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The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences
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The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences

A special issue of Religions (ISSN 2077-1444).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 1 July 2025 | Viewed by 5712

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Wu Guo

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Religious Studies, Shandong University, Jinan 250100, China
Interests: the history of Taoism; Taoist philosophy; Taoist practice methods
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues，

In memory of the Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity promulgated by UNESCO, the International Summit Forum on "World Cultural Diversity & Laozi Taoist Culture" will proceed in May 20-22, 2024. It is organized by the Research Association of Laozi Taoist Culture of China, and the Oriental Renaissance Alliance of the United States. This forum will discuss the Eastern Taoist wisdom focusing on the "Laozi Taoist culture" and its significance. However, we are well aware that due to the limit of the meeting time and number of participants, it is impossible for a forum to reveal Taoist ideas on "diversity" and “harmony” completely, and more scholars should participate in relevant studies and discussions. Therefore, we set up a Special Issue on this topic in the journal Religions to provide an academic platform for in-depth discussions among scholars.

As a representative of traditional Chinese culture, Taoism has always advocated for "He-er-bu-tong和而不同"(harmony but diversity); for example, Boyangfu伯陽父 in the Western Zhou Dynasty(1046-771 BC) told the truth of “He-shi-sheng-wu, tong-ze-bu-ji和實生物，同則不繼”(harmony between diversity fosters new things actually, but the same of everything will not be continued) to the governor Laozi老子 in the spring and autumn period (770-476 BC), and gave us the sentence “Wanwu fuyin er baoyang, chongqi yi weihe萬物負陰而抱陽，沖氣以為和” (all things possess Yin and embrace Yang, and the state of them blending is harmony) in his book Taode Jing(《道德經》). These ideas, which emphasize diversity and harmony, provide wisdom for people of different cultures around the world to get along with each other today. In order to discover this wisdom of Taoism in depth, we are pleased to accept original research articles and reviews that focus on (but are not limited to) the following:

  1. Thoughts about diversity and harmony in Taoist philosophy, moral education, and political ideal.
  2. Diversity and harmony in Taoist practices of religious cultivation, health preservation, and psychological treatment.
  3. Historical cases of diversity and harmony in Taoist temples, sects, and communities.
  4. Contemporary value of Taoist diversity in its thoughts, practices, and history.

We look forward to receiving your contributions.

Prof. Dr. Wu Guo
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Religions is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • Taoism
  • diversity
  • harmony
  • ideas
  • behaviors
  • contemporary value

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Published Papers (7 papers)

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Research

13 pages, 320 KiB  
Article
Harmonizing Openness in the Zhuangzi: A Critique of Respecting Diversity
by Luyao Li and Paul J. D’Ambrosio
Religions 2025, 16(5), 639; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16050639 - 19 May 2025
Viewed by 124
Abstract
In contemporary societies, increasing diversity is often accompanied by intensified conflicts across various public domains. While respecting differences is commonly proposed as a solution, this necessarily narrows the scope of shared values, which correspondingly decreases the chances of developing harmony. Indeed, harmony is [...] Read more.
In contemporary societies, increasing diversity is often accompanied by intensified conflicts across various public domains. While respecting differences is commonly proposed as a solution, this necessarily narrows the scope of shared values, which correspondingly decreases the chances of developing harmony. Indeed, harmony is frequently criticized for potentially requiring uniformity, which would undermine diversity. This article addresses this challenge by exploring philosophical and religious perspectives drawn from the Zhuangzi. Specifically, we find that a type of dynamic openness can be found in the Zhuangzi which shifts the focus away from embracing a more static “diversity”. Here, openness is understood as emphasizing interconnectedness, mutual influence, and collective transformation, offering a framework for resolving conflicts beyond mere respect for differences. In this article, we argue that one type of philosophical–religious perspective that can be derived from the Zhuangzi advocates for harmonizing openness—a process that achieves consensus while fully allowing for individual differences, rather than enforcing the type of uniformity found in many calls to respect diversity. This perspective offers valuable insights for the navigation of conflict in an increasingly pluralistic world and provides a critique of more popular contemporary approaches. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)
16 pages, 388 KiB  
Article
Lu Xiujing’s Writing in Literary Style: A New Approach to the Contribution of Daoist Scriptures to Literary Studies
by Mianheng Liu
Religions 2025, 16(4), 408; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16040408 - 24 Mar 2025
Viewed by 411
Abstract
The interdisciplinary study of Daoism and literature can be broadly categorized into three main approaches: analyzing literary works as sources of Daoist material, examining Daoist scriptures as literary texts, and exploring the influence of Daoist beliefs on writers. This paper proposes a new [...] Read more.
The interdisciplinary study of Daoism and literature can be broadly categorized into three main approaches: analyzing literary works as sources of Daoist material, examining Daoist scriptures as literary texts, and exploring the influence of Daoist beliefs on writers. This paper proposes a new perspective that complements these existing frameworks: by examining Daoist scriptures, we can better assess whether certain literary expressions or rhetorical devices were innovative or simply widespread conventions among writers of a particular period. Using the works of Lu Xiujing 陸修靜 (406–477 CE) as a case study, this paper builds on Haun Saussy’s argument that the use of “fragrance” as a rhetorical device to modify virtue—often surprising to modern scholars—was, in fact, a familiar trope for ancient Chinese writers. However, the paper critiques Saussy’s reliance on the works of the famous poet Qu Yuan 屈原 (c. 342–278 BCE) as evidence. Unlike Qu Yuan, who was primarily a literary figure, Lu Xiujing, as a Daoist scholar, frequently employed metaphors related to smell and taste to express abstract moral or doctrinal concepts. For Lu and his contemporaries, such expressions were not regarded as remarkable literary techniques but rather as conventional modes of discourse. This suggests that, at least in early medieval China, such rhetorical usage among writers was not seen as novel but as commonplace. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)
17 pages, 458 KiB  
Article
Laozi Belief and Taoism in the Western Regions—An Analysis with a Focus on the Cultural Strategy of the Han and Tang Dynasties for the Western Regions
by Jiamin Si and Jishao Han
Religions 2025, 16(3), 392; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030392 - 20 Mar 2025
Viewed by 508
Abstract
The spread of Taoism to the Western Regions marked the movement of Central Plains culture to the frontier, demonstrating its influence on local society. During the Han Dynasty, Central Plains culture had reached the Western Regions. With the deification of Laozi and his [...] Read more.
The spread of Taoism to the Western Regions marked the movement of Central Plains culture to the frontier, demonstrating its influence on local society. During the Han Dynasty, Central Plains culture had reached the Western Regions. With the deification of Laozi and his becoming the founder of Taoism, the story “Laozi converting the barbarians” (Laozi huahu 老子化胡), which claimed that Laozi journeyed to the west and taught the Hu people, provided the impetus for the spread of Taoism to the Western Regions. The Tang imperial family venerated Laozi and regarded Taoism as the state religion. Laozi belief, including the veneration of the man himself, his writings, his stories, and the precepts claimed to be related to him, was also used to assist in the Tang Dynasty’s governance of the Western Regions. Following the Tang Dynasty’s decline, the Central Plains’ influence receded from the Western Regions. However, due to the relaxed religious environment in the Western Regions, Taoism, which was representative of Central Plains culture, still survived there. Moreover, Taoism attempted to incorporate Islam in the Western Regions into its divine system by huahu, which might be related to the early history of exchange between the two religions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)
18 pages, 388 KiB  
Article
In Search of Qi Immortality: A Study of Heshanggong’s Commentary on the Daodejing
by Jenny Hung
Religions 2025, 16(3), 383; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030383 - 17 Mar 2025
Viewed by 347
Abstract
Immortality has recently become a prominent topic of discussion, particularly in light of advancing technologies aimed at enhancing human life expectancy. Proposed scenarios encompass improved treatments for various diseases and the development of longevity medicine. In this essay, I examine the theory of [...] Read more.
Immortality has recently become a prominent topic of discussion, particularly in light of advancing technologies aimed at enhancing human life expectancy. Proposed scenarios encompass improved treatments for various diseases and the development of longevity medicine. In this essay, I examine the theory of the self and the concept of immortality as presented in Heshanggong’s commentary on the Daodejing. This analysis serves as a case study aimed at illuminating a unique perspective on the self that contributes to contemporary discussions of immortality. I argue that Heshanggong’s commentary emphasizes the significance of jing 精, qi 氣, and shen 神, positing that our essential property is to have the essential spirits (jingshen 精神). Furthermore, it suggests the possibility of a disembodied form of immortality without a physical human body. This interpretation of immortality offers a novel understanding of how immortality may be achievable. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)
36 pages, 10116 KiB  
Article
The Phenomenon of “Tao-for-Buddhism” in Dunhuang Taoist Manuscripts
by Peng Zhang
Religions 2025, 16(3), 357; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030357 - 12 Mar 2025
Viewed by 619
Abstract
The text Poxie lun:Daojing shijingfo wen破邪論:道經師敬佛文 (Treatise on Refuting Heresies: On the Respect of Taoist Scriptures for Buddha) records twenty-three items of “miscellaneous ancient records in Taoist scriptures” 道教古經古事雜抄. Half of these entries align with contents found in Dunhuang manuscripts [...] Read more.
The text Poxie lun:Daojing shijingfo wen破邪論:道經師敬佛文 (Treatise on Refuting Heresies: On the Respect of Taoist Scriptures for Buddha) records twenty-three items of “miscellaneous ancient records in Taoist scriptures” 道教古經古事雜抄. Half of these entries align with contents found in Dunhuang manuscripts and pertain to the practice of “replacing Buddhism with Taoism”. The Dunhuang manuscripts that involve the content of “replacing Buddhism with Taoism” can be categorized into five situations: First, Taoist scriptures that retain Buddhist terminology which was later replaced by later generations; Second, instances where traces of Buddhist terminology remain, showing signs of having been altered or replaced; Third, cases where the replacement of Buddhist terminology has already been completed in the manuscripts; Fourth, instances where, after replacing Buddhist terminology, the sentence structure was also revised; Fifth, sections that were preserved which, in later generations, were deleted due to their content relating to the blending of Buddhism and Taoism. These instances of “replacing Buddhism with Taoism” may reflect efforts by Taoism to remove Buddhist elements amid criticism or an attempt by Buddhist monks to preserve Buddhism’s sanctity by altering Taoist texts. The Dunhuang Taoist manuscripts offer vibrant historical material for discussing interactions between Buddhism and Taoism in medieval China. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)
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21 pages, 386 KiB  
Article
Harmonizing Diversity: Insights from Zhuangzi’s Concept of Zhi 知
by Cheng Wang
Religions 2025, 16(3), 353; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel16030353 - 12 Mar 2025
Viewed by 573
Abstract
Zhuangzi articulates a framework for harmonizing diversity in both thought and practice. An in-depth analysis of the concept of zhi 知 is essential for understanding Zhuangzi’s perspective on achieving harmony concerning the diverse and ever-changing nature of existence. Previous studies on Zhuangzi either [...] Read more.
Zhuangzi articulates a framework for harmonizing diversity in both thought and practice. An in-depth analysis of the concept of zhi 知 is essential for understanding Zhuangzi’s perspective on achieving harmony concerning the diverse and ever-changing nature of existence. Previous studies on Zhuangzi either label his philosophy as anti-intellectual or fail to sufficiently examine the multi-dimensional nature of zhi as presented in his writings. This article identifies a hierarchical framework of knowledge in the Zhuangzi, including xinzhi 心知 (conscious knowing), xiaozhi 小知 (lesser knowledge), dazhi 大知 (greater knowledge), and zhenzhi 真知 (true knowledge), and discusses its implications for both inner and external harmony. It illustrates Zhuangzi’s critique of conventional forms of knowledge, which often create rigid divisions. The study reveals how practices such as xinzhai 心齋 (fasting of the heart-mind) lead from limited understanding toward zhenzhi, culminating in the realization of zhenren, who lives in accordance with dao. The analysis of various levels of knowing illuminates Zhuangzi’s approach to transcending conventional epistemology while proposing methods to embrace diverse perspectives and achieve better harmony in existence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)
22 pages, 7529 KiB  
Article
The Diverse Health Preservation Literature and Ideas in the Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu
by Lu Li and Yongfeng Huang
Religions 2024, 15(7), 834; https://doi.org/10.3390/rel15070834 - 10 Jul 2024
Viewed by 1296
Abstract
The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu 三元參贊延壽書, compiled by Li Pengfei during the Yuan dynasty, is a comprehensive collection of the essence of earlier health preservation literature. Recently, the Jianwen first-year (1399) re-engraved edition by Liu Yuanran 劉淵然 (1351–1432) has emerged, which is currently [...] Read more.
The Sanyuan Canzan Yanshou Shu 三元參贊延壽書, compiled by Li Pengfei during the Yuan dynasty, is a comprehensive collection of the essence of earlier health preservation literature. Recently, the Jianwen first-year (1399) re-engraved edition by Liu Yuanran 劉淵然 (1351–1432) has emerged, which is currently housed in the Imperial Household Agency Library in Japan. It has challenged the prevailing consensus in China that the edition (1445) in the Daozang 道藏 is the earliest version. This discovery not only enriches our understanding of the text’s historical dissemination but also highlights the international appreciation and preservation of Chinese traditional medical and health knowledge. Upon meticulous examination, the various editions of this text can be systematically classified into two distinct lineages: Yanshou Canzan 延壽參贊 and Canzan Yanshou 參贊延壽. The latter lineage is notably more comprehensive, with the Wanli 萬曆 edition serving as a prime exemplar of this expanded scope. Li Pengfei primarily drew upon the Yangsheng Leizuan 養生類纂 as the foundational text for his work, skillfully integrating a wealth of Daoism and medical scriptures. He adeptly restructured the content by employing the conceptual framework of three primes (sanyuan 三元), incorporating the health preservation philosophies of Confucianism and Buddhism, thereby transforming it into a more systematic and diverse Daoism scripture dedicated to health preservation. The book eloquently advocates for health-preserving philosophies centered around the principle of not diminishing (busun 不損) primordial pneuma (yuanqi 元氣), extending life through three primes, and prolonging life through the virtue of yin (yinde 陰德). These ideas emphasize a human-centered approach, focusing on preserving the primordial pneuma as the foundation and employing both loss prevention and supplementation as dual pathways. It aims to achieve a state of health preservation where there is unity of man with heaven (tianren heyi 天人合一) and a harmonious balance of yin and yang energies (yinyang qihe 陰陽氣和). Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Diversity and Harmony of Taoism: Ideas, Behaviors and Influences)
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