Land | November 2025 - Browse Articles

20 pages, 9469 KB

Open AccessArticle

Urban–Agricultural–Ecological Interactions and Land Surface Temperature—A Spatiotemporal Study of the Middle Yangtze River Region

by Zishun Zhang, Mashiyi Luo, Wenzhu Tao, Haiyin Huang, Liming Bo and Junnan Xia

Land 2025, 14(11), 2192; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112192 - 4 Nov 2025

Abstract

The land use dynamics of urban, agricultural, and ecological spaces are critical factors influencing land surface temperature (LST); however, the existing methods for describing the spatial carriers of land surface temperature evolution face issues such as granularity effects and projection sensitivity, which hinder [...] Read more.

The land use dynamics of urban, agricultural, and ecological spaces are critical factors influencing land surface temperature (LST); however, the existing methods for describing the spatial carriers of land surface temperature evolution face issues such as granularity effects and projection sensitivity, which hinder effective comparisons across different regions and categories, thus limiting the progress of current research. This study introduces a quadtree-based spatial framework to achieve unified measurements of scale and fragmentation across Urban–Agricultural–Ecological spaces, with an empirical analysis of the Middle Yangtze River Region. Results show that between 2000 and 2020, urban and agricultural spaces expanded while ecological spaces declined, with all three types becoming increasingly fragmented. Urban agglomeration and expansion significantly elevated LST; agricultural spaces exerted relatively limited effects; and ecological fragmentation generated localized cooling but weakened core regulatory functions, ultimately leading to warming within ecological spaces themselves. This study proposes a robust method for spatial identification and fragmentation quantification, revealing the dual role of scale and morphology in regulating regional thermal environments and underscoring the importance of balanced Urban–Agricultural–Ecological configurations for climate-adaptive land use planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rural-Urban Interaction in Terms of the Spatial Pattern and Local Development)

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15 pages, 7347 KB

Open AccessArticle

Forest Species in Meadows—Do Demographic Characteristics Differ Between Contrasting Habitats?

by Vivien Lábadi, Bálint Pacsai and Judit Bódis

Land 2025, 14(11), 2191; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112191 (registering DOI) - 4 Nov 2025

Abstract

The fritillary (Fritillaria meleagris) is a rare and endangered species that originated in forested habitats, but due to landscape changes, turned into a wet meadow plant. Currently, larger populations can be found in meadows than in forests. Nowadays, as hay production [...] Read more.

The fritillary (Fritillaria meleagris) is a rare and endangered species that originated in forested habitats, but due to landscape changes, turned into a wet meadow plant. Currently, larger populations can be found in meadows than in forests. Nowadays, as hay production has become unnecessary, wet meadows are being slowly reforested. Little comparative evidence exists on the performance of populations in the two contrasting habitats. We examined Fritillaria meleagris populations in meadows and forests to investigate the impact of current land use changes on the demographic characteristics of this species. The study was carried out over three years in two geographical regions in Hungary, comparatively in two habitat types (forest and meadow). We used permanent quadrats to record the demographic status and morphometric traits of at least 100 fritillary plants in every population. Although some characteristics were different in each population, the results suggested that each population has a special demographic structure. There were larger variations between the different populations and only minor variations among populations across years in demographic composition. Trait variation across geographical regions exceeded the variation observed between habitat types as well. We conclude that regional differences override the role of habitat type in determining the demography and vulnerability of fritillaries. Full article

25 pages, 754 KB

Open AccessArticle

Living with Typhoons: Local Disaster Knowledge Dynamics in Transforming Island Tourism Communities

by Fangfang Chen and Qing Zhong

Land 2025, 14(11), 2190; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112190 - 4 Nov 2025

Abstract

Tourism has emerged as a critical economic pillar for many island communities worldwide, transforming their socio-economic structure and land use strategies. However, intensifying typhoons and other extreme climate events pose escalating risks to these communities, demanding adaptive transformations in disaster knowledge systems and [...] Read more.

Tourism has emerged as a critical economic pillar for many island communities worldwide, transforming their socio-economic structure and land use strategies. However, intensifying typhoons and other extreme climate events pose escalating risks to these communities, demanding adaptive transformations in disaster knowledge systems and risk management strategies. Local disaster knowledge (LDK), as a place-based knowledge system, plays an essential role in shaping adaptive responses and enhancing resilience within these communities. This study investigates the structure and dynamic adaptation paths of local disaster knowledge amid the shift toward tourism-based communities. Using a qualitative approach, this study conducted an in-depth case study on Shengsi Island, China. The findings reveal that LDK exhibits a three-layered structure: deep-intermediate-surface layers. Beliefs constitute the deep core, while social cohesion, risk knowledge and perception form the middle mediating layer. The surface practical layer encompasses early warning systems, anticipatory measures, structural measures, and livelihood adaptation strategies. The interaction among the three layers constitutes the endogenous dynamics driving knowledge adaptation, while macro-level disaster governance and tourism development act as exogenous drivers. Together, these mechanisms facilitate two adaptive pathways: policy-guided structural transformation and tourism-led practical adaptation. This study advances theoretical understanding of LDK by exploring its dynamics in transforming communities, with a framework that can be extrapolated to other disaster risk contexts. It also provides policy-relevant insights for developing disaster resilience and sustainable land use policies in island communities experiencing tourism transformation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Integrating Nature-Based Tourism, Urban Community Planning, and Sustainable Land Use)

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17 pages, 4948 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Climate Resilience Assessment and Enhancement Strategies for Hebei Province in Response to Climate Change

by Xueming Li, Meishuo Du and Yishan Song

Land 2025, 14(11), 2189; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112189 - 4 Nov 2025

Abstract

Enhancing climate resilience is imperative for cities to mitigate the effects of global warming and the rising frequency of extreme weather events. This paper develops an evaluation index system for urban climate resilience in Hebei Province, based on data from 11 cities within [...] Read more.

Enhancing climate resilience is imperative for cities to mitigate the effects of global warming and the rising frequency of extreme weather events. This paper develops an evaluation index system for urban climate resilience in Hebei Province, based on data from 11 cities within the province. It evaluates the levels of climate resilience and identifies their limiting factors using the entropy weight method, an urban climate resilience assessment model, and an obstacle degree model, with a focus on four dimensions: ecological resilience, economic resilience, social resilience, and infrastructure resilience. The results indicate that (1) spatial variations in climate resilience across cities in Hebei Province are minimal, with the majority of cities exhibiting climate resilience levels within the moderate resilience category. (2) The majority of regions display low ecological and infrastructure resilience (0.1–0.3), while economic resilience is distributed across three tiers, with regional variations; social resilience remains moderately resilient (above 0.3). (3) Among the social resilience factors, C₃ and C₈ exhibit the highest obstruction levels, emerging as key barriers. (4) In order to effectively respond to climate change risks and challenges in a scientific manner, differentiated implementation of climate response strategies, the core of which lies in identifying the dominant vulnerability dimensions of different cities and accurately applying policies, such as Shijiazhuang, Baoding, Xingtai, Handan, and other cities with fragile ecological resilience, should comprehensively deepen the construction of sponge cities to alleviate urban flooding and the heat island effect. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Sustainable Development and Coordinated Governance of Urban and Rural Areas Under the Guidance of Ecological Wisdom—2nd Edition)

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23 pages, 6004 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differences in Tourism Ecological Resilience and Its Asymmetric Driving Mechanisms in the Chengdu-Chongqing Economic Circle, China

by Xinrui Fang, Li Cheng, Qian Kuang and Chuyi Zeng

Land 2025, 14(11), 2188; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112188 - 4 Nov 2025

Abstract

In response to frequent disruptions such as public health incidents and natural disasters, enhancing tourism ecological resilience (TER) has become crucial for achieving sustainable tourism development. This study constructs an evaluation index system for TER from three dimensions: resistance, recovery, and innovation. Employing [...] Read more.

In response to frequent disruptions such as public health incidents and natural disasters, enhancing tourism ecological resilience (TER) has become crucial for achieving sustainable tourism development. This study constructs an evaluation index system for TER from three dimensions: resistance, recovery, and innovation. Employing the entropy weight method and fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA), an empirical analysis was conducted on the spatiotemporal evolution and formation mechanisms of TER in the Chengdu-Chongqing Economic Circle (CCEC) from 2013 to 2023. The results indicate that: First, although an overall upward trend in TER was observed, significant regional disparities existed. Chongqing (0.634) and Chengdu (0.491) consistently led, while the average values for the other cities were generally below 0.155, revealing a pattern characterized by “dual-core prominence and peripheral lag”. Second, the impact of the pandemic exacerbated imbalances among subsystems, with resistance, recovery, and innovation capabilities all exhibiting core–periphery differentiation. Third, fsQCA results demonstrated that high resilience was driven by a “technology-service” core coupled with auxiliary conditions such as transportation or consumption, while low resilience stemmed from multiple systemic deficiencies, including insufficient government support, underdeveloped transportation, and weak technological innovation. This study provides configurational pathways and policy implications for building regional tourism resilience. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Human–Environmental Relations: Ecotourism and Sustainability)

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26 pages, 7423 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Determinants of Rural Housing Vacancy in Mountainous Regions: Evidence from Jinshan Town, Fujian Province, China

by Wenkui Wang, Xue Ji, Chanjuan Xu, Haiping Zhou and Tao Luo

Land 2025, 14(11), 2187; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112187 - 3 Nov 2025

Abstract

The rational management of vacant rural housing is critical for optimization of Territorial Spatial Patterns. Although the issue of rural housing vacancy (RHV) has attracted widespread attention, systematic investigations in mountainous regions remain limited. This study is based on census data covering 3039 [...] Read more.

The rational management of vacant rural housing is critical for optimization of Territorial Spatial Patterns. Although the issue of rural housing vacancy (RHV) has attracted widespread attention, systematic investigations in mountainous regions remain limited. This study is based on census data covering 3039 rural houses across six villages in Jinshan Town, Nanjing County, Zhangzhou City, Fujian Province, China. Using binary logistic regression and the XGBoost machine learning model, it systematically identifies the dominant determinants of rural housing vacancy in mountainous areas and evaluates their relative importance. The results show that the relative importance of the influencing factors is ranked as follows: locational conditions, physical housing characteristics, and topographic features. Specifically, among locational factors, the distances to the national road, county government, township government, and village committee centers are the most critical determinants of housing vacancy. In terms of physical attributes, the number of stories, the structural type, the floor area per story, and the orientation of the house are key variables. Regarding topographic factors, slope and aspect have limited overall influence. The two models yielded consistent directions and magnitudes of the key predictors, confirming the robustness and reliability of the results. The findings of this study help address the existing gaps in research regions, influencing factors, and methodological approaches, thereby contributing to the promotion of sustainable rural development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Socio-Economic and Political Issues)

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26 pages, 114990 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Variation in Spatial Vitality Reveals Gender Differences in Park Usage: An Empirical Study from Dalian, China

by Zhihan Zhang, Ying Tan, Beixiang Shi, Yi Shi, Siming Lin, Xun Zhang, Zhonghu Zhang, Daijun Chen, Geyang Xia and Chenyang Zhang

Land 2025, 14(11), 2186; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112186 - 3 Nov 2025

Abstract

Based on multi-source data including mobile signaling data and remote sensing imagery, this research constructed human activity indicators and applied spatial analysis methods to identify gender-specific patterns in green space usage across different types of days. A Standardized Gender Difference Index (SDI) was [...] Read more.

Based on multi-source data including mobile signaling data and remote sensing imagery, this research constructed human activity indicators and applied spatial analysis methods to identify gender-specific patterns in green space usage across different types of days. A Standardized Gender Difference Index (SDI) was developed to quantify gender-based disparities in both temporal and spatial dimensions. Correlation analysis was employed to examine spatial influencing factors and their interrelationships. The results indicate that on holidays, a stable male-dominant usage pattern was observed across all parks, with males showing a preference for cultural parks. On weekdays, although male users remain predominant overall, considerable variations exist among parks. On a daily scale, males exhibit earlier and more flexible activity patterns, whereas females demonstrate significantly lower presence during evening hours, indicating a “nocturnal poverty” phenomenon. Spatially, community parks display the greatest gender disparity, whereas comprehensive parks show relative gender balance. Although both genders value barrier-free facilities, females place additional emphasis on service facilities, while males are more influenced by mixed land-use functions surrounding the parks. This study demonstrates that high-precision, large-coverage multi-source data can accurately and dynamically identify gender-based differences in green space usage and their influencing factors, providing valuable insights for inclusive urban planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land, Biodiversity, and Human Wellbeing)

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22 pages, 882 KB

Open AccessArticle

Synergistic Impacts of Dual Agricultural Scale Operations on Mechanical Utilization: Evidence from Rice Production in Jiangsu, China

by Yongyi Fu and Zongyao Yang

Land 2025, 14(11), 2185; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112185 - 3 Nov 2025

Abstract

The development of diverse forms of agricultural scale operations is widely recognized as a cornerstone of modern agricultural management. Most existing studies largely examine land-scale or service-scale operations in isolation and pay little attention to their potential synergies in achieving economies of scale. [...] Read more.

The development of diverse forms of agricultural scale operations is widely recognized as a cornerstone of modern agricultural management. Most existing studies largely examine land-scale or service-scale operations in isolation and pay little attention to their potential synergies in achieving economies of scale. Using survey data on 1026 plots from 865 rice farmers in Jiangsu Province, China, this study employs fixed-effects regression models to investigate how land-scale and service-scale operations jointly promote scale economies through agricultural machinery utilization. The empirical results reveal three key findings: (i) both land-scale and service-scale operations significantly reduce per-mu (1 mu = 0.067 ha) machinery costs, thereby generating scale economies; (ii) their synergy further amplifies these economies, providing strong evidence of synergy rather than substitution; and (iii) village governance significantly moderates this relationship, with stronger governance reinforcing the synergistic effects between land- and service-scale operations. These findings suggest that dual agricultural scale operations are mutually reinforcing in promoting mechanization. Policy should therefore prioritize their synergistic development and recognize the coordinating role of village collectives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Socio-Economic and Political Issues)

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22 pages, 7557 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Evolution Characteristics and Driving Forces of NDVI in Gansu Province from 2000 to 2022

by Jianlong Fu, Xiaowei Zhang, Xiaolei Zhou, Mingpeng Liu, Mengxi Fan, Songsong Lu, Weibo Du and Xuhu Wang

Land 2025, 14(11), 2184; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112184 - 3 Nov 2025

Abstract

The synergistic effects of climate change and human activities have profoundly influenced the spatiotemporal dynamics of vegetation in arid and semi-arid regions. In this study, MODIS NDVI data and an integrated methodological approach, including trend analysis, partial correlation, residual regression, and geographical detector [...] Read more.

The synergistic effects of climate change and human activities have profoundly influenced the spatiotemporal dynamics of vegetation in arid and semi-arid regions. In this study, MODIS NDVI data and an integrated methodological approach, including trend analysis, partial correlation, residual regression, and geographical detector modeling, were used to analyze the variations in NDVI in Gansu Province from 2000 to 2022. The results showed the following: (1) The growing-season NDVI in Gansu Province exhibited a significant increasing trend overall (0.0029 per year, p < 0.05). (2) Both the NDVI values and their increasing rates presented a spatial pattern of “higher in the southeast and lower in the northwest”; although low vegetation coverage dominated the entire province, 49.47% of the area showed an extremely significant increasing trend in NDVI (p < 0.01). (3) In the future, the area ratio of regions with improved NDVI to those with degraded NDVI in Gansu Province will be approximately 45.5%:54.5%. (4) The contribution rate of human activities to the spatiotemporal variations in NDVI was higher than that of climate change; however, the synergistic effect of the two factors was greater than their individual effects. (5) Precipitation and solar radiation were the two primary climatic factors affecting NDVI variations in Gansu Province, while human activities played a regulatory role in mediating climate–vegetation interactions. Therefore, we suggest implementing more proactive ecological management and restoration measures to mitigate the impacts of future climate change, particularly in regions where NDVI may degrade in the future. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers for Land–Climate Interactions Section: Integration of Remote Sensing and GIS)

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30 pages, 3376 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Differential Impact Mechanisms of the Built Environment on Running-Space Selection: A Case Study of Suzhou’s Gusu District and Industrial Park District

by Can Wang, Jue Xu and Yuanyuan Mao

Land 2025, 14(11), 2183; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112183 - 3 Nov 2025

Abstract

Guided by the “Healthy China” initiative, understanding the impact of the built environment on running behavior is essential for encouraging regular physical activity and advancing public health. This study addresses a critical gap in healthy city research by examining the spatial heterogeneity in [...] Read more.

Guided by the “Healthy China” initiative, understanding the impact of the built environment on running behavior is essential for encouraging regular physical activity and advancing public health. This study addresses a critical gap in healthy city research by examining the spatial heterogeneity in how urban environmental contexts affect residents’ running preferences. Focusing on two contrasting areas of Suzhou, namely the historic Gusu District and the modern Industrial Park District, we developed a 5Ds-based analytical framework (density, accessibility, diversity, design, and visual) that incorporates Suzhou’s unique water networks and street features. Methodologically, we used Strava heatmap data and multi-source environmental indicators to quantify built-environment attributes and examined their relationships with running-space selection. We applied linear regression and interpretable machine learning to reveal overall associations, while geographically weighted regression (GWR) was used to capture spatial variations. Results reveal significant spatial heterogeneity in how the built environment influences running-space selection. While the two districts differ in their urban form, runners in Gusu District prefer dense and compact street networks, whereas those in Industrial Park District favor open, natural spaces with higher levels of human vibrancy. Despite these differences, both districts show consistent preferences for spaces with a more intense land use mix, stronger transportation accessibility, and larger parks and green spaces. The multi-dimensional planning strategies derived from this study can improve the urban running environment and promote the health and well-being of residents. Full article

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24 pages, 4415 KB

Open AccessArticle

Revealing the Impact of the Built Environment on the Temporal Heterogeneity of Urban Vitality Using Ensemble Machine Learning

by Xuyang Chen, Junyan Yang, Jingjing Mai, Ao Cui and Xinyue Gu

Land 2025, 14(11), 2182; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112182 - 3 Nov 2025

Abstract

The multidimensional urban built environment (BE) in high-density cities has been shown to be closely related to the urban vitality (UV) of residents’ travelling. However, existing research lacks consideration of the differences in this relationship over a week, so this paper proposes an [...] Read more.

The multidimensional urban built environment (BE) in high-density cities has been shown to be closely related to the urban vitality (UV) of residents’ travelling. However, existing research lacks consideration of the differences in this relationship over a week, so this paper proposes an ensemble machine learning approach that simultaneously considers different time periods of the week. This study reveals the impacts of four dimensions of BE variables on UV at different time periods at the scale of the community life circle. The four well-performing base models are integrated to reveal the mechanism of differential effects of BE variables on UV under different time periods in the old city of Nanjing through Shapley addition explanation. The findings reveal that (1) the seven most important built environment variables existed in different time periods of the week: floor area ratio, service POI density, remote sensing ecological index, POI mixability, average building height, fractional vegetation cover, and maximum building area; (2) The nonlinear and threshold effects of the built environment factors differed across time periods of the week; (3) There is a dominant interaction between built environment variables at different time periods of the week. This study can provide guidance for the refined management of complex urban systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Geospatial AI: Systems, Model, Methods, and Applications)

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31 pages, 10437 KB

Open AccessArticle

Decline in the Characteristic Oak Forest of the Hungarian Resort Caused by Environmental Changes

by Eszter Bakay, Orsolya Fekete, Andrea Wallner, Sandor Jombach and Krisztina Szabó

Land 2025, 14(11), 2181; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112181 - 2 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The vegetation of settlements can be particularly important for ecology and cityscapes and also plays a role in shaping and structuring the fabric of the settlement. However, there are very few settlements where the nature of woody vegetation is a defining characteristic of [...] Read more.

The vegetation of settlements can be particularly important for ecology and cityscapes and also plays a role in shaping and structuring the fabric of the settlement. However, there are very few settlements where the nature of woody vegetation is a defining characteristic of the settlement image. The vitality and health of the vegetation of a settlement can depend on the extent of development, increasing urbanization and the influencing effects of climate change. We monitored the changes in the vegetation of our study area, Balatonalmádi-Káptalanfüred, Hungary, going back 300 years by analyzing military and historical maps and satellite images, using the NDVI vegetation index of the last 20 years, as well as by field visits, tree examinations based on visual surveys and a plant population survey at 5 sampling points. Our results show that due to the increase in construction, the historical map shows a significant decrease in green space, and the satellite images show a dramatic decrease in the vitality of the remaining green spaces. In addition, field visits have also revealed serious plant health problems, which may lead to a relatively rapid decline of the dominant oak population. The research shows that as the upper canopy level decreases, the second canopy level becomes dominant. In order to preserve the strong, distinctive oak character of the settlement, we make proposals to mitigate the destruction of the current woody vegetation and, in the long term, to replace the stands with climate-resilient species. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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22 pages, 11585 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Dynamics and Drivers of Ecosystem Service Value in Coastal China, 1980–2020

by Qing Liu, Jiajun Huang, Xingchuan Gao, Yufan Chen, Xinyi Shao and Pengtao Wang

Land 2025, 14(11), 2180; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112180 - 2 Nov 2025

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Abstract

In response to the widespread decline in ecosystem service value (ESV) caused by rapid industrialization and urbanization-driven land-use transitions in Coastal China—characterized by shrinking farmland and expanding built-up land and crystallized in the “core-city sprawl and surrounding-farmland encroachment” pattern—this study integrated land-use and [...] Read more.

In response to the widespread decline in ecosystem service value (ESV) caused by rapid industrialization and urbanization-driven land-use transitions in Coastal China—characterized by shrinking farmland and expanding built-up land and crystallized in the “core-city sprawl and surrounding-farmland encroachment” pattern—this study integrated land-use and socioeconomic data from 1980 to 2020. Employing the equivalent-factor method and Geodetector model, we quantified the spatiotemporal evolution of ESV and its driving mechanisms across the entire coastal region. The results show that (i) the total ESV experienced a fluctuating increase. (ii) Spatially, the ESV exhibited a “high in the south, low in the north, and higher inland than along the immediate coast” pattern, with mountain–hill belts and estuarine wetlands in the south forming high-value clusters, whereas the Bohai Rim in the north emerged as a low-value zone. (iii) Socioeconomic factors increasingly dominated the driving forces, while NDVI became the most influential natural factor; the interactions between the drivers consistently produced bi-factor enhancement effects. These findings provide a scientific basis for implementing the “Two-Mountains Theory” and optimizing coastal territorial spatial planning. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Land Modifications and Impacts on Coastal Areas, Second Edition)

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29 pages, 4866 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatiotemporal Characteristics of Land Ecological Security and Its Obstacle Factors in the Yangtze River Basin

by Guo Li, Shuhua Zhong, Xinru Huang and Xiaoqing Zhang

Land 2025, 14(11), 2179; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112179 - 1 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The Yangtze River Basin serves as the socioeconomic core of China, and rapid development in recent years has intensified the conflict in the area between economic growth and ecological conservation. This study evaluated the spatiotemporal evolution of the land ecological security (LES) across [...] Read more.

The Yangtze River Basin serves as the socioeconomic core of China, and rapid development in recent years has intensified the conflict in the area between economic growth and ecological conservation. This study evaluated the spatiotemporal evolution of the land ecological security (LES) across 11 provinces and municipalities in the Yangtze River Basin from 2008 to 2023 by using the framework of the drivers, pressures, state, impact, and response model of intervention. We forecasted the trends of LES (2024–2033) by using a grey prediction model and identified the key obstacles to it through an obstacle degree model. The findings revealed the following: (1) Economic density (D3) and per capita water resources (S4) had significantly high weights, disproportionately impacting LES. Shanghai scored highest for Drivers, Impact, and Response subsystems, while Tibet led in Pressures and State. (2) Basin-wide LES scores improved from “less safe” to “critical safe” but saw no fundamental breakthrough. LES exhibited a three-tier spatial pattern: higher in the middle-lower reaches (e.g., Shanghai, Jiangsu) and lower in the upper reaches (e.g., Qinghai). Tibet remained “critical safe” with minor fluctuations; other regions improved gradually yet mostly remained “less safe” or “critical safe”. (3) Forecasts (2024–2033) indicate continued overall LES improvement. Shanghai and Jiangsu are projected to reach “safe” status, Qinghai will remain “unsafe”, while most others persist as “critical safe”. Basin LES remains fragile, requiring intervention. (4) The Drivers (D) and State (S) subsystems were the primary constraints on LES. Critical obstacle indicators included economic pressure (per capita GDP (D2), D3), resource availability (S4, ratio of effectively irrigated area (I1)), land productivity (agricultural/forestry output per unit area (I3)), and forest coverage rate (R6). Enhancing LES necessitates implementing regionally tailored policies addressing spatial variations, prioritizing urban economic optimization, strengthening water resource management, and ensuring effective cross-regional governance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)

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37 pages, 16191 KB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Scale Resilience Assessment and Zonal Strategies for Storm Surge Adaptation in China’s Coastal Cities

by Shibai Cui, Li Zhu, Jiaxiang Wang and Steivan Defilla

Land 2025, 14(11), 2178; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112178 - 1 Nov 2025

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Abstract

Storm surges are the leading marine disaster in China’s coastal cities, with their impacts exacerbated by climate change and rapid urbanization. Despite their significance, most existing studies focus on a single scale, neglecting the complex, multi-scale nature of urban resilience and the interrelated [...] Read more.

Storm surges are the leading marine disaster in China’s coastal cities, with their impacts exacerbated by climate change and rapid urbanization. Despite their significance, most existing studies focus on a single scale, neglecting the complex, multi-scale nature of urban resilience and the interrelated governance strategies needed to address storm surge risks. This study introduces a dual-scale resilience indicator system—macro (prefecture-level cities) and micro (coastal buffer grids)—within the “exposure–sensitivity–adaptation” framework, utilizing multi-source data for a comprehensive assessment. This research also explores the impact mechanisms of storm surges on urban areas and proposes zonal governance strategies. Findings indicate that resilience varies spatially in Chinese coastal cities, with a pattern of “high resilience in the north, low resilience in the south, and a mix in the center.” At the macro scale, key limitations include policy implementation, infrastructure capacity, and social vulnerability. At the micro scale, factors such as inadequate green space, increased impervious surfaces, limited shelter access, and low utility network density lead to the emergence of “low-resilience units” in ecologically sensitive and mixed coastal zones. The study further reveals the synergies between resilience drivers across scales, emphasizing the need for integrated cross-scale governance. This research advances resilience theory by expanding spatial scales and refining indicator systems, while proposing a zonal governance framework tailored to resilience gradation. It offers a quantitative basis and practical strategies for fostering “safe cities” and advancing “adaptive spatial planning” in the context of sustainable development. Full article

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26 pages, 1400 KB

Open AccessArticle

Land and Its Rents in the Process of Land Management: An Overview of Poland and Ukraine as Examples

by Renata Marks-Bielska and Iryna Koshkalda

Land 2025, 14(11), 2177; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112177 - 1 Nov 2025

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Abstract

The differences in the forms of land rent in Poland and Ukraine are due to the specifics of the historical development of agrarian relations, the level of institutional support, and the condition of the land market in each country. The basis for this [...] Read more.

The differences in the forms of land rent in Poland and Ukraine are due to the specifics of the historical development of agrarian relations, the level of institutional support, and the condition of the land market in each country. The basis for this substantive analysis was the literature on the subject, primarily concerning the issue of land rent from a historical and contemporary perspective. Relevant legal acts and statistical data characterizing agriculture in the analyzed countries were also used. The aim of the conducted research and analysis was to identify and characterize the types of land rent in Poland and Ukraine. It was found that there are similarities and differences in the occurrence and perception of land rent between the analyzed countries. Not all types of land rent identified in Polish agriculture occur in Ukraine. In addition, those identified in Ukrainian agriculture are not always reflected in the same way in Polish conditions. This is related, among other things, to the historical conditions of the established agricultural system and Ukraine’s remaining outside the European Union. The comparative analysis of land rent types in Poland and Ukraine indicates a shared economic nature but significant differences in the mechanisms of their formation and distribution. Future research on land rents in Poland and Ukraine should be supported by empirical research and comparative analysis of the specific effects of the existence of individual types of rents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Socio-Economic and Political Issues)

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26 pages, 19858 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Trade-Offs and Synergies Among Ecosystem Services Under Multiple Land-Use Scenarios in the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei Region

by Xiaoru He, Yang Li, Wei Li, Zhijun Shen, Baoni Xie, Shuhui Yu, Shufei Wang, Nan Wang, Zhe Li, Jianxia Zhao, Yancang Li and Shuqin Zhao

Land 2025, 14(11), 2176; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112176 - 1 Nov 2025

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Abstract

To enhance ecosystem services (ESs) benefits and promote ecological–economic–sociologic sustainability in highly urbanized regions such as the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region, it is essential to assess the dynamic changes in ESs within these regions from a functional zoning perspective and to explore the interactions [...] Read more.

To enhance ecosystem services (ESs) benefits and promote ecological–economic–sociologic sustainability in highly urbanized regions such as the Beijing–Tianjin–Hebei (BTH) region, it is essential to assess the dynamic changes in ESs within these regions from a functional zoning perspective and to explore the interactions between ESs. This research delved into how ESs change over space and time, using land-use projections for 2035 based on Natural Development (ND), Ecological Protection (EP), Economic Construction (EC) scenarios. This study also took a close look at the interplay of these ESs across BTH and its five distinct functional zones: the Bashang Plateau Ecological Protection Zone (BS), the Northwestern Ecological Conservation Zone (ST), the Central Core Functional Zone (HX), the Southern Functional Expansion Zone (TZ), and the Eastern Coastal Development Zone (BH). We utilize the Multiple Ecosystem Service Landscape Index (MESLI) to assess the capacity to supply multiple ESs. Key results include the following: (1) Projected land-use changes for 2035 scenarios consistently show cropland and grassland declining, while forest and urbanland expand, though the magnitude of change varies by scenario. (2) Habitat quality, carbon storage, and soil conservation displayed a “high northwest–low southeast” gradient, opposite to water yield. The average MESLI value declined in all scenarios relative to 2020, with the highest value under the EP scenario. (3) Synergies prevailed between habitat quality, carbon storage, and soil conservation, while trade-offs occurred with water yield. These relationships varied spatially—for instance, habitat quality and soil conservation were weakly synergistic in the BS but showed weak trade-offs in the HX. These insights can inform management strategies in other rapidly urbanizing regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)

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27 pages, 2362 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cultural-Ecological Health Assessment of Island Tourism Using a Pressure–State–Response Entropy Method: Evidence from Weishan Island, China

by Qin Li, Zhenze Yang, Xingping Wu, Shuping Luo, Qiang Chen, Wenlong Li and Yijun Liu

Land 2025, 14(11), 2175; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112175 - 1 Nov 2025

Viewed by 129

Abstract

Lake-island villages face increasing cultural–ecological pressures due to tourism expansion and rural transformation, yet few studies have systematically assessed their cultural–ecological health. To address this gap, this study aims to quantify the cultural–ecological health of lake-island villages and identify key constraints shaping their [...] Read more.

Lake-island villages face increasing cultural–ecological pressures due to tourism expansion and rural transformation, yet few studies have systematically assessed their cultural–ecological health. To address this gap, this study aims to quantify the cultural–ecological health of lake-island villages and identify key constraints shaping their sustainability under tourism development. It proposes a quantitative assessment framework integrating the Pressure–State–Response (PSR) model and the entropy weight method to evaluate the cultural–ecological health of Weishan Island, a typical lake-island tourism area in eastern China. Four representative villages (Daguan, Gounan, Lümeng, and Xiaolizhuang) were selected based on spatial distribution and tourism development characteristics. A 27-indicator evaluation system was constructed to measure population dynamics, land pressure, cultural vitality, and governance response. The results show that: (1) indicators related to cultural inheritance and governance (e.g., cultural facility maintenance and youth participation) contribute more strongly to cultural–ecological health than demographic or land pressures; (2) the overall health levels vary significantly among villages, forming a gradient pattern of Daguan > Gounan > Lümeng > Xiaolizhuang; (3) governance response is the key factor differentiating cultural–ecological outcomes under similar development pressures; and (4) cultural facility maintenance, volunteer participation, and youth heritage transmission are common constraints. This study provides an empirical basis for cultural–ecological management in lake-island regions and offers a replicable evaluation framework for sustainable tourism development. Full article

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21 pages, 12202 KB

Open AccessArticle

Beyond the Flow: The Many Facets of Gazelle Valley Park (Jerusalem), an Urban Nature-Based Solution for Flood Mitigation in a Mediterranean Climate

by Yoav Ben Dor, Galit Sharabi, Raz Nussbaum, Sabri Alian, Efrat Morin, Elyasaf Freiman, Amanda Lind, Inbal Shemesh, Amir Balaban, Rami Ozinsky and Elad Levintal

Land 2025, 14(11), 2174; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112174 - 31 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Rapid urban expansion and increasing population density intensify the loss of open spaces, exacerbate flooding frequency and runoff pollution, increase the urban heat island effect, and deteriorate ecological resilience and human well-being. This study presents Gazelle Valley Park (GVP) in Jerusalem (Israel), a [...] Read more.

Rapid urban expansion and increasing population density intensify the loss of open spaces, exacerbate flooding frequency and runoff pollution, increase the urban heat island effect, and deteriorate ecological resilience and human well-being. This study presents Gazelle Valley Park (GVP) in Jerusalem (Israel), a unique large-scale ecohydrological infrastructure within a dense Mediterranean city. GVP was established in 2015 following a public-led campaign and comprises a multifunctional nature-based solution designed to collect and circulate stormwater through a series of vegetated ponds, enhancing filtration, aeration, and pollutant removal, while sustaining a wetland ecosystem. Its design follows international ecological standards and embodies the principle “from nuisance to resource”, transforming urban runoff into an asset that supports rich biodiversity while offering recreational, cultural, and educational activities. During the dry summer, reclaimed wastewater is introduced in order to support a perennial aquatic habitat, which introduces various challenges due to increased salinity, oxygen demand, and contaminants. Hydrometric and geochemical monitoring demonstrates strong correlations between rainfall and runoff and point at the role of sedimentation and vegetation in reducing pollutant loads. The park benefits from its holistic operation, where hydrology, ecology, education, and public engagement are integrated, thus making the whole greater than the sum of its parts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Blue-Green Infrastructure and Territorial Planning)

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27 pages, 23002 KB

Open AccessArticle

GIS-Based Landscape Character Assessment as a Tool for Landscape Architecture Design: A Case Study from Saudi Arabia

by Wisam E. Mohammed, Omar H. Mohammad and Montasir M. Alabdulla

Land 2025, 14(11), 2173; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112173 - 31 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Landscape character assessment (LCA) is a systematic approach used to classify, describe, and analyze the physical and cultural attributes that define the landscape. The traditional approaches to LCA are fundamentally subjective and descriptive, relying on human evaluations of aesthetic value, and they often [...] Read more.

Landscape character assessment (LCA) is a systematic approach used to classify, describe, and analyze the physical and cultural attributes that define the landscape. The traditional approaches to LCA are fundamentally subjective and descriptive, relying on human evaluations of aesthetic value, and they often show inconsistencies in results when assessed by different observers for the same landscape. This research aims to establish a spatial and quantitative methodology through GIS for evaluating the landscape character of King Khalid University (KKU)’s campus in the Southern Province of Saudi Arabia, which is considered crucial for designing a sustainable and context-sensitive landscape. To identify the feasible developed areas and their sustainable characteristics, three key landscape variables were measured and spatially expressed, subsequently averaged to categorize landscape character. The variables include land use and land cover, which were obtained from Sentinel 2 remote sensing data through supervised classification, as well as landforms and hydrological settings derived from a digital elevation model (DEM) utilizing GIS functionalities. The findings revealed three distinct landscape characters, each characterized by quantifiable landscape attributes. The landscapes exhibiting the most significant character encompass approximately 20% (1074 ha) of the study area, whereas those with the least significance account for 6.5% (342 ha). The remaining 73.5% (3884 ha) is classified as landscapes with an average significance character. The results provide a solid scientific basis for choosing locations in the campus’s study area that promote environmentally friendly and sustainable landscape development. This method improves objectivity in LCA and offers a reproducible framework for implementation in arid and semi-arid areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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26 pages, 21758 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparing the Current and Future Thermal Comfort Offered by Urban Park Configurations

by Maassoumeh Barghchi, Bill Grace, Julian Bolleter and Nicole Edwards

Land 2025, 14(11), 2172; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112172 - 31 Oct 2025

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Abstract

There is growing interest in utilising urban parks as nature-based solutions to mitigate the effects of climate change and rising temperatures by improving thermal comfort. Nonetheless, understanding remains limited on how different park configurations influence summer thermal comfort, particularly under future warming scenarios. [...] Read more.

There is growing interest in utilising urban parks as nature-based solutions to mitigate the effects of climate change and rising temperatures by improving thermal comfort. Nonetheless, understanding remains limited on how different park configurations influence summer thermal comfort, particularly under future warming scenarios. This novel study evaluates park configurations across different neighbourhood layouts within Perth’s Mediterranean climate under both present and future conditions. Study precincts were modelled and simulated using ENVI-met version 5.5 for an average current summer day, based on 25 years of local weather data and climate projections for 2090 under the Representative Concentration Pathway 8.5 scenario, representing the worst-case scenario. Results showed that park surfaces were consistently cooler than surrounding streets based on LST; however, this did not always translate into improved thermal comfort, as exposed grass areas often exhibited high Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET) values. PET has been confirmed as the most suitable outdoor human thermal comfort index. Canopy cover and vegetation type, particularly tall trees and bushland, were more influential than park size or configuration in enhancing thermal comfort. These findings provide evidence-based insights, highlighting the importance of strategies that prioritise tree canopy coverage to enhance urban cooling and resilience to climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient, and Sustainable Built Environment)

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19 pages, 8766 KB

Open AccessArticle

Using Succolarity as a Measure of Slope Accessibility in Undeveloped Areas

by Daniel Peptenatu, Ion Andronache, Marian Marin, Helmut Ahammer, Marko Radulovic, Herbert F. Jelinek, Andreea Karina Gruia, Alexandra Grecu, Ionuț Constantin, Viorel Mihăilă, Daniel Constantin Diaconu, Ionuț Săvulescu, Aurel Băloi and Cristian Constantin Drăghici

Land 2025, 14(11), 2171; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112171 - 31 Oct 2025

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Abstract

The assessment of forest health and terrain usability is closely tied to slope accessibility. Current methods for evaluating terrain accessibility based solely on slope characteristics often lack precision and fail to capture the combined effects of topography and vegetation. This study introduces succolarity, [...] Read more.

The assessment of forest health and terrain usability is closely tied to slope accessibility. Current methods for evaluating terrain accessibility based solely on slope characteristics often lack precision and fail to capture the combined effects of topography and vegetation. This study introduces succolarity, together with succolarity reservoir and delta (Δ) succolarity, as fractal-based measures for assessing undeveloped land accessibility. The analysis focused on two test areas: the Ceahlău Mountains and the Blaj–Vulpăr Hills. Results revealed lower accessibility values for the Ceahlău Mountains (0.01 to 0.23 for slopes of 0–5° and 0–30°) compared to the Blaj–Vulpăr Hills (0.035 to 0.598 for the same ranges). These significant contrasts demonstrate that terrain fragmentation and compact forests act as decisive constraints, with slope predominating in mountains and vegetation in hilly areas. The findings are valuable for environmental agencies, emergency services, and research groups studying land morphology and mobility. Practical applications include infrastructure planning, sustainable land-use management, and strategic operations in remote terrains. Incorporating additional datasets (e.g., hydrographic networks, seasonal vegetation) and refining methodologies will further enhance succolarity-based assessments, supporting sustainable development in challenging environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Conservation of Bio- and Geo-Diversity and Landscape Changes II)

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19 pages, 435 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Aging Agricultural Labor Force on Mulch Film Recycling Behavior: Evidence from Rural China

by Honghong Yang, Hua Li, Huimin Guo, Qi Li and Liting Fang

Land 2025, 14(11), 2170; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112170 - 31 Oct 2025

Viewed by 99

Abstract

Mulch film recycling is essential for reducing soil pollution, ensuring sustainable land use, and promoting green agricultural development. This study examines the impact of agricultural labor age on mulch film recycling behavior, utilizing survey data from 739 households in Xinjiang. The relationship between [...] Read more.

Mulch film recycling is essential for reducing soil pollution, ensuring sustainable land use, and promoting green agricultural development. This study examines the impact of agricultural labor age on mulch film recycling behavior, utilizing survey data from 739 households in Xinjiang. The relationship between labor age and recycling behavior follows an inverted U-shape, with participation initially increasing and then decreasing as age advances. We explore the mediating roles of human capital and ecological cognition in this relationship. Both human capital and ecological cognition display inverted U-shaped patterns with age, which in turn influence recycling behavior. Furthermore, social norms were found to positively moderate the relationship between labor age and ecological cognition, while no significant moderating effect was observed between age and human capital. These findings suggest that enhancing human capital and ecological awareness, coupled with the reinforcement of social norms, can facilitate mulch film recycling. The study underscores the importance of developing targeted policies to support various age groups in adopting sustainable agricultural practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Papers for the ‘Land Socio-Economic and Political Issues’ Section: Achieving the Sustainable Development Goals—2nd Edition)

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15 pages, 3188 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Sand Dune Migration and Future Trends on the Western Edge of the Kumtag Desert

by Fan Yang, Silalan Abudukade, Lishuai Xu, Akida Salam, Xinghua Yang, Wen Huo, Ali Mamtimin, Xinqian Zheng, Yihan Liu, Chenglong Zhou, Mingjie Ma, Fapeng Zhang and Cong Wen

Land 2025, 14(11), 2169; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112169 - 31 Oct 2025

Viewed by 155

Abstract

Sand dune migration, as a typical dynamic process of aeolian geomorphology in arid regions, directly influences regional ecological security and infrastructure development. Focusing on the western edge of the Kumtag Desert, this study uses remote sensing imagery and field investigations, combined with multi-factor [...] Read more.

Sand dune migration, as a typical dynamic process of aeolian geomorphology in arid regions, directly influences regional ecological security and infrastructure development. Focusing on the western edge of the Kumtag Desert, this study uses remote sensing imagery and field investigations, combined with multi-factor meteorological observations and CMIP6 climate scenarios, to quantitatively analyze the migration characteristics and influencing factors of representative dunes, and to construct a predictive model for future migration trends. The dominant migration direction is W–WNW–NW, which closely matches the composite resultant drift potential. The average annual migration speed is 12.86 m·a⁻¹, classifying these dunes as fast-moving; small to medium dunes migrate faster (13.84 m·a⁻¹) than large dunes (11.27 m·a⁻¹). Wind speed, sand-moving wind frequency, drift potential (DP), Vegetation Fractional Cover (FVC), and precipitation significantly affect migration speeds; wind speed is the primary driver (single-factor R² = 0.41), while precipitation (R² = 0.26) and FVC (R² = 0.27) exert a suppressing effect, particularly on small to medium dunes. Based on stepwise multiple regression analysis combined with CMIP6 multi-model predictions, under the SSP8.5 scenario, characterized by significant temperature increases, drastic fluctuations in precipitation patterns, and notable increases in wind speed, the average annual sand dune migration speed is projected to reach 18.59 m·a⁻¹ by the end of this century, an increase of 5.78 m·a⁻¹ compared to the current speeds; whereas under the SSP1–2.6 and SSP2–4.5 scenarios, changes are projected to be minor and overall relatively stable. The findings of this study provide a scientific basis for regional infrastructure and engineering planning, as well as for the renovation and protection of existing oil and power transmission lines. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Land Use, Impact Assessment and Sustainability)

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23 pages, 1705 KB

Open AccessArticle

Decision Support for Peri-Urban Sustainability: An AHP–EWM Based Livability Vulnerability Assessment

by Rin Kim, Yujin Park, Sujeong Kang, Junga Lee, Suk-Yeong Cho and Sang-Woo Lee

Land 2025, 14(11), 2168; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112168 - 30 Oct 2025

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Abstract

In Korea, rural regions increasingly function as peri-urban zones integrated into urban systems. To assess vulnerabilities in these transitional areas characterized by mixed land use and uneven access to infrastructure, this study developed a three-tiered peri-urban livability vulnerability framework by integrating the analytic [...] Read more.

In Korea, rural regions increasingly function as peri-urban zones integrated into urban systems. To assess vulnerabilities in these transitional areas characterized by mixed land use and uneven access to infrastructure, this study developed a three-tiered peri-urban livability vulnerability framework by integrating the analytic hierarchy process and the entropy weight method. The results indicated that medical facilities, childcare and education centers, and village communities consistently emerged as key indicators, linking peri-urban livability directly to the stability of settlement environments and the quality of life of residents. Contrastingly, expert evaluations and data-driven outcomes related to road networks and agricultural infrastructure displayed substantial discrepancies, revealing gaps between perceived importance and actual provision levels. Such differences highlight the risk of underestimating infrastructure-related vulnerabilities when subjective assessments are employed exclusively. By synthesizing subjective and objective weights, this study advances urban and environmental analysis and supports evidence-based decision-making for policy prioritization. The findings demonstrate that peri-urban vulnerability is shaped less by productive capacity than by social infrastructure and community stability. This conclusion offers crucial insights for enhancing livability and guiding urban planning strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Urban Planning: Digital Technologies for Spatial Design)

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35 pages, 6178 KB

Open AccessArticle

Application of Principal Component and Multi-Criteria Analysis to Evaluate Key Physical and Chemical Soil Indicators for Sustainable Land Use Management in Arid Rangeland Ecosystems

by Hesham M. Ibrahim, Zafer Alasmary, Mosaed A. Majrashi, Meshal Abdullah Harbi, Abdullah Abldubise and Abdulaziz G. Alghamdi

Land 2025, 14(11), 2167; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112167 - 30 Oct 2025

Viewed by 156

Abstract

Vast areas of natural rangelands in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) suffer from deterioration due to the scarcity of vegetation cover and poor soil quality. Assessing soil quality in rangelands is crucial to identifying degraded lands and to implementing proper sustainable management [...] Read more.

Vast areas of natural rangelands in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) suffer from deterioration due to the scarcity of vegetation cover and poor soil quality. Assessing soil quality in rangelands is crucial to identifying degraded lands and to implementing proper sustainable management practices. In this study, a total data set (TDS) containing 27 physical and chemical soil indicators was generated for three rangelands (Al-Fahyhyl, Al-Sahwa, and Al-Tamryate) in KSA. Principal component analysis (PCA) and analytic hierarchy process (AHP) analysis were employed to establish a minimum data set (MDS) and to evaluate key physical and chemical properties affecting soil quality, along with the associated weight factor for each indicator. Results indicated that the MDS represented ≥70% of the total variability of the TDS and accurately estimated the soil quality index (SQI) based on determined physical and chemical soil properties in the study regions. Linear regression indicated high correlation between SQI-TDS and SQI-MDS, with the R² ranging between 0.51–0.87. On the surface layer (0–30 cm), the MDS contained seven soil indicators (sand, dispersion ratio (DR), mean weight diameter (MWD), bulk density (BD), total organic carbon (TOC), available phosphorus (Pa), and available potassium (Ka)), whereas in the sub-surface layer it contained six indicators (sand, DR, MWD, BD, TOC, Pa, and Ka). In all regions, sand had the largest weight factor (0.4514–0.4835), followed by TOC (0.2441–0.2512). Under the arid climate present in all the study sites, sand and TOC levels are crucial for nutrient retention, soil structure, and water retention. Most of the study areas had very low and low SQI (Al-Fahyhyl, 74.4%; Al-Sahwa, 61.8%; and Al-Tamryate, 81.7%), indicating an immediate need for suitable agricultural practices such as reduced tillage, increased organic amendments, and proper water management. The outcomes of this study offer valuable insights for land managers, legislators, and agricultural stakeholders to pinpoint regions in need of development, conduct comprehensive and continuous monitoring of SQI in rangeland areas, and implement land management plans for rangeland rehabilitation and environmental sustainability. Full article

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21 pages, 7507 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring Multi-Scale Synergies, Trade-Offs, and Driving Mechanisms of Ecosystem Services in Arid Regions: A Case Study of the Ili River Valley

by Ruyi Pan, Junjie Yan, Hongbo Ling and Qianqian Xia

Land 2025, 14(11), 2166; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112166 - 30 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Understanding the interactions among ecosystem services (ESs) and their spatiotemporal dynamics is pivotal for sustainable ecosystem management, particularly in arid regions where water scarcity imposes significant constraints. This study focuses on the Ili River Valley, a representative arid region, to investigate the evolution [...] Read more.

Understanding the interactions among ecosystem services (ESs) and their spatiotemporal dynamics is pivotal for sustainable ecosystem management, particularly in arid regions where water scarcity imposes significant constraints. This study focuses on the Ili River Valley, a representative arid region, to investigate the evolution of ESs, their trade-offs and synergies, and the underlying driving mechanisms from a water-resource-constrained perspective. We assessed five key ESs—soil retention (SR), habitat quality (HQ), water purification (WP), carbon sequestration (CS), and water yield (WY)—utilizing multi-source remote sensing and statistical data spanning 2000 to 2020. Employing the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST) model, Spearman correlation analysis, Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR), and the Geodetector method, we conducted a comprehensive analysis at both sub-watershed and 500 m grid scales. Our findings reveal that, except for SR and WP, the remaining three ESs exhibited an overall increasing trend over the two-decade period. Trade-off relationships predominantly characterize the ESs in the Ili River Valley; however, these interactions vary temporally and across spatial scales. Natural factors, including precipitation, temperature, and soil moisture, primarily drive WY, CS, and SR, whereas anthropogenic factors significantly influence HQ and WP. Moreover, the impact of these driving factors exhibits notable differences across spatial scales. The study underscores the necessity for ES management strategies tailored to specific regional characteristics, accounting for scale-dependent variations and the dual influences of natural and human factors. Such strategies are essential for formulating region-specific conservation and restoration policies, providing a scientific foundation for sustainable development in ecologically vulnerable arid regions. Full article

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13 pages, 1446 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Forest Types and Landscape Factors on PM_2.5 Concentrations

by Heejung Nam, Jina Jeong, Wanmo Kang and Chan-Ryul Park

Land 2025, 14(11), 2165; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112165 - 30 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Particulate matter (PM), particularly PM_2.5, is a major urban air pollution concern globally. While temporary mitigation measures are generally implemented during high-pollution periods, sustainable solutions focusing on forest landscape management are crucial. This study examines the effects of forest landscape types [...] Read more.

Particulate matter (PM), particularly PM_2.5, is a major urban air pollution concern globally. While temporary mitigation measures are generally implemented during high-pollution periods, sustainable solutions focusing on forest landscape management are crucial. This study examines the effects of forest landscape types and environmental variables on PM_2.5 concentrations during the high-pollution period (January–March 2022) in South Korea, using data from 40 national air quality monitoring stations. GIS and Fragstats were used to construct spatial variables and landscape indices. Stepwise multiple linear regression analyses were then conducted to identify significant factors affecting PM_2.5 concentrations. The aggregated forest model (i.e., without distinguishing between forest types) explained 72.9% of the variance in PM_2.5 concentrations. Forest percent cover (within 5000 m) and distance from the China national border were found to negatively affect PM_2.5 levels, while population size (within 5000 m) and urbanized area patch density (within 5000 m) had positive effects (p < 0.05). By incorporating forest types as variables, the forest type model improved explanatory power to 83.4%. Specifically, mixed forest percent cover (within 5000 m), mixed forest patch density (within 3000 m), and broad-leaved forest percent cover (within 1000 m) were negatively correlated with PM_2.5, while population size and urbanized area patch density (within 5000 m) showed positive effects (p < 0.05). These results highlight the importance of considering forest types, along with anthropogenic environmental variables, when assessing the mitigating effects of forests on PM_2.5, as both showed scale-dependent relationships with pollution levels. This study informs urban planning and long-term environmental management strategies for reducing PM_2.5 pollution. Full article

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16 pages, 3319 KB

Open AccessArticle

Planning Sustainable Green Blue Infrastructure in Colombo to Optimize Park Cool Island Intensity

by A. A. S. G. Wijesundara, B. G. N. Sewwandi and Thomas Panagopoulos

Land 2025, 14(11), 2164; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112164 - 30 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Colombo, a rapidly urbanizing city, increasingly faces the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect due to urban expansion and climate change. Urban parks mitigate UHI by creating cool microclimates, quantified as Park Cool Island Intensity (PCII), the temperature difference between parks and surrounding areas. [...] Read more.

Colombo, a rapidly urbanizing city, increasingly faces the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect due to urban expansion and climate change. Urban parks mitigate UHI by creating cool microclimates, quantified as Park Cool Island Intensity (PCII), the temperature difference between parks and surrounding areas. Colombo exhibits an average cooling effect of 0.98 °C

\pm 0.21 %

. The results found that the park area has the most significant positive relationship with the PCII, where the model explained 87.7% of the variance (R² = 0.877), indicating a strong fit, following the park perimeter (R² = 0.811). Park vegetation characteristics exert a significant influence to enhance the cooling effect, with canopy density emerging as a primary factor with a variance of 87.1% (R² = 0.871). Notably, canopy density of more than 80% demonstrates a marked PCII exceeding 1.0 °C. Additionally, other vegetation attributes, tree basal area (R² = 0.868), tree height (R² = 0.784), DBH (R² = 0.757), and stem density (R² = 0.717), exhibit a significant positive correlation with PCII, following canopy density in descending order. Furthermore, park composition analysis reveals that higher water and green cover contribute to maximizing PCII, underscoring the importance of reducing impervious cover in urban park design. These findings provide valuable insights for urban planners in facilitating the development of more effective urban park designs aimed at maximizing cooling effects, promoting sustainable urban development, and contributing to the achievement of SDG 11 and SDG 13. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Urban Green Infrastructure and Ecosystem Services in Relation to Landscape Design, Planning and Management)

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19 pages, 650 KB

Open AccessArticle

Searching for the Park Effect: An Analysis of Land Use Change and Ecosystem Service Flows in National Parks in Italy

by Davide Marino, Antonio Barone, Margherita Palmieri, Angelo Marucci, Vincenzo Giaccio and Silvia Pili

Land 2025, 14(11), 2163; https://doi.org/10.3390/land14112163 - 30 Oct 2025

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Abstract

Protected areas play a fundamental role in the implementation of international environmental strategies in order to ensure effective management systems that support the conservation of biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. However, the actual capacity of national parks to generate a specific [...] Read more.

Protected areas play a fundamental role in the implementation of international environmental strategies in order to ensure effective management systems that support the conservation of biodiversity and the provision of ecosystem services. However, the actual capacity of national parks to generate a specific “park effect” remains an open question. This study aims to assess whether the transformations observed in Italian national parks between 1960 and 2018 can be attributed to a specific park effect or are instead the result of other territorial dynamics. We analyzed long-term changes in land use and land cover (LUMCs) and variations in ecosystem services (ES), both inside and outside park boundaries, taking into account the SNAI classification. The results show a significant expansion of forest areas (+52%) and sparse vegetation (+56%), alongside a marked decline in arable land (−60%) and permanent crops (−26%). At the same time, the overall value of ES remains stable at around EUR 4 billion per year, with regulating services—accounting for 80% of the total—increasing by 20% between 1960 and 2018 and provisioning services declining by 41%. Italy’s national parks represent strategic socioecological laboratories capable of generating benefits both locally and globally. To fully realize this potential, more integrated management is needed, enabling their transformation from mere conservation areas to drivers of territorial resilience and social cohesion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Second Edition: Ecosystem Services Design from Single Space Solution to Landscape Vision)

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