Forests

22 pages, 6402 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study on Airborne Hyperspectral Tree Species Classification Based on the Synergistic Integration of Machine Learning and Deep Learning

by Dabing Yang, Jinxiu Song, Chaohua Huang, Fengxin Yang, Yiming Han and Ruirui Wang

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1032; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061032 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 284

Abstract

Against the backdrop of global climate change and increasing ecological pressure, the refined monitoring of forest resources and accurate tree species identification have become essential tasks for sustainable forest management. Hyperspectral remote sensing, with its high spectral resolution, shows great promise in tree [...] Read more.

Against the backdrop of global climate change and increasing ecological pressure, the refined monitoring of forest resources and accurate tree species identification have become essential tasks for sustainable forest management. Hyperspectral remote sensing, with its high spectral resolution, shows great promise in tree species classification. However, traditional methods face limitations in extracting joint spatial–spectral features, particularly in complex forest environments, due to the “curse of dimensionality” and the scarcity of labeled samples. To address these challenges, this study proposes a synergistic classification approach that combines the spatial feature extraction capabilities of deep learning with the generalization advantages of machine learning. Specifically, a 2D convolutional neural network (2DCNN) is integrated with a support vector machine (SVM) classifier to enhance classification accuracy and model robustness under limited sample conditions. Using UAV-based hyperspectral imagery collected from a typical plantation area in Fuzhou City, Jiangxi Province, and ground-truth data for labeling, a highly imbalanced sample split strategy (1:99) is adopted. The 2DCNN is further evaluated in conjunction with six classifiers—CatBoost, decision tree (DT), k-nearest neighbors (KNN), LightGBM, random forest (RF), and SVM—for comparison. The 2DCNN-SVM combination is identified as the optimal model. In the classification of Masson pine, Chinese fir, and eucalyptus, this method achieves an overall accuracy (OA) of 97.56%, average accuracy (AA) of 97.47%, and a Kappa coefficient of 0.9665, significantly outperforming traditional approaches. The results demonstrate that the 2DCNN-SVM model offers superior feature representation and generalization capabilities in high-dimensional, small-sample scenarios, markedly improving tree species classification accuracy in complex forest settings. This study validates the model’s potential for application in small-sample forest remote sensing and provides theoretical support and technical guidance for high-precision tree species identification and dynamic forest monitoring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Inventory, Modeling and Remote Sensing)

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19 pages, 5098 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Projected Spatial Distribution Patterns of Three Dominant Desert Plants in Xinjiang of Northwest China

by Hanyu Cao, Hui Tao and Zengxin Zhang

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1031; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061031 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 156

Abstract

Desert plants in arid regions are facing escalating challenges from global warming, underscoring the urgent need to predict shifts in the distribution and habitats of dominant species under future climate scenarios. This study employed the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model to project changes in [...] Read more.

Desert plants in arid regions are facing escalating challenges from global warming, underscoring the urgent need to predict shifts in the distribution and habitats of dominant species under future climate scenarios. This study employed the Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) model to project changes in the potential suitable habitats of three keystone desert species in Xinjiang—Halostachys capsica (M. Bieb.) C. A. Mey (Caryophyllales: Amaranthaceae), Haloxylon ammodendron (C. A. Mey.) Bunge (Caryophyllales: Amaranthaceae), and Karelinia caspia (Pall.) Less (Asterales: Asteraceae)—under varying climatic conditions. The area under the Receiver Operating Characteristic curve (AUC) exceeded 0.9 for all three species training datasets, indicating high predictive accuracy. Currently, Halos. caspica predominantly occupies mid-to-low elevation alluvial plains along the Tarim Basin and Tianshan Mountains, with a suitable area of 145.88 × 10⁴ km², while Halox. ammodendrum is primarily distributed across the Junggar Basin, Tarim Basin, and mid-elevation alluvial plains and aeolian landforms at the convergence zones of the Altai, Tianshan, and Kunlun Mountains, covering 109.55 × 10⁴ km². K. caspia thrives in mid-to-low elevation alluvial plains and low-elevation alluvial fans in the Tarim Basin, western Taklamakan Desert, and Junggar–Tianshan transition regions, with a suitable area of 95.75 × 10⁴ km². Among the key bioclimatic drivers, annual mean temperature was the most critical factor for Halos. caspica, precipitation of the coldest quarter for Halox. ammodendrum, and precipitation of the wettest month for K. caspia. Future projections revealed that under climate warming and increased humidity, suitable habitats for Halos. caspica would expand in all of the 2050s scenarios but decline by the 2070s, whereas Halox. ammodendrum habitats would decrease consistently across all scenarios over the next 40 years. In contrast, the suitable habitat area of K. caspia would remain nearly stable. These projections provide critical insights for formulating climate adaptation strategies to enhance soil–water conservation and sustainable desertification control in Xinjiang. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Applications of Artificial Intelligence in Forestry: 2nd Edition)

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13 pages, 3376 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Research on the Prevention and Control of Korean Pine Wood Decay by Bacillus amyloliquefaciens AW3

by Jing Sun, Yanan Wang, Dongpeng Zhao, Hao Li, Yuanchao Li, Jingkui Li and Dawei Qi

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1030; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061030 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 226

Abstract

As one of the decay-resistant woods, Korean pine is widely used in the construction industry. However, even the most corrosion-resistant wood is still susceptible to decay under the right humidity and temperature conditions. In this study, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (B. amyloliquefaciens) bacterial [...] Read more.

As one of the decay-resistant woods, Korean pine is widely used in the construction industry. However, even the most corrosion-resistant wood is still susceptible to decay under the right humidity and temperature conditions. In this study, Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (B. amyloliquefaciens) bacterial liquid and filter bacterial solution were prepared for the anti-corrosion treatment of Korean pine wood, aiming to improve its decay-resistant property. Through the plate confrontation test, it was discovered that B. amyloliquefaciens AW3 could significantly inhibit the growth of Fomitopsis pinicola (F. Pinicola). The results of mass loss rate, mechanical properties test, XRD, FTIR and SEM analysis showed that the preserved Korean pine wood had significant improvement in various properties compared with the decayed wood, which was manifested in the significant reduction of mass loss, improvement of mechanical properties, and increased wood cellulose diffraction peak intensity. There is no mycelium infection of F. pinicola in Korean pine wood, and the antiseptic liquid can penetrate into the wood evenly, which plays an effective antiseptic role. The B. amyloliquefaciens bacterial liquid exhibited superior preservative performance compared to the B. amyloliquefaciens filter bacterial solution. In conclusion, B. amyloliquefaciens, as an efficient and environmentally friendly biological preservative, holds broad application prospects in improving the anti-corrosion performance of Korean pine wood. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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16 pages, 2472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Relationships Between Climate and Growth in Six Tree Species Align with Their Hydrological Niches

by J. Julio Camarero, José Antonio López Sáez, Álvaro Rubio-Cuadrado, Ester González de Andrés, Michele Colangelo, Daniel Abel-Schaad, Antonio Cachinero-Vivar, Óscar Pérez-Priego and Cristina Valeriano

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1029; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061029 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 307

Abstract

Understanding how regional and local climate variability drive radial growth in trees is necessary to assess the climate-warming mitigation potential of forests. However, tree species occurring in the same region differently respond to climate variability, including climate extremes such as droughts, depending on [...] Read more.

Understanding how regional and local climate variability drive radial growth in trees is necessary to assess the climate-warming mitigation potential of forests. However, tree species occurring in the same region differently respond to climate variability, including climate extremes such as droughts, depending on soil–moisture gradients (hydrological niche). We analyzed a tree-ring network built in a mountainous area (Sierra de Gredos, central Spain) to compare climate–growth responses between species and sites located along soil–moisture gradients. Tree-ring methods were applied to six tree species, and sampled in twelve sites, including conifers (Pinus pinaster) and broadleaves (Quercus pyrenaica, Quercus robur, Quercus ilex, Celtis australis, and Prunus lusitanica). Series of growth indices were correlated with climate variables and climate indices (NAO, North Atlantic Oscillation). The radial growth of most species was enhanced by high growing-season precipitation, linked to negative NAO phases. The influence of precipitation on growth variability strengthened as site elevation decreased, particularly in the case of C. australis and oak species. The topographical modulation of climate–growth couplings indicates that the hydrological niche drives species responses to water shortage. Tree-ring data could be used to refine time-dependent hydrological niches. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Drought Impacts on Wood Anatomy and Tree Growth)

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18 pages, 1856 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating the Wood Quality of Conifer Species in the Greek Forest Sector Using an Integrated Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) Approach

by Marina Chavenetidou, Stefanos Tsiaras, Panagiotis P. Koulelis and Dimitrios I. Raptis

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1028; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061028 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 280

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the suitability of eight softwood species most commonly used by Greek timber industries, including furniture manufacturers and companies producing roundwood, sawn timber, and plywood. The analysis was based on integrated Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA), using [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the suitability of eight softwood species most commonly used by Greek timber industries, including furniture manufacturers and companies producing roundwood, sawn timber, and plywood. The analysis was based on integrated Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA), using a combined approach of the PROMETHEE method and the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP), taking into consideration some important criteria that affect timber quality. According to the PROMETHEE complete ranking, Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis Mill.) achieved the best performance under the selected criteria among the examined softwood species, underlying the importance of Aleppo pine to the Greek timber industry. Our findings could be highly beneficial to the wood industry, promoting the recovery and advancement of the forest sector in general, taking into account that sustainable wood supply is lower than the total biomass available in Europe. Policymakers should prioritize the selection of conifer tree species that can strengthen Greece’s forestry sector, promote sustainable management practices, and increase the economic value derived from the country’s diverse forest resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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13 pages, 2528 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessment of Ecosystem Sustainability and Management Measures in the Danube Floodplains in Slovakia by the Bioindicative Value of Spiders (Araneae)

by Zuzana Krumpálová and Vladimír Langraf

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1027; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061027 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 220

Abstract

The aim of this research was to record changes in the population structure of epigeic spider assemblages in the Central European Danube Delta (Slovakia) as a result of habitat management measures and the impact of human intervention. During this research (2020–2023), we assessed [...] Read more.

The aim of this research was to record changes in the population structure of epigeic spider assemblages in the Central European Danube Delta (Slovakia) as a result of habitat management measures and the impact of human intervention. During this research (2020–2023), we assessed the impact of management measures on newly planted forest stands and the effect of grazing in semi-natural conditions, and carried out diversity monitoring in flooded meadows. A total of 6344 individuals belonging to 89 spider species were collected by pitfall traps and identified. Using spatial modelling, we observed the following: (i) there are differences between the structures of managed and unmanaged forest stands (larger number of taxa); (ii) the differences in the number of individuals between study plots and years were statistically significant; (iii) the trend analysis of spider communities showed that study plots that underwent management intervention are expected to see an increase in the number of individuals in the future; and (iv) in the areas that did not undergo management, the number of species was stable. Using spiders as bioindicators could therefore answer the question of whether anthropogenic disturbance disrupts ecological stability. This approach utilizes spiders to assess the sustainability of the landscape. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Ecology of Forested Wetlands)

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13 pages, 3168 KiB

Open AccessArticle

MaxEnt Modeling for Predicting the Potential Geographical Distribution of Camellia oleifera Abel Under Climate Change

by Zhiyin Jiang, Yuxin Zhang, Qitao Su, Qing Gan, Qin Zhou, Yiliu Guo, Zhao Liu, Yanping Zhang, Bing Zhou, Tahani A. Y. Asseri and Muhammad Umair Hassan

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1026; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061026 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 444

Abstract

Camellia oleifera Abel (C. oleifera) is an evergreen shrub classified under the Camellia genus. It is an important oil species and has great economic benefits. At present, C. oleifera is widely cultivated in the Yangtze River Basin in South China, and [...] Read more.

Camellia oleifera Abel (C. oleifera) is an evergreen shrub classified under the Camellia genus. It is an important oil species and has great economic benefits. At present, C. oleifera is widely cultivated in the Yangtze River Basin in South China, and its wild species are mainly distributed in the native forests of Hainan Province. Therefore, in the current study, we used the MaxEnt model to predict the suitable habitat for C. oleifera and different environmental factors affecting its current and future distribution. The AUC values exceeded 0.98, showing that the simulation of the model was good, and the TSS values were all above 0.96, indicating that the model was feasible. The results showed that C. oleifera was mainly distributed in Southern China, with a total area of 56.68 × 10⁴ km². The suitable habitats of Camellia oleifera are affected by the precipitation of the warmest quarter (bio18), human activity, soil available water content (awc_class), and minimum temperature of the coldest month and seasonal temperature (bio04). Furthermore, rainfall in the warmest quarter (bio18) was recognized as a crucial factor impacting its distribution. Under future climate conditions, the suitable habitat area of C. oleifera is projected to expand with a slight northward shift in its distribution center. Therefore, in addition to maintaining the current planting area of C. oleifera, the planting area can be appropriately expanded upward along the current area and along the Yangtze River Basin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Forest Ecosystem Services: Modelling, Mapping and Valuing)

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18 pages, 4371 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Impact of Forest Machinery Passage on Soil CO₂ Concentration

by Daniel Tomčík, Ján Merganič, Vladimír Juško, Michal Ferenčík, Michal Allman, Zuzana Dudáková, Mária Vlčková, Katarína Merganičová and Jozef Výbošťok

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061025 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 254

Abstract

Forestry machinery plays a key role in forest management, but its increasing weight significantly impacts soil condition. Machinery passage causes soil compaction, which alters the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil and affects CO₂ concentration. This study aimed to measure [...] Read more.

Forestry machinery plays a key role in forest management, but its increasing weight significantly impacts soil condition. Machinery passage causes soil compaction, which alters the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil and affects CO₂ concentration. This study aimed to measure the impact of soil compaction on the evolution of CO₂ concentrations over three years. Research was conducted near Zvolen, Slovakia, where soil was compacted in 2020 by a forestry skidder. The intensity of compaction was evaluated using a digital penetrometer. CO₂ concentrations were measured with a Vaisala MI70 device, with 22 measurements taken post-compaction at an average interval of 52 days. Soil compaction was characterized by a derived penetration index. At a depth of 10 cm, the average penetration index was 119%, indicating a 19% increase in resistance. The highest index, 134%, was found at a depth of 3 cm. A correlation of 0.4 was found between the number of passes and CO₂ concentration at 30 cm depth, and 0.8 between penetration index and CO₂ concentration. Results showed a significant impact of forestry machinery on soil CO₂ concentration, even three years later. Therefore, operating practices should minimize machinery impact on forest soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Operations and Engineering)

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19 pages, 4349 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Spatial and Temporal Heterogeneity of Ecosystem Service Trade-Offs and Synergies, and Their Implications for Spatial Planning and Management: A Case Study of the Tarim River Basin

by Zhigang Li, Yanyan Shen, Wenhui Fu, Yanbing Qi and Xin Wei

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1024; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061024 - 19 Jun 2025

Viewed by 276

Abstract

Arid regions face multiple challenges such as population expansion, water scarcity, land degradation, and biodiversity reduction. Understanding temporal and spatial patterns of ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies is critical for sustainable development and effective ecosystem service management in arid regions under environmental stress. [...] Read more.

Arid regions face multiple challenges such as population expansion, water scarcity, land degradation, and biodiversity reduction. Understanding temporal and spatial patterns of ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies is critical for sustainable development and effective ecosystem service management in arid regions under environmental stress. Taking the Tarim River Basin in China as an example, five ecosystem services (carbon sequestration, water yield, sediment delivery ratio, habitat quality, and food production) were studied at different scales in 1990, 2000, 2010, and 2020 in the inland arid region. Spearman correlation, geographical weighted regression, and self-organizing mapping were used to analyze the ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies. The results showed that the ecosystem services in the basin increased gradually; in particular, the water yield increased from 15.38 × 10⁹ m³ to 29.8 × 10 m³, and the food production increased from 11.03 × 10⁶ t to 29.26 × 10⁶ t. There was a significant positive correlation between carbon sequestration, water yield, and habitat quality, but a negative correlation between sediment delivery ratio and food production. The spatial distribution of trade-offs and synergies of ecosystem services varies in different years and on different scales. The area change in ecosystem service bundles at the pixel scale is relatively small, while the area change at the sub-basin scale is relatively large. This paper provides policy suggestions for the ecological management and sustainable development of the Tarim River Basin through the analysis of ecosystem service trade-offs and synergies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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35 pages, 9294 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Simulation Framework for Detecting the Quality of Forest Tree Stems

by Anwar Sagar, Kalle Kärhä, Kalervo Järvelin and Reza Ghabcheloo

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1023; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061023 - 18 Jun 2025

Viewed by 270

Abstract

The advancement of harvester technology increasingly relies on automated forest analysis within machine operational ranges. However, real-world testing remains costly and time-consuming. To address this, we introduced the Tree Classification Framework (TCF), a simulation platform for the cost-effective testing of harvester technologies. TCF [...] Read more.

The advancement of harvester technology increasingly relies on automated forest analysis within machine operational ranges. However, real-world testing remains costly and time-consuming. To address this, we introduced the Tree Classification Framework (TCF), a simulation platform for the cost-effective testing of harvester technologies. TCF accelerates technology development by simulating forest environments and machine operations, leveraging machine-learning and computer vision models. TCF has four components: Synthetic Forest Creation, which generates diverse virtual forests; Point Cloud Generation, which simulates LiDAR scanning; Stem Identification and Classification, which detects and characterises tree stems; and Experimental Evaluation, which assesses algorithm performance under varying conditions. We tested TCF across ten forest scenarios with different tree densities and morphologies, using two-point cloud generation methods: fixed points per stem and LiDAR scanning at three resolutions. Performance was evaluated against ground-truth data using quantitative metrics and heatmaps. TCF bridges the gap between simulation and real-world forestry, enhancing the harvester technology by improving efficiency, accuracy, and sustainability in automated tree assessment. This paper presents a framework built from affordable, standard components for stem identification and classification. TCF enables the systematic testing of classification algorithms against known ground truth under controlled, repeatable conditions. Through diverse evaluations, the framework demonstrates its utility by providing the necessary components, representations, and procedures for reliable stem classification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Operations and Engineering)

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22 pages, 2476 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Composition of Forest Collaboratives in Northeastern Oregon

by Lee K. Cerveny, Rebecca J. McLain and Kristen Wright

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1022; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061022 - 18 Jun 2025

Viewed by 252

Abstract

Community-based collaboration has been touted as an effective model for forest governance because it promotes democratized decision-making and stakeholder engagement to address landscape-scale problems. Forest collaboratives are assumed to be heterogeneous, consisting of stakeholders with a diverse range of interests. Few studies have [...] Read more.

Community-based collaboration has been touted as an effective model for forest governance because it promotes democratized decision-making and stakeholder engagement to address landscape-scale problems. Forest collaboratives are assumed to be heterogeneous, consisting of stakeholders with a diverse range of interests. Few studies have systematically explored variables associated with collaborative composition. We identify six elements of collaborative composition for investigation: size, stakeholder diversity, balance, locality–diversity, core attendance, and cross-participation. This exploratory study examines five forest collaborative groups in eastern Oregon (USA). We analyzed meeting minutes over an 18-month period to track attendance and evaluate who shows up and at what frequency. While forest collaboratives vary in size, larger collaboratives are more heterogeneous, reflecting greater diversity in terms of stakeholders represented, and have a higher proportion of high-frequency (‘core’) attendees. Core attendees and attendees who participated across multiple forest collaboratives regionwide represent a much narrower set of stakeholder interests. Collaboratives’ attendees reflected a mix of local and non-local organizations. The results raise questions about whether collaborative groups represent the array of public interests in planning for forest management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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18 pages, 2167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Weighing Trade-Offs: Economic and Environmental Impacts of Increasing Log Truck Weight Limits in Texas

by Xufang Zhang, Pooja Chhetri, Aaron Stottlemyer, Ford O’Brien and Eric McConnell

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1021; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061021 - 18 Jun 2025

Viewed by 285

Abstract

Texas has abundant forest resources, and the forest sector contributes tremendously to the state economy. However, Texas has the lowest log truck weight limits among the neighboring states, which puts the state at a competitive disadvantage in the forest industry. This study examined [...] Read more.

Texas has abundant forest resources, and the forest sector contributes tremendously to the state economy. However, Texas has the lowest log truck weight limits among the neighboring states, which puts the state at a competitive disadvantage in the forest industry. This study examined the economic and environmental impacts of increasing log truck weight limits from 84,000 to 92,000 pounds across these supply chain sectors: forestry, logging, sawmills, and truck transportation. Economic estimation was conducted using IMPLAN with 2023 data, while the environmental impacts were assessed through a survey. Two scenarios, representing 12 and 13 percent efficiency improvements from the increased log truck weight limits, were analyzed using standard truck tare weights. The 12 percent efficiency improvement generated a total of 864 jobs, USD 56.31 million in labor income, USD 90.90 million in value added, and USD 189.91 million in industry output. While the 13 percent efficiency improvement generated a total of 936 jobs, USD 61.01 million in labor income, USD 98.52 million in value added, and USD 205.73 million in industry output. Additionally, the 12 percent and 13 percent efficiency improvements reduced annual fuel consumption by 4.69 million and 5.53 million liters and lowered carbon dioxide emissions by 12.61 thousand and 14.89 thousand tonnes, respectively. These results offer valuable insights for policymakers aiming to improve efficiency and profitability in the timber industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Managing Forests for Multiple Ecosystem Services Under Changing Climate)

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20 pages, 4680 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Transcriptome and Physiological Analysis Reveal the Effects of Cyrtotrachelus buqueti Guer on Carbohydrates in Dendrocalamus brandisii Kurz.

by Shiqi Zhang, Yongchao Ma, Bonan Jiang, Yongmei Wang, Hao Wang and Juan Li

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1020; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061020 - 18 Jun 2025

Viewed by 190

Abstract

The bamboo shoots of Dendrocalamus brandisii Kurz. are a type of nutritious and delicious vegetable. However, their quality is vulnerable to mechanical damage and pest infestation, which reduces their economic benefits. In order to study the effects of mechanical damage and pest infestation [...] Read more.

The bamboo shoots of Dendrocalamus brandisii Kurz. are a type of nutritious and delicious vegetable. However, their quality is vulnerable to mechanical damage and pest infestation, which reduces their economic benefits. In order to study the effects of mechanical damage and pest infestation on the quality of bamboo shoots, the changes in the contents of carbohydrates, water, amino acids, proteins, total phenols, and lignin in bamboo shoots after mechanical damage and insect feeding were assessed through transcriptomics combined with physiology; additionally, these changes were analyzed and compared to the gene expression and physiological changes in bamboo shoots under different treatments. The results show that both mechanical damage and insect feeding can lead to an increase in the contents of starch, cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, amino acids, and proteins, as well as a decrease in the contents of water, soluble sugars, and total phenols. Moreover, the changes in the insect feeding group were particularly significant. In addition, through transcriptomic analysis of bamboo shoots after mechanical damage plus insect feeding at 3, 6, 12, and 24 h, 1698, 29,786, 18,853, and 10,544 differentially expressed genes were screened out, respectively. Combined with physiological indexes, the GO and KEGG enrichment analyses revealed that a large number of differentially expressed genes were found in the sucrose and starch metabolism pathways, which might be related to the carbohydrate accumulation in bamboo shoots, suggesting that the impact of insect feeding on the quality of bamboo shoots is greater than that of mechanical damage. This study provides a reference for carbohydrate accumulation in D. brandisii Kurz. bamboo shoots and the impact of Cyrtotrachelus buqueti Guer feeding on their quality, as well as offering some ideas for improving the quality of bamboo shoots. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Genetics and Molecular Biology)

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24 pages, 3367 KiB

Open AccessArticle

From Policy to Practice: A Comparative Topic Modeling Study of Smart Forestry in China

by Yukun Cao, Yafang Zhang, Yuchen Shi and Yue Ren

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1019; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061019 - 18 Jun 2025

Viewed by 285

Abstract

The accelerated penetration of digital technology into natural ecosystems has led to the digital transformation of forest ecological spaces. Smart forestry, as a key pathway for digital-intelligence-enabled ecological governance, plays an important role in global sustainable development and multi-level governance. However, due to [...] Read more.

The accelerated penetration of digital technology into natural ecosystems has led to the digital transformation of forest ecological spaces. Smart forestry, as a key pathway for digital-intelligence-enabled ecological governance, plays an important role in global sustainable development and multi-level governance. However, due to differences in functional positioning, resource capacity, and policy translation mechanisms, semantic shifts and disconnections arise between central policies, local policies, and practical implementation, thereby affecting policy execution and governance effectiveness. Fujian Province has been identified as a key pilot region for smart forestry practices in China, owing to its early adoption of informatization strategies and distinctive ecological conditions. This study employed the Latent Dirichlet Allocation (LDA) topic modeling method to construct a corpus of smart forestry texts, including central policies, local policies, and local media reports from 2010 to 2025. Seven potential themes were identified and categorized into three overarching dimensions: technological empowerment, governance mechanisms, and ecological goals. The results show that central policies emphasize macro strategy and ecological security, local policies focus on platform construction and governance coordination, and local practice features digital innovation and ecological value transformation. Three transmission paths are summarized to support smart forestry policy optimization and inform digital ecological governance globally. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Economics, Policy, and Social Science)

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33 pages, 42480 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wood Anatomy Properties and Global Climate Change Constraints of Forest Species from the Natural Forest of Mozambique

by Eugénia Joaquim-Meque, José Louzada, Francisco Tarcísio Moraes Mady, Valquíria Clara Freire de Souza, Margarida L. R. Liberato and Teresa Fidalgo Fonseca

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1018; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061018 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 306

Abstract

Mozambique’s natural forests are increasingly affected by climate change, deforestation, and unsustainable exploitation, threatening both biodiversity and rural livelihoods. This study examines the wood anatomical characteristics of five commercially important tree species—Spirostachys africana Sond., Afzelia quanzensis Welw., Millettia stuhlmannii Taub., Pterocarpus angolensis [...] Read more.

Mozambique’s natural forests are increasingly affected by climate change, deforestation, and unsustainable exploitation, threatening both biodiversity and rural livelihoods. This study examines the wood anatomical characteristics of five commercially important tree species—Spirostachys africana Sond., Afzelia quanzensis Welw., Millettia stuhlmannii Taub., Pterocarpus angolensis DC., and Colophospermum mopane (J. Kirk ex Benth.) J. Léonard—to assess their vulnerability to drought, cyclones, and floods. The aim is to enhance current knowledge regarding their wood anatomy and to clarify how these anatomical traits could help to identify species most vulnerable to climate extremes. Wood samples were collected from native forests and analyzed in laboratories in Brazil and Portugal using standardized anatomical methods according to IAWA guidelines. The results show that Afzelia quanzensis, Millettia stuhlmannii, Pterocarpus angolensis, and Colophospermum mopane have solitary vessels with vestured pits and thick-walled fibers, which improve hydraulic conductivity and drought resistance. Colophospermum mopane shows the greatest anatomical adaptation to climatic stressors. By contrast, Spirostachys africana has narrow, grouped vessels and thin walls, indicating higher susceptibility to embolism and limited resilience. Cyclone resistance is associated with higher wood density and parenchyma abundance, which enhance mechanical stability and recovery. Flood resilience, however, appears to depend more on leaf and root adaptations than on wood anatomy alone. These findings highlight the role of wood structure in climate adaptability and underline the urgency of integrating anatomical data into forest management strategies to support the conservation and sustainable use of Mozambique’s forest resources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Responses and Adaptation of Trees to Environmental Stress)

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13 pages, 2783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization of Traps Used in the Management of Monochamus galloprovincialis (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae), the Insect-Vector of Pinewood Nematode, to Reduce By-Catches of Non-Target Insects

by Luís Bonifácio and Edmundo Sousa

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1017; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061017 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 236

Abstract

A possible tactic to survey and control Pine Wilt Disease is the use of semiochemical-baited traps to capture the insect-vector, the pine sawyer Monochamus galloprovincialis (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). The most common chemical lure used is the Galloprotect Pack, which includes the aggregation pheromone [...] Read more.

A possible tactic to survey and control Pine Wilt Disease is the use of semiochemical-baited traps to capture the insect-vector, the pine sawyer Monochamus galloprovincialis (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). The most common chemical lure used is the Galloprotect Pack, which includes the aggregation pheromone ([2-undecyloxy] ethanol), a host monoterpene (α-pinene), and bark-beetle pheromones (ipsenol and 2-methyl-3-buten-1-ol). This lure also attracts non-target species, including bark beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Scolytinae) that use ipsenol (Ips sexdentatus (Boerner)) and 2-methyl-3-buten-1-ol (Orthotomicus erosus (Wollaston)) as pheromones, but also large numbers of their natural enemies, Temnoscheila caerulea (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Trogossitidae), Aulonium ruficorne (Olivier) (Coleoptera: Colydiidae), and Thanasimus formicarius (L.) (Coleoptera: Cleridae), and other saproxylic insects (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae). These catches cause a decrease in biodiversity of the forest insect communities, and the removal of predatory insects may favour bark beetle outbreaks. Thus, our project objective was to test trap modifications to try to reduce catches of non-target insects. Modifying the multifunnel trap’s collection cup by placing a 0.5 cm mesh in the drainage hole allowed the escape of all predator beetles (Cleridae, Trogossitidae, Colydiidae, and Histeridae) in 2020, and retained only two Trogossitidae in 2021, against 249 specimens caught in the non-modified collection cup. This simple modification thus allowed the escape of almost all predators, while maintaining the traps’ efficiency at catching the target species, M. galloprovincialis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advance in Pine Wilt Disease)

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15 pages, 2425 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Patterns of Intra-Order Variation in Shoot Traits Are Order-Specific Along the Branch Basal Height Gradient of Larix principis-rupprechtii

by Yang Yu, Huayong Zhang, Zhongyu Wang and Zhao Liu

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1016; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061016 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 214

Abstract

Intra-order trait variation is a key driver of aboveground shoot performance at different branch basal heights. Although the basic light exposure and nutrient supply to shoots vary with branch basal height, most studies have focused on inter-order variation in shoot traits. However, how [...] Read more.

Intra-order trait variation is a key driver of aboveground shoot performance at different branch basal heights. Although the basic light exposure and nutrient supply to shoots vary with branch basal height, most studies have focused on inter-order variation in shoot traits. However, how and to what extent shoot traits change with branch basal height, as well as whether a general intra-order pattern exists among different shoot orders, remain largely unclear. We compared intra-order variation in shoot diameter, length, specific stem length (SSL), and stem tissue density (STD) across four branching orders of Larix principis-rupprechtii along a vertical height gradient of 5.5–6.0 m. We tested (a) the degree of intra-order versus intra-order variation in shoot traits along the gradient and (b) whether intra-order trait patterns and their relationship with branch basal height were consistent across the four branching orders. Specifically, we hypothesized that within a branching order, shoot traits would undergo adjustments: shoots at higher positions would focus on growth (by increasing diameter and length), whereas shoots at lower positions would enhance resource acquisition (by increasing SSL) and protection (by increasing STD). Branching order explained most of the overall variation in shoot traits, including shoot diameter and length, but accounted for only a small portion of the variation in SSL and STD. Branch basal height explained only a small fraction of intra-order shoot trait variation, which was larger within than between basal heights. Moreover, the relationships between traits and branch basal height rarely aligned with our hypotheses and varied considerably across different shoot orders. Along the complex branch basal height gradient, where multiple traits change simultaneously, shoots of different shoot orders exhibit distinct patterns of variation, leading to specific intra-order trait variation. The lack of support for our hypothesis may result from the multifaceted interactions between light availability, spatial constraints, nutrient heterogeneity, and dynamic branch-order interactions. Our findings suggest that to better understand the impact of environmental variation on shoot performance, future research should integrate a more comprehensive analysis of shoot responses to change and measure a broader range of shoot traits and environmental variables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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20 pages, 4215 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Topoclimatic Zoning in the Brazilian Amazon: Enhancing Sustainability and Resilience of Native Forests in the Face of Climate Change

by Lucietta Guerreiro Martorano, Silvio Brienza Junior, Jose Reinaldo da Silva Cabral de Moraes, Werlleson Nascimento, Leila Sheila Silva Lisboa, Denison Lima Correa, Thiago Martins Santos, Rafael Fausto de Lima, Kaio Ramon de Sousa Magalhães and Carlos Tadeu dos Santos Dias

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1015; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061015 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 309

Abstract

The Brazilian Amazon, a global biodiversity hotspot, faces escalating anthropogenic pressures and climate change, underscoring the urgent need to identify priority areas for ecological restoration and sustainable forest use. This study applied a topoclimatic zoning methodological framework in the Legal Amazon to evaluate [...] Read more.

The Brazilian Amazon, a global biodiversity hotspot, faces escalating anthropogenic pressures and climate change, underscoring the urgent need to identify priority areas for ecological restoration and sustainable forest use. This study applied a topoclimatic zoning methodological framework in the Legal Amazon to evaluate the environmental suitability of 12 native tree species across anthropogenically altered landscapes. Species occurrence data were compiled from the RADAMBRASIL Project, GBIF, Herbaria, and forest inventory literature. Climatic, topographic, and geographic variables (1961–2022) informed the zoning model. Our findings reveal that species such as Dinizia excelsa Ducke (81%) and Handroanthus albus (Cham.) Mattos (78%) exhibit exceptionally high topoclimatic suitability. Conversely, Simarouba amara Aubl. (37%) and Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) S.F.Blake var. amazonicum (Huber ex Ducke) Barneby (46%) showed the lowest proportions in high-potential areas, suggesting their greater ecological breadth or specific niche requirements in altered zones. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) indicated strong correlations between high-potential areas and Af3, Am3, and Aw4 climatic subtypes. This study offers a replicable, evidence-based model for prioritizing species and locations, significantly supporting sustainable silviculture and enhancing the long-term resilience of Amazonian forests in the face of climate change. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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22 pages, 1793 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Green Perception on Pro-Greenspace Behavior of Urban Residents in Megacities: Shaped by “Good Citizen” Image

by Yige Ju, Tianyu Chen, Guohua Hu and Feng Mi

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1014; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061014 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 171

Abstract

Green perception underlies pro-greenspace behavior, but external stimuli and behavior are not always aligned. Understanding how residents’ perceived external green stimuli influence pro-greenspace behavior, and how the “good citizen” image (face) shapes this relationship, is essential. The study aims to deepen the understanding [...] Read more.

Green perception underlies pro-greenspace behavior, but external stimuli and behavior are not always aligned. Understanding how residents’ perceived external green stimuli influence pro-greenspace behavior, and how the “good citizen” image (face) shapes this relationship, is essential. The study aims to deepen the understanding of the complex mechanisms driving urban residents’ pro-greenspace behavior by constructing an extended Stimulus-Organism-Response theoretical framework (C-SOR) that includes contextual factors. Using data from a 2024 field survey of 959 residents from Shanghai, China, this study employs Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) regression to examine the main effect of green perception on pro-greenspace behavior. A mediation model is employed to analyze the mediating role of nature connectedness, while a moderation model tests the moderating effect of “good citizen” image (face) on the stimulus–behavior relationship. The results show that green perception significantly promotes pro-greenspace behavior, positively influencing it through nature connectedness. However, the “good citizen” image (face) exerts a motivational crowding-out effect on green perception. Further analysis reveals individual heterogeneity in the expression of these effects across different types of pro-greenspace behavior. The findings highlight the importance of green space experience and the activation of environmental wisdom in traditional culture, offering new perspectives for developing strategies to guide pro-greenspace behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Biophilic Cities and Communities: Human-Environment Interaction and Sustainable Governance)

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14 pages, 2477 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Assessment of Woody Species for Runoff and Soil Erosion Control on Forest Road Slopes in Harvested Sites of the Hyrcanian Forests, Northern Iran

by Pejman Dalir, Ramin Naghdi, Sanaz Jafari and Petros A. Tsioras

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1013; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061013 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 233

Abstract

Soil erosion and surface runoff on forest road slopes are major environmental concerns, especially in harvested areas, making effective mitigation strategies essential for sustainable forest management. The study compared the effectiveness of three selected woody species on forest road slopes as a possible [...] Read more.

Soil erosion and surface runoff on forest road slopes are major environmental concerns, especially in harvested areas, making effective mitigation strategies essential for sustainable forest management. The study compared the effectiveness of three selected woody species on forest road slopes as a possible mitigating action for runoff and soil erosion in harvested sites. Plots measuring 2 m × 3 m were set up with three species—alder (Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.), medlar (Mespilus germanica L.) and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.)—on the slopes of forest roads. Within each plot, root abundance, root density, canopy percentage, canopy height, herbaceous cover percentage, and selected soil characteristics were measured and analyzed. Root frequency and Root Area Ratio (the ratio between the area occupied by roots in a unit area of soil) measurements were conducted by excavating 50 × 50 cm soil profiles at a 10-cm distance from the base of each plant in the four cardinal directions. The highest root abundance and RAR values were found in hawthorn, followed by alder and medlar in both cases. The same order of magnitude was evidenced in runoff (255.42 mL m⁻² in hawthorn followed by 176.81 mL m⁻² in alder and 67.36 mL m⁻² in medlar) and the reverse order in terms of soil erosion (8.23 g m⁻² in hawthorn compared to 22.5 g m⁻² in alder and 50.24 g m⁻² in medlar). The results of the study confirm that using plant species with dense and deep roots, especially hawthorn, significantly reduces runoff and erosion, offering a nature-based solution for sustainable forest road management. These results highlight the need for further research under diverse ecological and soil conditions to optimize species selection and improve erosion mitigation strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Research Developments on Forest Road Planning and Design)

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36 pages, 5834 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Ecological Analysis and Ethnobotanical Evaluation of Plants in Khanthararat Public Benefit Forest, Kantarawichai District, Thailand

by Piyaporn Saensouk, Surapon Saensouk, Thawatphong Boonma, Kasan Hanchana, Sarayut Rakarcha, Charun Maknoi, Khamfa Chanthavongsa and Tammanoon Jitpromma

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1012; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061012 - 17 Jun 2025

Viewed by 788

Abstract

Ethnobotanical knowledge and biodiversity are critical components of sustainable natural resource management, especially in regions undergoing rapid environmental and socio-economic change. In Northeast Thailand, traditional plant knowledge is deeply intertwined with local cultural identity but faces increasing threats from urbanization, agricultural expansion, and [...] Read more.

Ethnobotanical knowledge and biodiversity are critical components of sustainable natural resource management, especially in regions undergoing rapid environmental and socio-economic change. In Northeast Thailand, traditional plant knowledge is deeply intertwined with local cultural identity but faces increasing threats from urbanization, agricultural expansion, and generational shifts. This study presents a floristic and ethnobotanical survey of the Khanthararat Public Benefit Forest, a community-managed remnant forest in Maha Sarakham Province, documenting 110 plant species from 42 families. The Fabaceae family was the most diverse, consistent with other tropical ecosystems. Predominantly native species (85.45%) indicate minimal disturbance, while introduced (11.82%) and endemic species (2.73%) reflect ecological complexity. Ethnobotanical data revealed 34 wild edible species, 33 medicinal plants, and 19 ornamental species used by the local community, highlighting the forest’s vital role in supporting livelihoods and cultural practices. High Use Values (UVs) for species such as Spondias pinnata and Coccinia grandis underline their dual importance in food and medicine. Informant Consensus Factor (Fic) values demonstrate strong agreement on plant use for reproductive and musculoskeletal health, reflecting well-established traditional knowledge. The findings underscore the forest’s dual significance as an ecological hotspot and a repository of cultural heritage, providing essential ecosystem services including biodiversity conservation, climate regulation, and cultural provisioning. By integrating traditional knowledge with biodiversity assessment, this study offers valuable insights for community-based conservation strategies that sustain both ecological integrity and cultural resilience in Northeast Thailand. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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12 pages, 18331 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vibration Control of Forestry Storage Ventilation Fans Through Structural Parameter Optimization Considering Substructure Uncertainty

by Binbin Ji, Yi Zhao, Juan Chen, Linyun Xu, Hongping Zhou and Jie Zhou

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1011; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061011 - 16 Jun 2025

Viewed by 442

Abstract

The operational stability and vibration performance of large-scale ventilation fans used in forestry storage facilities are critical for ensuring the safety and environmental control of timber and wood-based materials. To effectively reduce vibration levels and mitigate resonance risks, this study proposes a structural [...] Read more.

The operational stability and vibration performance of large-scale ventilation fans used in forestry storage facilities are critical for ensuring the safety and environmental control of timber and wood-based materials. To effectively reduce vibration levels and mitigate resonance risks, this study proposes a structural parameter optimization method that explicitly considers substructure uncertainty. By establishing an interval uncertainty optimization model, critical substructures and key structural parameters affecting natural frequencies were systematically identified. Structural parameters were optimized using response surface methodology to maximize the separation between the fan’s natural frequencies and its operating frequency, thereby reducing the likelihood of resonance. Experimental results validated a substantial reduction in vibration levels, confirming the method’s effectiveness in enhancing operational stability and prolonging the service life of these large-scale ventilation systems. This approach provides valuable insights and practical guidance for vibration control and reliability improvement of mechanical equipment in forestry storage and environmental control systems Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Operations and Engineering)

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18 pages, 10118 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Comparative Study on the Effects of Heat Treatment on the Properties of Rubberwood Veneer

by Yayun Wu, He Sun, Zi You, Zhiwei He, Shiqi Zeng, Yuxing Han and Taian Chen

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1010; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061010 - 16 Jun 2025

Viewed by 597

Abstract

Heat treatment is a widely employed method for modifying solid wood and has also been extended to veneer-type woods. Owing to the thinness and ease of handling of veneers, the regulation of protective media in heat treatment has not been highly regarded by [...] Read more.

Heat treatment is a widely employed method for modifying solid wood and has also been extended to veneer-type woods. Owing to the thinness and ease of handling of veneers, the regulation of protective media in heat treatment has not been highly regarded by the industry and is scarcely reported in research. In light of this, in this paper, rubber wood (Hevea brasiliensis) veneer is taken as the research subject to investigate the influences of heat treatment with hot air (HTHA) and heat treatment with superheated steam (HTSS) at different temperatures on the chemical properties, longitudinal tensile strength, color values, hygroscopicity, thermal degradation performance and microstructure of the wood. The results show that heat treatment alters the chemical properties of wood. Both heat treatments reduce the content of hemicellulose and other components in the veneer, and the characteristic peak of lignin in HTSS is slightly enhanced. The crystallinity of the veneer slightly increases after heat treatment, and the increase in HTSS is greater than that in HTHA. Through scanning electron microscopy, it is observed that heat treatment can effectively remove starch granules in rubber wood veneer, with HTSS being superior to HTHA, and the removal effect increases with the rise in temperature. The longitudinal tensile strength of the veneer decreased by 0.69%, 3.87%, and 24.98% respectively at 135~155 °C HTHA, and by 3.25%, 7.00%, and 18.47% respectively at 135~155 °C HTSS. Both heat treatments reduced the lightness of the veneer and increased the chroma index. At 155 °C, the color difference value of the veneer treated by HTSS was smaller than that treated by HTHA. The effects of heat treatment on the moisture absorption performance of the veneer were different. The equilibrium moisture content of the veneer treated at 135 °C HTHA and 135~155 °C HTSS was lower than that of the untreated material, indicating an improvement in moisture absorption stability. The maximum moisture sorption hysteresis of untreated material is 3.39%. The maximum moisture sorption hysteresis of 135 °C HTHA is not much different from that of untreated material. The values of 145 °C and 155 °C HTHA increase by 8.85% and 9.14% respectively. The values of 135 °C, 145 °C, and 155 °C HTSS increase by 22.42%, 25.37%, and 19.47% respectively. The moisture absorption hysteresis of the veneer increases after heat treatment, and the effect of HTSS improvement is more significant. From the TG and DTG curves, it can be seen that the residual mass percentage of the veneer after heat treatment is higher than that of the untreated material. The residual mass percentage of HTHA at 135 °C, 145 °C, and 155 °C increased by 3.13%, 3.07%, and 2.06% respectively, and that of HTSS increased by 5.14%, 7.21%, and 6.08% respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Wood Science and Forest Products)

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12 pages, 1708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Preliminary Report of Three Entomopathogenic Fungi as Potential Biocontrol Agents Against the Oak Wilt Vector, Platypus koryoensis

by Jin Heung Lee, Nam Kyu Kim, Keumchul Shin, Jong Kyu Lee and Dong-Hyeon Lee

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061009 - 16 Jun 2025

Viewed by 466

Abstract

Entomopathogenic fungi are a group of fungi that infect and kill insects to obtain nutrients, thereby contributing to the natural regulation of insect populations. In recent years, they have been increasingly utilized as biological control agents, particularly in response to the rising prevalence [...] Read more.

Entomopathogenic fungi are a group of fungi that infect and kill insects to obtain nutrients, thereby contributing to the natural regulation of insect populations. In recent years, they have been increasingly utilized as biological control agents, particularly in response to the rising prevalence of pesticide-resistant pests in agricultural systems. Representative examples include Beauveria bassiana and Metarhizium anisopliae, which are regarded as natural enemies of pests in agroecosystems. Since the first report of Korean oak wilt disease in 2004, the disease has continuously spread across the country and causes severe damage to deciduous oak species, especially Quercus mongolica. Although many efforts have been made to effectively control the disease, including chemical treatments, the control efficacy was shown to be low, and given the environmental side effects arising from the use of insecticides, there has been a demand for alternative control strategies. Integrated Pest Management in forests promotes ecological sustainability by reducing chemical pesticide use, conserving biodiversity, and enhancing long-term forest health. In this study, to mitigate issues with disease management strategies, assessments were made on three entomopathogenic fungi, B. bassiana, M. anisopliae, and Purpureocillium lilacinum, as potential biological control agents against oak wilt disease and its insect vector, Platypus koryoensis. In this regard, we investigated the insecticidal efficacy and LT₅₀ of each entomopathogenic fungus, and the results showed that all three entomopathogenic fungal strains exhibited fast insecticidal effects against the insect vector, P. koryoensis, with M. anisopliae showing the fastest action, recording a lethal time to 50% mortality (LT₅₀) of 58.7 h. The spores of M. anisopliae were found to be sensitive to high temperatures, while demonstrating a relatively high germination rate under UV exposure and strong initial germination ability at low temperatures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pathogenic Fungi in Forest)

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18 pages, 3086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Contribution of Different Forest Strata on Energy and Carbon Fluxes over an Araucaria Forest in Southern Brazil

by Marcelo Bortoluzzi Diaz, Pablo Eli Soares de Oliveira, Vanessa de Arruda Souza, Claudio Alberto Teichrieb, Hans Rogério Zimermann, Gustavo Pujol Veeck, Alecsander Mergen, Maria Eduarda Oliveira Pinheiro, Michel Baptistella Stefanello, Osvaldo L. L. de Moraes, Gabriel de Oliveira, Celso Augusto Guimarães Santos and Débora Regina Roberti

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1008; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061008 - 16 Jun 2025

Viewed by 294

Abstract

Forest–atmosphere interactions through mass and energy fluxes significantly influence climate processes. However, due to anthropogenic actions, native Araucaria forests in southern Brazil, part of the Atlantic Forest biome, have been drastically reduced. This study quantifies CO₂ and energy flux contributions from each [...] Read more.

Forest–atmosphere interactions through mass and energy fluxes significantly influence climate processes. However, due to anthropogenic actions, native Araucaria forests in southern Brazil, part of the Atlantic Forest biome, have been drastically reduced. This study quantifies CO₂ and energy flux contributions from each forest stratum to improve understanding of surface–atmosphere interactions. Eddy covariance data from November 2009 to April 2012 were used to assess fluxes in an Araucaria forest in Paraná, Brazil, across the ecosystem, understory, and overstory strata. On average, the ecosystem acts as a carbon sink of −298.96 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹, with absorption doubling in spring–summer compared to autumn–winter. The understory primarily acts as a source, while the overstory functions as a CO₂ sink, driving carbon absorption. The overstory contributes 63% of the gross primary production (GPP) and 75% of the latent heat flux, while the understory accounts for 94% of the ecosystem respiration (RE). The energy fluxes exhibited marked seasonality, with higher latent and sensible heat fluxes in summer, with sensible heat predominantly originating from the overstory. Annual ecosystem evapotranspiration reaches 1010 mm yr⁻¹: 60% of annual precipitation. Water-use efficiency is 2.85 g C kgH₂O⁻¹, with higher values in autumn–winter and in the understory. The influence of meteorological variables on the fluxes was analyzed across different scales and forest strata, showing that solar radiation is the main driver of daily fluxes, while air temperature and vapor pressure deficit are more relevant at monthly scales. This study highlights the overstory’s dominant role in carbon absorption and energy fluxes, reinforcing the need to preserve these ecosystems for their crucial contributions to climate regulation and water-use efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Ecology and Management)

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15 pages, 6195 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physiological and Transcriptomic Insights into Lead Uptake and Tolerance in Moso Bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) Highlight Its Strong Lead Tolerance Capacity

by Fan Yang, Rong Xu, Chenyang Zhu, Haibao Ji, Ji Feng Shao and Kangkang Huang

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1007; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061007 - 15 Jun 2025

Viewed by 351

Abstract

Lead (Pb) contamination in Moso bamboo forests poses a challenge in terms of sustainable development and raises concerns about the safety of bamboo shoots for consumption. However, the physiological impacts of Pb stress on Moso bamboo growth and the molecular mechanisms governing its [...] Read more.

Lead (Pb) contamination in Moso bamboo forests poses a challenge in terms of sustainable development and raises concerns about the safety of bamboo shoots for consumption. However, the physiological impacts of Pb stress on Moso bamboo growth and the molecular mechanisms governing its adaptive responses remain poorly understood. This study comprehensively investigated the physiological and transcriptomic responses of Moso bamboo to Pb stress. The results showed that low concentrations (1–10 µM) of Pb stress had minimal adverse effects on biomass accumulation and the photochemical quantum yield of PSII in Moso bamboo. However, at a high Pb concentration (50 µM), the growth of roots was significantly inhibited, while Pb accumulation in the roots and shoots reached 15,611 mg·kg⁻¹ and 759 mg·kg⁻¹, respectively. The uptake of Pb was increased as the external Pb concentration increased, but the xylem loading of Pb reached saturation at 57.79 µM after six-hour exposure. Pb was mainly localized in the epidermis and pericycle cells in the roots, where the thickening of cell walls in these cells was found after Pb treatment. Transcriptomic profiling identified 1485 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), with significant alterations in genes associated with metal cation transporters and cell wall synthesis. These findings collectively indicate that Moso bamboo is a Pb-tolerant plant, characterized by a high accumulation capacity and efficient xylem loading. The tolerance mechanism likely involves the transcriptional regulation of genes related to heavy metal transport and cell wall biosynthesis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advancements in Bamboo and Rattan: Insights into Molecular Biology, Physiology, Ecology, and Applications)

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17 pages, 6414 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Vegetation Restoration Significantly Increased Soil Organic Nitrogen Mineralization and Nitrification Rates in Karst Regions of China

by Lin Yang, Hui Yang, Lijun Liu, Shuting Yang, Dongni Wen, Xuelan Li, Lei Meng, Zhong Deng, Jian Liang, Danmei Lu and Tongbin Zhu

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1006; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061006 - 15 Jun 2025

Viewed by 293

Abstract

Understanding the processes of organic nitrogen (N) mineralization to ammonium (NH₄⁺) and NH₄⁺ oxidation to nitrate (NO₃⁻), which, together, supply soil inorganic N (the sum of NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻), is [...] Read more.

Understanding the processes of organic nitrogen (N) mineralization to ammonium (NH₄⁺) and NH₄⁺ oxidation to nitrate (NO₃⁻), which, together, supply soil inorganic N (the sum of NH₄⁺ and NO₃⁻), is of great significance for guiding the restoration of degraded ecosystems. This study used space-for-time substitution to investigate the dynamic changes in the rates of organic N mineralization (M_Norg) and nitrification (O_NH₄) in soil at different vegetation restoration stages. Soil samples were collected from grassland (3–5 years), shrub-grassland (7–8 years), early-stage shrubland (15–20 years), late-stage shrubland (30–35 years), early-stage woodland (45–50 years), and late-stage woodland (70–80 years) in the subtropical karst region of China during the dry (December) and rainy (July) seasons. The M_Norg and O_NH₄ were determined using the ¹⁵N labeling technique. The soil microbial community was determined using the phospholipid fatty acid method. Soil organic carbon (SOC), total nitrogen (TN), NH₄⁺, NO₃⁻, and inorganic N contents, as well as the soil moisture content (SMC) were also measured. Our results showed that SOC and TN contents, and the SMC, as well as microbial community abundances increased markedly from grassland to the late-stage shrubland. Especially in the late-stage shrubland, the abundance of the total microbial community, bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, and AMF in soil was significantly higher than other restoration stages. These results indicate that vegetation restoration significantly increased soil nutrient content and microbial community abundance. From grassland to the late-stage shrubland, the soil NH₄⁺, NO₃⁻, and inorganic N contents increased significantly, and the NH₄⁺:NO₃⁻ ratios changed from greater than 1 to less than 1, indicating that vegetation restoration significantly influenced soil inorganic N content and composition. As restoration progressed, the M_Norg and O_NH₄ increased significantly, from 0.04 to 3.01 mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹ and 0.35 to 2.48 mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹ in the dry season, and from 3.26 to 7.20 mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹ and 1.47 to 10.7 mg N kg⁻¹ d⁻¹ in the rainy season. At the same vegetation restoration stage, the M_Norg and O_NH₄ in the rainy season were markedly higher than those in the dry season. These results indicate that vegetation restoration and seasonal variations could significantly influence M_Norg and O_NH₄. Correlation analysis showed that the increase in M_Norg during vegetation restoration was mainly attributed to the increase in SOC and TN contents, as well as the total microbial community, bacterial, fungal, actinomycetes, and AMF abundances, and that the increase in O_NH₄ was mainly attributed to the increase in M_Norg and the decrease in the F: B ratio. Moreover, the M_Norg and O_NH₄ showed a strong positive correlation with inorganic N content. This study clarifies that vegetation restoration in karst regions could significantly increase M_Norg and O_NH₄ through enhancing soil carbon and N contents, as well as microbial community abundances, thereby increasing the available soil N supply, which could provide a theoretical basis for soil fertility regulation in future rocky desertification management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Soil)

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24 pages, 3630 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Climate-Induced Shift in the Population Dynamics of Tortrix viridana L. in Ukraine

by Valentyna Meshkova, Serhij Stankevych, Yana Koshelyaeva, Volodymyr Korsovetskyi and Oleksandr Borysenko

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1005; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061005 - 14 Jun 2025

Viewed by 950

Abstract

Tortrix viridana (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) (TV) is a serious pest of oaks in the West-Palearctic. In Ukraine in the 50–70s of the 20th century, the area of TV outbreaks reached 140–180 thousand hectares. Since the late 1980s, outbreaks have become rarer and [...] Read more.

Tortrix viridana (Linnaeus, 1758) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) (TV) is a serious pest of oaks in the West-Palearctic. In Ukraine in the 50–70s of the 20th century, the area of TV outbreaks reached 140–180 thousand hectares. Since the late 1980s, outbreaks have become rarer and have occurred in a smaller area. This research aimed to assess the main parameters of TV outbreaks in Ukraine, considering its prevalence in flush feeders’ complex, the suitability of forest structure for this insect, and the phenological mismatch between bud-flushing and TV hatching. Historical data on TV outbreaks in Ukraine since 1947, data for 1978–2025 by regions, field and climate data, and forest management databases as of 1996 and 2017 from the Kharkiv region were analyzed. Since 1985, the incidence, severity, and duration of TV outbreaks have decreased in all regions of Ukraine. It was explained by: (1) TV decrease in the flush feeding complex due to monophagy; (2) decrease in the suitable area due to a change in the forest age composition, proportion of pure oak stands, and stands with low relative stocking density; (3) the shift of oak bud-flushing and TV hatching to earlier dates with the tendency of earlier bud-flushing than egg-hatching. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Long-Term and Seasonal Population Dynamics of Forest Insects at Climate Change)

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29 pages, 2209 KiB

Open AccessReview

Phylogenetic Diversity in Forests: Insights into Evolutionary Patterns and Conservation Strategies

by Sajid Ali, Adnan Amin, Muhammad Saeed Akhtar and Wajid Zaman

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1004; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061004 - 14 Jun 2025

Viewed by 1131

Abstract

Forests harbor most of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity; however, traditional conservation frameworks prioritize species richness over evolutionary diversity. Phylogenetic diversity (PD) reflects the complete evolutionary history contained within a community, offering a more comprehensive understanding of biodiversity. This review examines the theoretical foundations [...] Read more.

Forests harbor most of the world’s terrestrial biodiversity; however, traditional conservation frameworks prioritize species richness over evolutionary diversity. Phylogenetic diversity (PD) reflects the complete evolutionary history contained within a community, offering a more comprehensive understanding of biodiversity. This review examines the theoretical foundations of PD, highlights methodological advancements in its assessment, and discusses its conservation applications in forest ecosystems. We discuss key metrics, including Faith’s PD, mean pairwise distance (MPD), mean nearest taxon distance (MNTD), and indices, including the net relatedness index (NRI) and nearest taxon index (NTI), as well as analytical tools (Picante, Phylocom, Biodiverse) and frameworks like the categorical analysis of neo- and paleo-endemism (CANAPE) and the evolutionarily distinct and globally endangered (EDGE) index, evaluating their effectiveness in identifying evolutionarily significant conservation areas. We examine global and regional forest PD patterns, including elevational and latitudinal gradients, using case studies from the Pan-Himalayan region, Tibetan Plateau, and northern Pakistan, along with the environmental and anthropogenic drivers, e.g., soil pH, precipitation, land-use change, and invasive species, and historical biogeographic forces that shape lineage diversification. We emphasize the need for data standardization, regional research expansion, and the inclusion of PD in national biodiversity strategies and global policy frameworks. This review highlights the transformative potential of shifting from species-centric to evolutionarily informed conservation, and provides a critical framework for enhancing the long-term resilience and adaptive capacity of forest ecosystems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Forest Biodiversity)

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Open AccessArticle

Characteristics of the Distribution of Village Enclosure Forests in the Beijing Plain Area and Influencing Factors

by Yuan Zhang, Erfa Qiu, Chenxuan Wang, Zhenkai Sun and Jiali Jin

Forests 2025, 16(6), 1003; https://doi.org/10.3390/f16061003 - 14 Jun 2025

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Abstract

Beijing’s plain-region villages face significant shortages of internal green space, yet studies on village enclosure forests as a supplementary green infrastructure to serve rural communities are limited. So, this study examines village enclosure forests in Beijing Plain to address rural forest shortages. Using [...] Read more.

Beijing’s plain-region villages face significant shortages of internal green space, yet studies on village enclosure forests as a supplementary green infrastructure to serve rural communities are limited. So, this study examines village enclosure forests in Beijing Plain to address rural forest shortages. Using 2019 aerial imagery (0.5 m resolution) and forest inventory data, we analysed 1271 villages’ 300 m radius forest coverage via ArcGIS Pro. Key findings show (1) overall forest coverage is 45.30%, higher in outer suburbs (OA), traditional villages (TSH), and large villages; (2) functional types are mainly ecological landscape (37.58%) and ecological–economic forests (36.37%); and (3) afforestation projects (Million-Mu Project rounds 1–2) account for 47.37% coverage. Regression analyses reveal human activities as dominant influencers, with cultivated land area (CLA) having the highest explanatory power. Other significant factors (p < 0.05) include distance from commercial residences (DCR), village size (VS), distance from famous historical sites based on developmental zoning, and forest functions to optimize rural habitats. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Urban Forestry)

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Forests, Volume 16, Issue 6 (June 2025) – 164 articles

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