “death-life” thought embodies unique philosophical implications, revealing the fluidity, wholeness, and infinity of life. The word order of “death-life” underscores the idea of the transformation of things (wuhua, 物化), illuminating two practical pathways toward the infinite circulation of life. This understanding of life resonates with Henri Bergson’s life philosophy in their shared reverence for life’s infinite flow through intuition. However, they diverge in their views on time and subjectivity. Despite their differences, their ideas can complement each other. Integrating Bergson’s spirit of creative evolution with Zhuangzi’s carefree and detached mindset may help dissolve modern society’s obsession with utilitarian goals, allowing individuals to engage in active creation while simultaneously embracing the spontaneity and boundless possibilities of each present moment. This synthesis provides valuable insights for reconstructing life’s meaning in contemporary society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)

28 pages, 10413 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Visible Layouts, Hidden Dynamics: Reading, Reproducing, and Reframing Chinese Buddhist Glossaries

by Ziwei Ye

Religions 2025, 16(5), 629; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050629 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

This paper investigates how the layout strategies of Xuanying’s Yiqiejing yinyi (mid-7th c.), the earliest surviving Chinese Buddhist glossary, evolved across manuscripts, Buddhist Canon editions, and Qing-era scholarly reprints from the 7th to 19th centuries. While Xuanying’s work serves as the central case [...] Read more.

This paper investigates how the layout strategies of Xuanying’s Yiqiejing yinyi (mid-7th c.), the earliest surviving Chinese Buddhist glossary, evolved across manuscripts, Buddhist Canon editions, and Qing-era scholarly reprints from the 7th to 19th centuries. While Xuanying’s work serves as the central case due to its breadth of preservation and representativeness, this study also references Huiyuan’s glossary (early-8th c.) to highlight broader patterns of reception and adaptation, particularly in late imperial China. Through a usability–production efficiency framework, the study identifies a continuum from the flexible manuscript layouts to the standardized double-line format used in Buddhist woodblock printing, and later to Qing-era adaptations that integrated Buddhist glossaries into evidential studies. It argues that layout decisions were influenced not merely by practical considerations of use and production but also by changing conceptions of textual function and authority. It also highlights the unintended effects of layout standardization, which at times introduced new interpretive complexities. By demonstrating how layout actively influenced the reproduction and reception of Buddhist glossaries, this study offers a new perspective on the intersection of materiality, textual transmission, and reading practices in pre-modern China. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Old Texts, New Insights: Exploring Buddhist Manuscripts)

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16 pages, 452 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Text to Praxis: Yan Zun’s Intertextual Strategies in Laozi Zhigui and the Pragmatic Synthesis of Zhouyi, Zhuangzi, and Huang-Lao Thought

by Fufu Li

Religions 2025, 16(5), 628; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050628 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

This paper, through a detailed textual analysis of Laozi zhigui 老子指歸, examines Yan Zun’s sophisticated intertextual strategies in elucidating the Daodejing 道德經 and explores the eclectic and inclusive conceptual framework he constructed. First, Laozi zhigui not only directly quotes or adapts phrases from [...] Read more.

This paper, through a detailed textual analysis of Laozi zhigui 老子指歸, examines Yan Zun’s sophisticated intertextual strategies in elucidating the Daodejing 道德經 and explores the eclectic and inclusive conceptual framework he constructed. First, Laozi zhigui not only directly quotes or adapts phrases from major texts such as the Zhouyi 周易, Zhuangzi 莊子, Huangdi sijing 黃帝四經, and Huainanzi 淮南子, but also incorporates concepts such as yin and yang, qiwu 齊物, and yinxun 因循 from these sources. To a considerable extent, this approach has enriched the ideological connotations of the Daodejing. Second, Yan Zun takes the core ideas of the Daodejing as a foundation to blend the philosophies of the Zhouyi, Zhuangzi, and Huang-Lao Daoism. In this way, he resolves potential conflicts among these diverse textual traditions and preserves the logical coherence and value integration of Laozi zhigui. Third, through his synthesis of these classical texts, Yan Zun develops a more comprehensive cosmological framework, alongside a practical political theory and principles for self-cultivation. Although the primary purpose of the Laozi zhigui is to elucidate the Daodejing, through his remarkable interpretive skills, Yan Zun’s concepts not only clarify the classic text but also generate novel perspectives, innovative concepts, and a distinctive intellectual framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Explorations into Yan Zun’s Edition and Commentary to the Daodejing: Laozi Zhigui)

16 pages, 237 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Digital Religion in the Public Sphere: Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan (TLP) and Alternative for Germany (AfD)

by Abdul Basit Zafar and Geneva Catherine Blackmer

Religions 2025, 16(5), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050627 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

While digital religion and digital protest can ideally serve the common good, religious nationalist and fundamentalist movements have exploited these tools to disrupt the social fabric and create dangerous political outcomes. This paper examines how religious communicators within Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan (TLP) and Alternative [...] Read more.

While digital religion and digital protest can ideally serve the common good, religious nationalist and fundamentalist movements have exploited these tools to disrupt the social fabric and create dangerous political outcomes. This paper examines how religious communicators within Tehreek-e-Labbaik Pakistan (TLP) and Alternative for Germany (AfD) perceive and enact their responsibility within digital spaces, leveraging the power of “networked communities” and the collective identity of the digital “crowd” to advance their agendas of religious fundamentalism and political conservatism. Bypassing traditional media, groups like the AfD and TLP exploit digital religion to build communities, spread propaganda that merges religion with national identity, frame political issues as religious mandates, and mobilize collective action. Campbell’s concept of the “networked community” demonstrates how digital technologies form decentralized, fluid, and global religious communities, distinct from traditional, geographically bound ones. Both the TLP and AfD have tapped into this new digital religious space, shaping and mobilizing political and religious identities across virtual borders. Gerbaudo’s idea of the “digital crowd” complements this by examining how collective action in the digital age reshapes mass mobilization, with social media transforming how political movements operate in the 21st century. Although the AfD’s platform is not overtly religious, the party strategically invokes ethno-Christian identity, framing opposition to Islam and Muslim immigration as a defense of German cultural and Christian values. Similarly, the TLP promotes religious nationalism by advocating for Pakistan’s Islamic identity against secularism and liberalism and calling for strict enforcement of blasphemy laws. Recognizing digital spaces as tools co-opted by religious nationalist movements, this paper explores how communicators in these movements understand their responsibility for the social and long term consequences of their messages. Using Luhmann’s systems theory—where communication is central to social systems—this paper analyzes how the TLP and AfD leverage individuals’ need for purpose and belonging to mobilize them digitally. By crafting emotionally charged experiences, these movements extend their influence beyond virtual spaces and into the broader public sphere. Finally, this paper will reflect on the theological implications of these dynamics both on and offline. How do religious communicators in digital spaces reconcile their theological frameworks with the social impact of their communication? Can digital religious communities be harnessed to foster social cohesion and inclusivity instead of exacerbating social divisions? Through this lens, the paper seeks to deepen our understanding of the intersection between digital religion, political mobilization, and theological responsibility in the digital age. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue "What Does Theology Do, Actually?” Dialogue between Differing Theological Approaches)

23 pages, 366 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Introduction, with Highlights in the History of Australian Patristic Studies

by Garry Trompf

Religions 2025, 16(5), 626; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050626 - 16 May 2025

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Abstract

The core focus of the study of Patristics (generally also called Patrology) has been the teachings and practices of the so-called Fathers and Mothers of the early Christian Church (or the leading exponents of the Christian Faith, primarily from after the times of [...] Read more.

The core focus of the study of Patristics (generally also called Patrology) has been the teachings and practices of the so-called Fathers and Mothers of the early Christian Church (or the leading exponents of the Christian Faith, primarily from after the times of Jesus of Nazareth and the writings of the New Testament to the so-called Early Middle Ages (or the emergence of Islam) (e [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Patristics: Essays from Australia)

24 pages, 387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hearing the Calls: The Need for an Ecumenical Theology of Monasticism and Consecrated Life for the 21st Century

by Evan Bradford Howard

Religions 2025, 16(5), 625; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050625 - 15 May 2025

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Abstract

In the past sixty years the institutions of religious life (perhaps now more broadly and accurately named “consecrated life”) within the Roman Catholic world have experienced something of a crisis. In the midst of this crisis, many have called for a rethinking of [...] Read more.

In the past sixty years the institutions of religious life (perhaps now more broadly and accurately named “consecrated life”) within the Roman Catholic world have experienced something of a crisis. In the midst of this crisis, many have called for a rethinking of the meaning and practice of consecrated life. During this same period, Protestants have grown ever more interested in forms of committed Christian living appropriate to their own traditions. Furthermore, there is indication that changes in the socio-economic conditions surrounding “Non-Western” monastic traditions are giving rise to a degree of rethinking within their circles. In this article I trace what I identify as a “call”—an accumulating expression of the need for an ecumenical theology of consecrated life for the 21st century—through writings published largely within the past sixty years. I review developments in thought and practice from each tradition in turn. Ultimately, I conclude that there is, in fact, a need for some kind of formal ecumenical and interdisciplinary reflection on the meaning of consecrated life, reflection that has remained incomplete at best for five hundred years. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Christian Monasticism Today: A Search for Identity)

18 pages, 291 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Cult of St. Anthony in Lisbon and Viana do Castelo

by Pedro Pereira, Marina Pignatelli and José Carlos Loureiro

Religions 2025, 16(5), 624; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050624 - 15 May 2025

Viewed by 122

Abstract

His baptismal name, Fernando de Bulhões (1195–1231), may say little to many people, but his religious name, St. Anthony, certainly says a lot, especially to the Portuguese. In fact, the cult of St. Anthony is indelibly inscribed in the religious landscape of Portugal, [...] Read more.

His baptismal name, Fernando de Bulhões (1195–1231), may say little to many people, but his religious name, St. Anthony, certainly says a lot, especially to the Portuguese. In fact, the cult of St. Anthony is indelibly inscribed in the religious landscape of Portugal, with particular intensity in Lisbon. This study, of an ethnographic and historical nature, is an innovative approach to this emblematic medieval figure, capable of so many miracles, veneration, revelry festivals, and processions among the people of Lisbon and the Portuguese in general, right up to the present day. The history of this Saint and his cult, as an expression of popular religiosity, will be discussed, favouring the dimensions of marriage and commerce in a comparative approach between two ethnographic contexts: Lisbon and Viana do Castelo. The notions of popular religion, syncretism, cult of the saints, and pilgrimage–procession will, therefore, be instrumental. The data collected and analysed are based on a mixed methodological triangulation of qualitative data complemented by quantitative data, using direct participant observations (ethnographic) and indirect observations (collected through semi-structured interviews and informal conversations), as well as documentary sources. Full article

14 pages, 275 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Youth Pastoral Care in Croatia Through the Lens of the Synod on Youth

by Blaženka Valentina Mandarić

Religions 2025, 16(5), 623; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050623 - 15 May 2025

Viewed by 69

Abstract

Youth pastoral care is a part of the Church’s pastoral mission directed towards men and women who can be categorised as young people. Young people were the central theme of the 15th Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops, held in Rome [...] Read more.

Youth pastoral care is a part of the Church’s pastoral mission directed towards men and women who can be categorised as young people. Young people were the central theme of the 15th Ordinary General Assembly of the Synod of Bishops, held in Rome from 3 to 28 October 2018, under the motto Young People, the Faith, and Vocational Discernment. Based on an analysis of the preparatory and final documents of the Synod—particularly the Preparatory Document, Instrumentum Laboris, Final Document, Christus Vivit—as well as relevant scientific analyses and interpretations, we have identified the most significant societal challenges facing the youth, along with the key guidelines and recommendations of the Synod for working with them. The motivation for writing this article arises from the fact that the Synod on Youth, which took place in Rome from 3 to 28 October 2018, under the theme “Youth, Faith, and Vocational Discernment,” did not generate significant interest within the Church in Croatia. This is evidenced by several indicators: the responses of young people to the questionnaire sent to all bishops’ conferences were never published; there has been a lack of relevant commentary, articles, or academic studies on the Synod; and among the many pre- and post-synodal documents, only “Christus vivit” has been translated into Croatian. Given that youth ministry plays an important role in the pastoral activities of the Church in Croatia, we sought to explore whether, and to what extent, the core recommendations of the Synod on Youth continue to be reflected in current pastoral work with young people in the country. Our approach involved analysing the pre- and post-synodal documents from the Synod on Youth to identify key recommendations for youth ministry. We then examined the current youth pastoral programs in seven (arch)dioceses, as well as the pastoral plans of the Youth Office of the Croatian Bishops’ Conference, through the lens of the Synod’s main recommendations. Analytical, descriptive, and critical methods were used in the research. The analysis of the aforementioned youth pastoral programs confirmed that the most important guidelines and recommendations of the Synod, although some only partially, are integrated into youth pastoral care in Croatia. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Contemporary Practices and Issues in Religious Education)

14 pages, 245 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Divine to Popular Sovereignty: The Civil Shift in Contemporary Islamic Political Thought

by Abdessamad Belhaj

Religions 2025, 16(5), 622; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050622 - 15 May 2025

Viewed by 109

Abstract

For various religious and political reasons, the idea of divine sovereignty (ḥākimiyya) has found support in many Islamic movements and discourses between the 1940s and the 1980s throughout the Muslim world. Nonetheless, in the 1990s, the consolidation of contemporary nation-states, the [...] Read more.

For various religious and political reasons, the idea of divine sovereignty (ḥākimiyya) has found support in many Islamic movements and discourses between the 1940s and the 1980s throughout the Muslim world. Nonetheless, in the 1990s, the consolidation of contemporary nation-states, the appeal of liberal democracy, and human rights in the Muslim world, along with the failure of Islamism, paved the way for a turn towards popular sovereignty in Islamic political thought. The emergence of a post-Islamist age in the Arab world and Iran, especially in the aftermath of the Arab Spring (2011), has changed the perspectives of many Islamic intellectuals and jurists, who now place a higher emphasis on popular sovereignty, depoliticizing divine sovereignty. This article offers an intellectual history of the shift from divine to popular sovereignty in modern Islamic political ethics, as well as a discussion of the factors that led to this change. Few critical voices on sovereignty highlight the ethical aspects of sharia’s governance and challenge the popular sovereignty narrative as authoritarian. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Divine and Secular Sovereignty: Interpretations)

23 pages, 466 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on the Philosophy of Perfect Harmony in the Huayan School: Focusing on the Four Dharmadhātus

by Guo-Qing Wang

Religions 2025, 16(5), 621; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050621 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 140

Abstract

The philosophy of the Huayan school is founded on the dharmadhātu (法界) as its fundamental ontology, embodying the boundless truth of the cosmos and human existence. It seamlessly integrates the philosophical doctrine of the “perfect interpenetration and non-obstruction of Buddhist teachings”, while expounding [...] Read more.

The philosophy of the Huayan school is founded on the dharmadhātu (法界) as its fundamental ontology, embodying the boundless truth of the cosmos and human existence. It seamlessly integrates the philosophical doctrine of the “perfect interpenetration and non-obstruction of Buddhist teachings”, while expounding the vast tenets of “principle (理), phenomena (事), wisdom (智), and practice (行),” all of which are encompassed within the comprehensive framework of the “four stages of faith–understanding–practice–realization (信解行证)”. The idea of “four dharmadhātus” (四法界), which was first systematically formulated by Master Chengguan, is considered one of the core doctrines of Huayan thought. However, contemporary scholarship has yet to provide a thorough elucidation of the relationship between the one true dharmadhātu (一真法界) and the four dharmadhātus, nor has it sufficiently addressed the notion that the four dharmadhātus are not merely a theoretical construct but also a genuine realization—a stage in the practice of spiritual cultivation. This study first explicates the conceptual significance of the four dharmadhātus, then analyzes the Huayan patriarchs’ interpretations of the one true dharmadhātu and the four dharmadhātus. It further explores the path to awakening through the interpenetration and non-obstruction of the four dharmadhātus and highlights the integration between the empirical world and the ideal world of Buddhist teachings. Ultimately, it argues that every realm and every stage within the dharmadhātu is perfectly complete and seamlessly interconnected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Religious Cultures: Historical Traditions and Modern Interpretations)

12 pages, 212 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Under-Connected: Building Relational Power, Solidarity, and Developing Leaders in Broad-Based Community Organizing

by Aaron Stauffer

Religions 2025, 16(5), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050620 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 139

Abstract

Many pastors, faith leaders, and community organizers are isolated and under-connected to communities of praxis that can accompany them as they go about their social change work, helping them to ground their organizing in their faith lives. There is a crisis of leadership [...] Read more.

Many pastors, faith leaders, and community organizers are isolated and under-connected to communities of praxis that can accompany them as they go about their social change work, helping them to ground their organizing in their faith lives. There is a crisis of leadership development and training. This paper argues for a rethinking of leadership development as grounded in conceptions of relational power, value-based organizing, and deep solidarity. Leaders, it is often said, are those who have followers. This definition takes for granted models of leadership that were first developed in the 1940s in Alinsky-style networks and adapted in the 1980s and 1990s in the neo-Alinskyite movement. This article extends this approach to home in on what leadership development amounts to in broad-based community organizing so as to help congregations and faith leaders see how community organizing can be an enactment and expression of their faith lives. Organizing strategies of leadership development can sit at the heart of congregational development. Developing leaders is about transformative critical reflection on premises of meaning schema. Leadership development is connected to leaders developing in the sense of exploring new ways of seeing the world and acting on them. By refocusing the organizing strategy of leadership development around relational power and deep solidarity, pastors, faith leaders, and community organizers can build stronger institutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Congregational Engagement and Leadership)

17 pages, 241 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Divine Idea of the Self and Contemporary Culture

by Jacob Phillips

Religions 2025, 16(5), 619; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050619 - 14 May 2025

Viewed by 229

Abstract

Taking as its point of departure Pope Benedict XVI’s comment that ‘[e]ach of us is the result of a thought of God’, this article explores how the divine idea of the self bears promise for enabling a Catholic theological response to certain features [...] Read more.

Taking as its point of departure Pope Benedict XVI’s comment that ‘[e]ach of us is the result of a thought of God’, this article explores how the divine idea of the self bears promise for enabling a Catholic theological response to certain features of contemporary Western culture. This cultural setting is discussed first, using the interpretations of Philip Rieff and Carl R. Trueman, and their conceptualities of ‘psychological man’ and ‘expressive individualism’. The dominant contemporary view of human identity thus presented is markedly individualistic, being focused on an inward sense of self. The dominant approach to human meaning is similarly individualistic, being the satisfaction or expression of that sense of self. While both Rieff and Trueman point to a widespread loss of religious faith as pivotally important to for the emergence of these cultural paradigms, they mostly leave aside questions regarding the truth claims of specific religions in responding to them. Secondly, the scholastic doctrine of the divine ideas is discussed, with a view to presenting an alternative approach to human identity and meaning based on the contention that each human person ‘is the result of a thought of God’. Thirdly, the article concludes by drawing out the notions of identity and meaning implied by this doctrine, along with its inextricable relation to a specifically Catholic understanding of God. This understanding includes within it a distinct approach to human sociality in Christ, which answers directly to the individualism of contemporary culture, as outlined by Rieff and Trueman. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Catholic Theologies of Culture)

15 pages, 216 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Christian Pastoral Care as Spiritual Formation: A Holistic Model for Congregational Ministry

by Neil Pembroke

Religions 2025, 16(5), 618; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050618 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 192

Abstract

In the twentieth century and into the present one, scholars working in the field of Christian pastoral care have concentrated their efforts in both well-established and emerging areas. Traditionally, thinking about pastoral care has been oriented to the person suffering from an existential, [...] Read more.

In the twentieth century and into the present one, scholars working in the field of Christian pastoral care have concentrated their efforts in both well-established and emerging areas. Traditionally, thinking about pastoral care has been oriented to the person suffering from an existential, developmental, spiritual, or moral crisis (or a combination of these). With the emergence of the psychotherapeutic psychology of Freud, Jung, Erikson, Kohut, Berne, Perls, and others, a new focus on pastoral psychotherapy emerged. Taking things in a very different direction, a host of pastoral theologians issued a call to not only care for the individual, but also for the socio-political world that is oppressive and exclusionary for many. Still others promoted pastoral care and counseling as a ministry of the Christian Church. Finally, those animated by the ancient tradition of cura animarum accented pastoral care as spiritual formation. It is to these latter two themes that this article is addressed. What is proposed is a practical prompt card approach to spiritual formation in the congregation that is holistic and runs in the first instance over six to eight weeks. The four areas covered are spiritual practices, spiritual character (fruits of the Spirit), moral character, and positive psychology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pastoral Care in the 21st Century: Challenges and Opportunities)

15 pages, 205 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Congregation as Retreat Center and Intentional Community: Pastoral Sensemaking in an Age of Individualization

by Scott J. Hagley

Religions 2025, 16(5), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050617 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 160

Abstract

Drawing from narrative interviews with eight Protestant pastors in the U.S. and Canada, this paper explores community-building under the conditions of late modernity through the lenses of individualization and sensemaking. Exploring pastoral approaches to what Ulrich Beck calls “institutionalized individualism”, this paper argues [...] Read more.

Drawing from narrative interviews with eight Protestant pastors in the U.S. and Canada, this paper explores community-building under the conditions of late modernity through the lenses of individualization and sensemaking. Exploring pastoral approaches to what Ulrich Beck calls “institutionalized individualism”, this paper argues that pastoral sensemaking manages polarities between the societal demand for self-construction and the human need to belong, between an individual’s freedom to make a life (or god) of their own and the fact that such work requires a community. Pastoral leaders manage this polarity through sensemaking strategies that strengthen and clarify the central values and practices of the congregation while also managing the boundaries of the congregation, envisioning the congregation as a retreat center in some cases and as an intentional community in others. In an age of individualization, pastoral leadership requires the dexterity to move between dynamic collective and individual identities, making processes of belonging a collaborative sensemaking effort in which boundaries are drawn, enacted, erased, and redrawn in new ways. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Trends in Congregational Engagement and Leadership)

19 pages, 251 KiB

Open AccessArticle

“A Place Not Made by Hands”: Unsteady Formations of Nationalist Religiosities in Malawi

by R. Drew Smith

Religions 2025, 16(5), 616; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050616 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 151

Abstract

This article focuses on the Christian ecclesiastical footing and moorings of nationalist thought and pursuits within colonial Nyasaland and its postindependence iteration as the nation of Malawi. Attention is paid to foundational influences and the impact of European mission churches, beginning in the [...] Read more.

This article focuses on the Christian ecclesiastical footing and moorings of nationalist thought and pursuits within colonial Nyasaland and its postindependence iteration as the nation of Malawi. Attention is paid to foundational influences and the impact of European mission churches, beginning in the late 1800s, and three streams of American Christianity that influenced social development in Malawi: (1) historic African American Methodist and Baptist traditions; (2) Watchtower millenarianism; and (3) emerging mid-1900s expressions of predominantly white Pentecostal, charismatic, and evangelical Christianity. The article examines ways these European and American religious streams served as crucial catalysts for one or another form of African independency within the Malawi context, paying particular attention to the ways and degrees to which African innovations on Global North Christian expressions and paradigms proved disruptive to established authorities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Roots, Religion and Resistance: Unpacking the Spectrum of Black Nationalist Movements)

18 pages, 255 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolizing Moral Shocks for Social Change: School Shooting, Religion, and Activism

by C. Melissa Snarr

Religions 2025, 16(5), 615; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050615 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 213

Abstract

“Moral shocks” are unexpected events or pieces of information that so deeply challenge one’s basic values and sense of the world that they profoundly reorient a person’s understanding of life and even self. Yet those who experience significant moral shocks rarely participate in [...] Read more.

“Moral shocks” are unexpected events or pieces of information that so deeply challenge one’s basic values and sense of the world that they profoundly reorient a person’s understanding of life and even self. Yet those who experience significant moral shocks rarely participate in related activism and instead experience grief as highly privatized and apolitical, a reality that serves the status quo and most powerful. This article considers how religious resources can help metabolize private grief into public lament and catalyze political grievance. Analyzing the rise of gun control activism after an elementary school mass shooting in Nashville, Tennessee, I argue religious resources help metabolize moral shocks into social change in five significant ways: (1) cultivating practiced, purposeful pathos, (2) offering collective lament, (3) building networked resiliency materially and theologically, (4) risking new alliances of accompaniment, and (5) storying hope. This case analysis contributes to a broader claim for political theology: Christianity can be understood as a movement based on a moral shock. This framing then animates practices of care to accompany those in moral distress and help disciple grief into a movement of faith that resists death-dealing political and social policy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Religious Perspectives on Ecological, Political, and Cultural Grief)

18 pages, 1597 KiB

Open AccessArticle

‘Spirits of the Dead’ or ‘Necromancers’? The eṭemmū in an Old Assyrian Letter Reinterpreted in Light of Hebrew ’ōbôt, yidd^e‘ōnîm, and ’iṭṭîm

by Alinda Damsma

Religions 2025, 16(5), 614; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050614 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 205

Abstract

The Old Assyrian archive from Kanesh, dated to ca. 1950–1850 BCE, has yielded a letter that refers to the consultation of the spirits of the dead (eṭemmū), thus making it the world’s oldest actual attestation of necromancy. However, whereas the immediate [...] Read more.

The Old Assyrian archive from Kanesh, dated to ca. 1950–1850 BCE, has yielded a letter that refers to the consultation of the spirits of the dead (eṭemmū), thus making it the world’s oldest actual attestation of necromancy. However, whereas the immediate context mentions the šā’ilātum, ‘the women dream interpreters’, and the bāriātum, ‘the women omen interpreters’, a necromantic professional is lacking in relation to the questioning of the eṭemmū. Earlier studies have explained this discrepancy by suggesting that necromancy was part of the skill set of the aforementioned female professionals, or that the communication with the spirits happened directly, without the immediate involvement of a skilled specialist. The present article rather argues that the term eṭemmu, ‘spirit of the dead’, had a wider semantic range than hitherto held. In rare cases, it could also designate a necromancer. This proposal is supported by an identical semantic phenomenon in another ancient Semitic language. The biblical Hebrew terms ʼōbôt and yidd^e‘ōnîm not only refer to the spirits of the dead but also to necromancers. The same might be argued for the apparent Hebrew cognate of Akkadian eṭemmū, the hapax legomenon ’iṭṭîm in Isaiah 19:3. On the strength of the findings presented in this study, it is concluded that the fleeting blending of the spirit with the necromancer lies at the heart of this semantic merger. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Bible and Ancient Mesopotamia)

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