Selected Papers from MycoKey - MycoTWIN - ISM international conference

A special issue of Toxins (ISSN 2072-6651). This special issue belongs to the section "Mycotoxins".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 May 2022) | Viewed by 35332

Special Issue Editors

Oil Crops Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan 430062, China
Interests: mycotoxins; aflatoxin
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

This Special Issue is strongly oriented towards integrated, sustainable, and effective strategies for mycotoxin minimization worldwide, with particular attention to topics on advances in applied research in food and feed chains, including industrial actions. The comprehensive knowledge available at a global scale will be integrated with effective technical and management solutions for application at key points in the major affected food and feed chains (maize, wheat, barley, grape, dried fruits, milk, etc.).

We are anticipating contributions from all international scientific communities, industries/companies, and stakeholders that operate in the field of food safety, including effective solutions arising from their experiences and from national and international programs/projects as MycoKey and MyToolBox—two significant H2020 EU–China projects whose results will be presented at the MycoKey International Conference, Bari, Italy, November 2021 .

Particular attention will be given to the regulated and emerging mycotoxins (aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, fumonisins, ochratoxins, patulin, T-2 and HT-2 toxins, Alternaria toxins, Ergot alkaloids, etc.) that are found in various commodities and final products. The main fields of interest will be covered include:

  • Biodiversity & Toxigenic Fungi Monitoring
  • Challenges in Mycotoxin Analyses
  • Prevention in the Field
  • Remediation & Intervention
  • Food Processing & Technology
  • Modeling & ICT Solutions
  • Mycotoxin Control in Animal Feed

In conclusion, this Special Issue calls for papers dealing with the application of integrated approaches to reduce the risks associated with toxigenic fungi and related mycotoxins. The editors will also consider reviews that summarize current chain management or viewpoints for further discussion. Short communications that report on important strategies are also welcome.

We look forward to receiving your submissions to this Special Issue.

Prof. Antonio F. Logrieco
Prof. Jie Feng
Prof. Dr. Sarah De Saeger
Prof. Peiwu Li
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a double-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Toxins is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • food/feed Safety
  • mycotoxin reduction
  • food chain
  • sustainable management
  • pre- and post-harvest strategies
  • key actions
  • mycotoxin monitoring

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

16 pages, 1327 KiB  
Article
Industrial-Scale Cleaning Solutions for the Reduction of Fusarium Toxins in Maize
by Michelangelo Pascale, Antonio F. Logrieco, Vincenzo Lippolis, Annalisa De Girolamo, Salvatore Cervellieri, Veronica M. T. Lattanzio, Biancamaria Ciasca, Anna Vega, Mareike Reichel, Matthias Graeber and Katarina Slettengren
Toxins 2022, 14(11), 728; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14110728 - 25 Oct 2022
Viewed by 1374
Abstract
Grain cleaning is the most effective non-destructive post-harvest mitigation strategy to reduce high levels of mycotoxins on account of the removal of mold-infected grains and grain fractions with high mycotoxin content. In this study, the reduction in the concentration of some co-occurring Fusarium [...] Read more.
Grain cleaning is the most effective non-destructive post-harvest mitigation strategy to reduce high levels of mycotoxins on account of the removal of mold-infected grains and grain fractions with high mycotoxin content. In this study, the reduction in the concentration of some co-occurring Fusarium toxins in maize, namely deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA) and fumonisins B1 and B2 (FBs), was evaluated at an industrial-scale level by mechanical removal (sieving and density separation) of dust, coarse, small, broken, shriveled and low-density kernels and/or optical sorting of defected kernels. Samples were dynamically collected according to the Commission Regulation No. 401/2006 along the entire process line. Mycotoxin analyses of water–slurry aggregate samples were performed by validated LC methods. Depending on the contamination levels in raw incoming maize, the overall reduction rates ranged from 36 to 67% for DON, from 67 to 87% for ZEA and from 27 to 67% for FBs. High levels of DON, ZEA and FBs were found in all rejected fractions with values, respectively, up to 3030%, 1510% and 2680%, compared to their content in uncleaned maize. Results showed that grain cleaning equipment based on mechanical and or optical sorting technologies can provide a significant reduction in Fusarium toxin contamination in maize. Full article
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20 pages, 4848 KiB  
Article
Multi-Mycotoxin Long-Term Monitoring Survey on North-Italian Maize over an 11-Year Period (2011–2021): The Co-Occurrence of Regulated, Masked and Emerging Mycotoxins and Fungal Metabolites
by Sabrina Locatelli, Valentina Scarpino, Chiara Lanzanova, Elio Romano and Amedeo Reyneri
Toxins 2022, 14(8), 520; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14080520 - 29 Jul 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 2024
Abstract
Maize is considered one of the most susceptible crops to mycotoxin-producing fungi throughout the world, mainly belonging to the Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus spp. Maize is mainly used as animal feeds in Italy, as well as for human consumption, being essential for all [...] Read more.
Maize is considered one of the most susceptible crops to mycotoxin-producing fungi throughout the world, mainly belonging to the Fusarium spp. and Aspergillus spp. Maize is mainly used as animal feeds in Italy, as well as for human consumption, being essential for all the protected designation of origin (DOP) products. Our study investigated the occurrence of regulated mycotoxins in 3769 maize grain samples collected from 88 storage centers by the National Monitoring Network over an 11-year period (2011–2021). Moreover, an in-depth survey over a 4-year period, characterized by extremely different meteorological conditions, was conducted to investigate the co-occurrence of regulated, masked, and emerging mycotoxins. The survey confirmed that Fusarium spp. was the most frequent fungi and fumonisins were the main mycotoxins that were constantly detected in the different years and areas. Moreover, the areas characterized by high fumonisin levels were also the most prone to contamination by emerging mycotoxins produced by the same Fusarium species of the Liseola section. On the other hand, as a result of climatic changes, maize grains have also been affected by the increased frequency of aflatoxin accumulation. Deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, and other emerging mycotoxins produced by the same Fusarium species as the Discolor section occurred more abundantly in some areas in Northern Italy and in years characterized by predisposing meteorological conditions. Full article
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13 pages, 952 KiB  
Article
The Role of Nitrogen Fertilization on the Occurrence of Regulated, Modified and Emerging Mycotoxins and Fungal Metabolites in Maize Kernels
by Valentina Scarpino, Michael Sulyok, Rudolf Krska, Amedeo Reyneri and Massimo Blandino
Toxins 2022, 14(7), 448; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14070448 - 30 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1380
Abstract
The European Food Safety Authority is currently evaluating the risks related to the presence of emerging mycotoxins in food and feeds. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of soil fertility, resulting from different nitrogen fertilization rates, on the contamination [...] Read more.
The European Food Safety Authority is currently evaluating the risks related to the presence of emerging mycotoxins in food and feeds. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of soil fertility, resulting from different nitrogen fertilization rates, on the contamination of regulated mycotoxins and emerging fungal metabolites in maize grains. The trial was carried out in the 2012–2013 growing seasons as part of a long-term (20-year) experimental platform area in North-West Italy, where five different N rates, ranging from 0 to 400 kg N ha−1, were applied to maize each year. Maize samples were analyzed by means of a dilute-and-shoot multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS method, and more than 25 of the most abundant mycotoxins and fungal metabolites were detected. Contamination by fumonisins and other fungal metabolites produced by Fusarium spp. of the section Liseola was observed to have increased in soils that showed a poor fertility status. On the other hand, an overload of nitrogen fertilization was generally associated with higher deoxynivalenol and zearalenone contamination in maize kernels, as well as a higher risk of other fungal metabolites produced by Fusarium spp. sections Discolor and Roseum. A balanced application of N fertilizer, in accordance with maize uptake, generally appears to be the best solution to guarantee an overall lower contamination by regulated mycotoxins and emerging fungal metabolites. Full article
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11 pages, 848 KiB  
Article
Effects of Turmeric Powder on Aflatoxin M1 and Aflatoxicol Excretion in Milk from Dairy Cows Exposed to Aflatoxin B1 at the EU Maximum Tolerable Levels
by Flavia Girolami, Andrea Barbarossa, Paola Badino, Shiva Ghadiri, Damiano Cavallini, Anna Zaghini and Carlo Nebbia
Toxins 2022, 14(7), 430; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14070430 - 24 Jun 2022
Cited by 29 | Viewed by 3307
Abstract
Due to the climatic change, an increase in aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) maize contamination has been reported in Europe. As an alternative to mineral binders, natural phytogenic compounds are increasingly used to counteract the negative effects of AFB1 in farm animals. In cows, even [...] Read more.
Due to the climatic change, an increase in aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) maize contamination has been reported in Europe. As an alternative to mineral binders, natural phytogenic compounds are increasingly used to counteract the negative effects of AFB1 in farm animals. In cows, even low dietary AFB1 concentrations may result in the milk excretion of the genotoxic carcinogen metabolite aflatoxin M1 (AFM1). In this study, we tested the ability of dietary turmeric powder (TP), an extract from Curcuma longa (CL) rich in curcumin and curcuminoids, in reducing AFM1 mammary excretion in Holstein–Friesian cows. Both active principles are reported to inhibit AFM1 hepatic synthesis and interact with drug transporters involved in AFB1 absorption and excretion. A crossover design was applied to two groups of cows (n = 4 each) with a 4-day washout. Animals received a diet contaminated with low AFB1 levels (5 ± 1 µg/kg) for 10 days ± TP supplementation (20 g/head/day). TP treatment had no impact on milk yield, milk composition or somatic cell count. Despite a tendency toward a lower average AFM1 milk content in the last four days of the treatment (below EU limits), no statistically significant differences with the AFB1 group occurred. Since the bioavailability of TP active principles may be a major issue, further investigations with different CL preparations are warranted. Full article
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15 pages, 1805 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Foliar Fungicide and Insecticide Application on the Contamination of Fumonisins, Moniliformin and Deoxynivalenol in Maize Used for Food Purposes
by Massimo Blandino, Valentina Scarpino, Giulio Testa, Francesca Vanara and Amedeo Reyneri
Toxins 2022, 14(7), 422; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14070422 - 21 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1642
Abstract
The fungal ear rot of maize cultivated in temperate areas is mainly due to the Fusarium species. The use of insecticides against European Corn Borer (ECB) reduces the severity of fungal ear rot as well as the fumonisin (FB) and moniliformin (MON) levels [...] Read more.
The fungal ear rot of maize cultivated in temperate areas is mainly due to the Fusarium species. The use of insecticides against European Corn Borer (ECB) reduces the severity of fungal ear rot as well as the fumonisin (FB) and moniliformin (MON) levels in maize kernels at harvest, which in turn results in a lowering of their effect on deoxynivalenol (DON) control. However, the direct fungicidal control of ear rot has rarely been implemented for maize, and the first studies reported conflicting results on the reduction of mycotoxins. In the present experiment, field trials were carried out in North Italy over three growing seasons to study the effect of fungicide application timings on maize to control mycotoxins, considering the interaction of the application with the insecticide treatment, according to a full factorial split plot design. The mycotoxin content was determined through LC−MS/MS analysis. The field trials showed a significant reduction in ECB severity (75%), fungal ear rot severity (68%), Fusarium Liseola section infection (46%), FBs (75%) and MON (79%) as a result of the insecticide application for all the years, while the DON content increased by 60%. On the other hand, a fungicide application alone or applied in plots protected by an insecticide was never effective for the fungal symptoms, infection or mycotoxin content. The results confirm that a correct insecticide application to control ECB damage is the most effective agrochemical solution for the control of fungal ear rot, FBs and MON. Full article
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24 pages, 1783 KiB  
Article
Simultaneous Removal of Mycotoxins by a New Feed Additive Containing a Tri-Octahedral Smectite Mixed with Lignocellulose
by Donato Greco, Vito D’Ascanio, Mariagrazia Abbasciano, Elisa Santovito, Antonella Garbetta, Antonio F. Logrieco and Giuseppina Avantaggiato
Toxins 2022, 14(6), 393; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14060393 - 08 Jun 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2014
Abstract
Simultaneous removal of mycotoxins has been poorly addressed, and a limited number of studies have reported the efficacy of feed additives in sequestering a large spectrum of mycotoxins. In this study, a new mycotoxin-adsorbing agent was obtained by properly mixing a tri-octahedral smectite [...] Read more.
Simultaneous removal of mycotoxins has been poorly addressed, and a limited number of studies have reported the efficacy of feed additives in sequestering a large spectrum of mycotoxins. In this study, a new mycotoxin-adsorbing agent was obtained by properly mixing a tri-octahedral smectite with a lignocellulose-based material. At a dosage of 1 mg mL−1, these materials simultaneously adsorbed frequently occurring mycotoxins and did not exert a cytotoxic effect on intestinal cells. Chyme samples obtained by a simulated GI digestion did not affect the viability of Caco-2TC7 cells as measured by the MTT test. In addition, the chyme of the lignocellulose showed a high content of polyphenols (210 mg mL−1 catechin equivalent) and good antioxidant activity. The properties of the individual constituents were maintained in the final composite, and were unaffected by their combination. When tested with a pool of seven mycotoxins at 1 µg mL−1 each and pH 5, the composite (5 mg mL−1) simultaneously sequestered AFB1 (95%), FB1 (99%), ZEA (93%), OTA (80%), T-2 (63%), and DON (22%). HT-2 adsorption did not occur. Mycotoxin adsorption increased exponentially as dosage increased, and occurred at physiological pH values. AFB1, ZEA and T-2 adsorption was not affected by pH in the range 3–9, whereas OTA and FB1 were adsorbed at pH values of 3–5. The adsorbed amount of AFB1, ZEA and T-2 was not released when pH rose from 3 to 7. FB1 and OTA desorption was less than 38%. Langmuir adsorption isotherms revealed high capacity and affinity for adsorption of the target mycotoxins. Results of this study are promising and show the potential of the new composite to remove mycotoxins in practical scenarios where several mycotoxins can co-occur. Full article
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18 pages, 2522 KiB  
Article
Mycotoxin Analysis of Grain via Dust Sampling: Review, Recent Advances and the Way Forward: The Contribution of the MycoKey Project
by Biancamaria Ciasca, Sarah De Saeger, Marthe De Boevre, Mareike Reichel, Michelangelo Pascale, Antonio F. Logrieco and Veronica M. T. Lattanzio
Toxins 2022, 14(6), 381; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14060381 - 31 May 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3078
Abstract
The sampling protocols for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs are very costly and time-consuming. More efforts are needed to implement alternative sampling plans able to support official control, or to adapt the current ones. The aim of the [...] Read more.
The sampling protocols for the official control of the levels of mycotoxins in foodstuffs are very costly and time-consuming. More efforts are needed to implement alternative sampling plans able to support official control, or to adapt the current ones. The aim of the research carried out within the European Horizon 2020 MycoKey project was to evaluate the applicability at industrial scale of the dust sampling approach to detect multiple mycotoxins in grains. To this end, two trials were performed on an EU industrial site: (i) control of the unloading of wheat from train wagons; (ii) control of the unloading of wheat from trucks. In line with previous studies, the MycoKey results indicated that dust sampling and mycotoxin analysis represent a fitness for purpose approach for non–destructive and rapid identification of wheat commodities compliant to the maximum permitted levels. Based on reviewed and newly generated results, this article discusses potential applications and limits of the dust sampling methodology, identifying future research needs. Full article
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20 pages, 4011 KiB  
Article
Potential of Trichoderma spp. for Biocontrol of Aflatoxin-Producing Aspergillus flavus
by Xianfeng Ren, Maria Teresa Branà, Miriam Haidukowski, Antonia Gallo, Qi Zhang, Antonio F. Logrieco, Peiwu Li, Shancang Zhao and Claudio Altomare
Toxins 2022, 14(2), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14020086 - 23 Jan 2022
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 3691
Abstract
The inhibitory action of 20 antagonistic Trichoderma isolates against the aflatoxigenic isolate A. flavus ITEM 9 (Af-9) and their efficacy in reducing aflatoxin formation in vitro were examined. Production of metabolites with inhibitory effect by the Trichoderma isolates was also investigated. Antagonistic effect [...] Read more.
The inhibitory action of 20 antagonistic Trichoderma isolates against the aflatoxigenic isolate A. flavus ITEM 9 (Af-9) and their efficacy in reducing aflatoxin formation in vitro were examined. Production of metabolites with inhibitory effect by the Trichoderma isolates was also investigated. Antagonistic effect against Af-9 was assessed by inhibition of radial growth of the colonies and by fungal interactions in dual confrontation tests. A total of 8 out of 20 isolates resulted in a significant growth inhibition of 3-day-old cultures of Af-9, ranging from 13% to 65%. A total of 14 isolates reduced significantly the aflatoxin B1 (AfB1) content of 15-day-old Af-9 cultures; 4 were ineffective, and 2 increased AfB1. Reduction of AfB1 content was up to 84.9% and 71.1% in 7- and 15-day-old cultures, respectively. Since the inhibition of Af-9 growth by metabolites of Trichoderma was not necessarily associated with inhibition of AfB1 production and vice versa, we investigated the mechanism of reduction of AfB1 content at the molecular level by examining two strains: one (T60) that reduced both growth and mycotoxin content; and the other (T44) that reduced mycotoxin content but not Af-9 growth. The expression analyses for the two regulatory genes aflR and aflS, and the structural genes aflA, aflD, aflO and aflQ of the aflatoxin biosynthesis cluster indicated that neither strain was able to downregulate the aflatoxin synthesis, leading to the conclusion that the AfB1 content reduction by these Trichoderma strains was based on other mechanisms, such as enzyme degradation or complexation. Although further studies are envisaged to identify the metabolites involved in the biocontrol of A. flavus and prevention of aflatoxin accumulation, as well as for assessment of the efficacy under controlled and field conditions, Trichoderma spp. qualify as promising agents and possible alternative options to other biocontrol agents already in use. Full article
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12 pages, 3077 KiB  
Article
Development of Anti-Idiotypic Nanobody-Phage Based Immuno-Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Assay for Aflatoxins in Peanuts
by Jiawen Lei, Xiaole Han, Xiaoqian Tang, Haiying Wang and Qi Zhang
Toxins 2020, 12(9), 565; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12090565 - 02 Sep 2020
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2989
Abstract
Aflatoxin contamination in agricultural products has posed serious health hazards and brought huge economic loss in the food and feed industries. Monitoring aflatoxins in various foods and feeds has become a crucial means to protect public health. This study aimed to report an [...] Read more.
Aflatoxin contamination in agricultural products has posed serious health hazards and brought huge economic loss in the food and feed industries. Monitoring aflatoxins in various foods and feeds has become a crucial means to protect public health. This study aimed to report an immuno-loop-mediated isothermal amplification (iLAMP) assay by using an anti-idiotypic nanobody-phage for on-site and rapid detection of aflatoxin in real samples. The iLAMP method was developed on the basis of a competitive immunoassay and LAMP reaction performed in a simple water bath. This method can provide visualized test results: violet color represents positive samples while sky blue represents negative. The visual detection limits of iLAMP for aflatoxin B1, B2, G1, and G2 in peanut samples were 1.6, 1.6, 3.2, and 16 μg/kg, respectively. The developed assay was verified with high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) for the analysis of aflatoxins in peanuts, which demonstrated that the iLAMP method can be applied to the detection of aflatoxin in real samples. The novel iLAMP assay eliminates the need for aflatoxin conjugates, the antibody labeling process, and special equipment, and offers an alternative to existing methods with advantages of time-saving, cost-effectiveness, and ease-of-use. Full article
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18 pages, 7365 KiB  
Article
Simultaneous Determination of Multiple Mycotoxins in Swine, Poultry and Dairy Feeds Using Ultra High Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry
by Kraiwut Nualkaw, Saranya Poapolathep, Zhaowei Zhang, Qi Zhang, Mario Giorgi, Peiwu Li, Antonio Francesco Logrieco and Amnart Poapolathep
Toxins 2020, 12(4), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins12040253 - 13 Apr 2020
Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3336
Abstract
A reliable, sensitive and accurate multiple mycotoxin method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 17 mycotoxins in swine, poultry and dairy feeds using stable isotope dilution (13C-ISTD) and (ultra)-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). A simple QuEChERS-based method (quick, [...] Read more.
A reliable, sensitive and accurate multiple mycotoxin method was developed for the simultaneous determination of 17 mycotoxins in swine, poultry and dairy feeds using stable isotope dilution (13C-ISTD) and (ultra)-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). A simple QuEChERS-based method (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged and safe) was developed consisting of soaking with a solution of 1% formic acid followed by extraction with acetonitrile, clean-up with C18 sorbent and finally adding 13C-ISTD before the UHPLC-MS/MS analysis. The chromatographic condition was optimized for separation and detection of the 17 mycotoxins using gradient elution. The method’s performance complied with the SANTE/11813/2017 standard and had mean recovery accuracies in the range 70%–120% and precision testing of % relative standard deviation (RSD) ≤ 20%. The limit of detection and limit of quantification values ranged from 0.25 to 40.0 ng/g and 0.5 to 100.0 ng/g, respectively. Finally, the method was applied to analyze feed samples, with the results showing that fumonisins, zearalenone, aflatoxin B1 and deoxynivalenol were the most prevalent mycotoxins contaminating the feed samples. Full article
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Review

Jump to: Research

26 pages, 2164 KiB  
Review
Risk Assessment of Combined Exposure to Multiple Chemicals at the European Food Safety Authority: Principles, Guidance Documents, Applications and Future Challenges
by Irene Cattaneo, Alexander D. Kalian, Matteo R. Di Nicola, Bruno Dujardin, Sara Levorato, Luc Mohimont, Alexis V. Nathanail, Edoardo Carnessechi, Maria Chiara Astuto, Jose V. Tarazona, George E. N. Kass, Antoine K. Djien Liem, Tobin Robinson, Paola Manini, Christer Hogstrand, Paul S. Price and Jean Lou C. M. Dorne
Toxins 2023, 15(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins15010040 - 04 Jan 2023
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2803
Abstract
Human health and animal health risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals use the same steps as single-substance risk assessment, namely problem formulation, exposure assessment, hazard assessment and risk characterisation. The main unique feature of combined RA is the assessment of combined [...] Read more.
Human health and animal health risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals use the same steps as single-substance risk assessment, namely problem formulation, exposure assessment, hazard assessment and risk characterisation. The main unique feature of combined RA is the assessment of combined exposure, toxicity and risk. Recently, the Scientific Committee of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) published two relevant guidance documents. The first one “Harmonised methodologies for the human health, animal health and ecological risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals” provides principles and explores methodologies for all steps of risk assessment together with a reporting table. This guidance supports also the default assumption that dose addition is applied for combined toxicity of the chemicals unless evidence for response addition or interactions (antagonism or synergism) is available. The second guidance document provides an account of the scientific criteria to group chemicals in assessment groups using hazard-driven criteria and prioritisation methods, i.e., exposure-driven and risk-based approaches. This manuscript describes such principles, provides a brief description of EFSA’s guidance documents, examples of applications in the human health and animal health area and concludes with a discussion on future challenges in this field. Full article
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21 pages, 4501 KiB  
Review
The Potential of Fatty Acids and Their Derivatives as Antifungal Agents: A Review
by Ana Guimarães and Armando Venâncio
Toxins 2022, 14(3), 188; https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins14030188 - 03 Mar 2022
Cited by 38 | Viewed by 6179
Abstract
Fungal contamination presents several problems: in humans, health issues arise from infections with opportunistic filamentous fungi and yeast, while in food, fungi cause spoilage and, in particular, in the case of mycotoxigenic fungi, can cause serious health issues. Several types of fatty acids [...] Read more.
Fungal contamination presents several problems: in humans, health issues arise from infections with opportunistic filamentous fungi and yeast, while in food, fungi cause spoilage and, in particular, in the case of mycotoxigenic fungi, can cause serious health issues. Several types of fatty acids and their derivatives, oxylipins, have been found to have inhibitory effect towards fungal growth and the production of mycotoxins. The use of fatty acids as antifungals could fulfil consumer’s requests of more natural and environmentally friendly compounds, while being less likely to promote fungal resistance. In addition, due to their nature, fatty acids are easily used as food additives. In this work, we review the most relevant and recent studies on the antifungal ability of fatty acids. We focused on saturated fatty acids, unsaturated fatty acids, and oxylipins, their different impact on fungal inhibition, their proposed modes of action, and their ability to impair mycotoxin production. Applications of fatty acids as antifungals and their limitations are also addressed. Full article
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