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17 pages, 764 KB

Open AccessArticle

A 14-Day Sleep Hygiene Intervention Improves Aerobic Performance and Reduces Anticipatory Cortisol in University Soccer Players

by Adele Broodryk and Retief Broodryk

Sports 2026, 14(5), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14050179 - 29 Apr 2026

Viewed by 1331

Abstract

Background: Sleep is a critical recovery mechanism for athletes, supporting hormonal regulation, muscle repair, and cognitive function. Dual-career athletes are particularly vulnerable to sleep disruption, which may impair performance and stress regulation. This study examined the effects of a 14-day sleep hygiene intervention [...] Read more.

Background: Sleep is a critical recovery mechanism for athletes, supporting hormonal regulation, muscle repair, and cognitive function. Dual-career athletes are particularly vulnerable to sleep disruption, which may impair performance and stress regulation. This study examined the effects of a 14-day sleep hygiene intervention protocol (SHIP) on aerobic and anaerobic performance, as well as anticipatory cortisol responses, in university-level soccer players. Methods: Thirty athletes (females: n = 14, 22.1 ± 3.3 y, 157.8 ± 6.0 cm, 53.5 ± 3.9 kg, males: n = 16, 21.5 ± 1.7 y, 167.5 ± 5.9 cm, 62.7 ± 5.4 kg) completed the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), provided pre-test salivary cortisol samples, and performed the Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (YYIR1) and Repeated Anaerobic Sprint Test (RAST) before and after the intervention (adhering daily to 10–18 individualized sleep hygiene). Results: The SHIP significantly reduced sleep latency (p = 0.04) and increased sleep duration (p = 0.03), and PSQI scores (p < 0.001) in both sexes. Females showed marked increases in sleep duration (p = 0.002), while males showed improved latency (p = 0.07). Five behaviourally coherent clusters derived from the SHIP adherence explained a substantial proportion of variance (74.99%). Stimulant and metabolic regulation, and bedroom light and thermal environment control consistently predicted sprint and physiological outcomes (p < 0.05). Anticipatory cortisol decreased before both tests (p = 0.03–0.04). YYIR1 performance improved for the full cohort (p = 0.001). RAST times slowed slightly (p = 0.02), though fatigue index improved (p = 0.05). Conclusions: A short-term SHIP effectively enhanced sleep, reduced physiological stress, and improved key performance outcomes in collegiate athletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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15 pages, 1860 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fitness Adaptations to a Combined Strength and Aerobic Training Program During the Transition Period in Young Soccer Players

by Yiannis Michailidis, Andreas Stafylidis, Athanasios Mandroukas, Konstantinos Georgiadis, Georgios Karamousalidis, Georgios Antoniou, Angelos E. Kyranoudis, Eleni Semaltianou, Vasilios Mittas and Thomas I. Metaxas

Sports 2026, 14(3), 88; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14030088 - 26 Feb 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1319

Abstract

The annual soccer training cycle consists of preparatory, competitive, and transition periods. The transition phase is usually characterized by a decrease in training volume, which may lead to detraining and declines in physical fitness. The aim of this study was to examine the [...] Read more.

The annual soccer training cycle consists of preparatory, competitive, and transition periods. The transition phase is usually characterized by a decrease in training volume, which may lead to detraining and declines in physical fitness. The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a structured transitional training program on anthropometric characteristics, aerobic capacity, and jumping performance in young soccer players. Twenty-three under-17 players participated in the study and, following a two-week period of training cessation, completed a three-week program that included aerobic training three times per week (continuous and interval running sessions) and strength progressive resistance training twice per week. Pre- and post-intervention measurements were analyzed using paired-samples t-tests, with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. The results revealed significant reductions in body fat percentage (p = 0.016, d = 0.547), body fat mass (p = 0.018, d = 0.535), and resting systolic blood pressure (p = 0.024, d = 0.507). Additionally, time to reach the anaerobic threshold (p = 0.022, d = −0.515) and movement speed at the anaerobic threshold (p = 0.029, d = −0.487) significantly increased. No significant changes were observed in the remaining variables. These findings indicate that a three-week transition-period training program combining structured aerobic running drills with progressive resistance training can induce favorable adaptations in selected anthropometric and physiological parameters in youth soccer players. However, the lack of a control group should be considered when interpreting the magnitude of the program’s effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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18 pages, 925 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of a Physical-Literacy-Based Educational Intervention on Physical Activity and Body Composition in Preadolescent Children: A School-Based Controlled Trial

by Petra Rajkovic Vuletic, Barbara Gilic, Vladimir Pavlinovic, Paula Matijasevic and Damir Sekulic

Sports 2026, 14(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14020077 - 9 Feb 2026

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2077

Abstract

Improving physical literacy (PL) is recognized as a potentially effective approach for enhancing overall physical activity (PA) and fitness status, including body composition, but few studies have examined the impact of PL-oriented education on directly measured PA and body composition in children. The [...] Read more.

Improving physical literacy (PL) is recognized as a potentially effective approach for enhancing overall physical activity (PA) and fitness status, including body composition, but few studies have examined the impact of PL-oriented education on directly measured PA and body composition in children. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of a three-month quasi-experimental PL-based educational intervention, delivered as part of the regular physical education (PE) curriculum, in preadolescent children. A total of 119 children aged 9–11 years (51 girls) from southern Croatia participated in the study and were assigned to either a control group (n = 68) or an intervention group (n = 51). The intervention group received a PL-focused educational program integrated into regular PE classes, whereas the control group followed the standard PE curriculum. PA was assessed using accelerometers, and body composition was measured using bioimpedance analysis. A pre–post–retention design was applied (baseline at the start of the school year, post-intervention in December, and retention testing at the end of the school year), and a three-way repeated-measures ANOVA (group × gender × time) was conducted. The intervention prevented declines in vigorous physical activity (VPA) and step count (STEPS) and maintained overall sedentary time (ST) in the experimental group throughout the school year. Significant group × time interaction effects were detected for VPA, STEPS, and ST (F = 4.01, 4.09, and 5.34, respectively; all p < 0.05). No significant effects were found for body composition. In conclusion, the PL-based intervention allowed effective mitigation of the typical seasonal decline in activity levels observed during the school year. Further studies evaluating the effects of similar interventions on other indices of fitness status are warranted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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14 pages, 353 KB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporating Squat-Based Training into the Warm-Up Twice Weekly Improves Sprint, Jump, and Change-of-Direction Performance in Young Soccer Players

by Okba Selmi, Hamza Marzouki, Mohamed Amine Rahmoune, Elena Adelina Panaet, Bogdan Alexandru Antohe, Cristina Ioana Alexe, Ana Maria Vulpe and Anissa Bouassida

Sports 2026, 14(1), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010040 - 14 Jan 2026

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Abstract

Understanding the long-term effectiveness of warm-up strategies is essential for enhancing neuromuscular performance in youth soccer players. This study examined the long-term effects of integrating squat exercises into the final phase of the warm-up over nine weeks on sprint, jump, change-of-direction (COD), and [...] Read more.

Understanding the long-term effectiveness of warm-up strategies is essential for enhancing neuromuscular performance in youth soccer players. This study examined the long-term effects of integrating squat exercises into the final phase of the warm-up over nine weeks on sprint, jump, change-of-direction (COD), and aerobic performance in youth soccer players. Twenty-four male U17 players were randomly assigned to either a squat-based warm-up (experimental group [EG]) or a rondo-based warm-up (control group [CG]). The EG trained twice weekly using 3–4 sets of 4–12 repetitions at progressively increasing intensities (50–85% of 1-RM). Performance was assessed pre- and post-intervention using 10 and 30 m sprint, squat jump (SJ), countermovement (CMJ), standing long jump (SLJ), 5-jump (5JT), T-half (COD), and VAMEVAL tests. The EG showed small to large significant gains in sprint (10 m: −2.21%, Cohen’s d [d] = 1; 30 m: −1.6%, d = 0.58), jumping (SJ: +9.29%, d = 1.23; CMJ: +12.08%, d = 1.83; SLJ: +7.14%, d = 0.8; 5JT: +2.33%, d = 0.32), and COD (−1.41%, d = 0.32), while aerobic endurance showed no significant change (p > 0.05). The CG showed no significant improvements (p > 0.05). Overall, integrating brief, progressive squat exercises at the end of warm-ups twice weekly led to chronic improvements in explosive neuromuscular performance, with minimal impact on aerobic endurance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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18 pages, 895 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Analysis of Motor and Perceptual–Cognitive Performance in Young Soccer Players: Insights into Training Experience and Biological Maturation

by Afroditi Lola, Eleni Bassa, Sousana Symeonidou, Georgia Stavropoulou, Anastasia Papavasileiou, Kiriakos Fregidis and Marios Bismpos

Sports 2026, 14(1), 22; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14010022 - 5 Jan 2026

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1709

Abstract

Background/Objectives: This cross-sectional study examined how training age, chronological age, and biological maturity influence motor and perceptual–cognitive performance in youth soccer players, with relevance for health and well-being through sport participation. Methods: Forty-one male athletes (age = 14.86 ± 0.81 years) completed a [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: This cross-sectional study examined how training age, chronological age, and biological maturity influence motor and perceptual–cognitive performance in youth soccer players, with relevance for health and well-being through sport participation. Methods: Forty-one male athletes (age = 14.86 ± 0.81 years) completed a two-day field-based assessment following a holistic framework integrating motor (sprinting, jumping, and agility) and perceptual–cognitive components (psychomotor speed, visuospatial working memory, and spatial visualization). Biological maturity was estimated using the maturity offset method. Results: Regression analyses showed that biological maturity and training age significantly predicted motor performance, particularly sprinting, jumping, and pre-planned agility, whereas chronological age was not a predictor. In contrast, neither maturity nor training experience influenced perceptual–cognitive skills. Among cognitive measures, only psychomotor speed significantly predicted reactive agility, emphasizing the role of rapid information processing in dynamic, game-specific contexts. Conclusions: Youth soccer training should address both physical and cognitive development through complementary strategies. Physical preparation should be tailored to maturity status to ensure safe and progressive loading, while systematic training of psychomotor speed and decision-making should enhance reactive agility and game intelligence. Integrating maturity and perceptual–cognitive assessments may support individualized development, improved performance, and long-term well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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16 pages, 2034 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differential Balance Enhancements Associated with Conventional Balance Training and Portable Slackline Board Training: A Randomized Controlled Trial

by Trent Yamamoto, Joshua A. Kidwell, Vishruth Shatagopam, Kyle J. Hetherton, Eric V. Neufeld and Brett A. Dolezal

Sports 2025, 13(12), 457; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120457 - 18 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1213

Abstract

Compromised balance is implicated with increased injury risk in athletes. Although multiple modalities are available to improve balance, investigation into slackline balance training (SLT) has remained limited, especially in regard to elite athletes. The primary aim of this study was to determine the [...] Read more.

Compromised balance is implicated with increased injury risk in athletes. Although multiple modalities are available to improve balance, investigation into slackline balance training (SLT) has remained limited, especially in regard to elite athletes. The primary aim of this study was to determine the effects of SLT, using a novel portable slacklining board, on static and dynamic balance. Thirty male NCAA Division I American football athletes were randomized into one of three groups: a control group (CON) who received no balance training, a group undergoing conventional balance training (CBT), or SLT. Each group trained thrice weekly for eight weeks. Body mass, in addition to sway path length on three surfaces and the modified Star Excursion Balance Test (mSEBT), was assessed before and after the training period. Improvements in static and dynamic balance were observed in CBT and SLT compared to CON (p < 0.05). Notably, superior balance enhancements were observed in SLT relative to CBT in wobble board sway path length (p < 0.031), posteromedial mSEBT performance (p < 0.05), and composite mSEBT scores (p = 0.033). These results are the first to suggest that SLT may confer balance benefits in elite American football players that are comparable and, in some conditions, superior to those associated with CBT. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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18 pages, 295 KB

Open AccessArticle

Parental Involvement in Sport: Mother- and Father-Initiated Motivational Climates and Their Associations with Grit in Youth Male Team Sport Players

by Patrícia Coutinho, Cristiana Bessa, Isabel Mesquita and António M. Fonseca

Sports 2025, 13(12), 421; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120421 - 1 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1546

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between perceived mother- and father-initiated motivational climate and grit in youth male team sports players. A total of 336 players from five team sports (basketball, football, handball, volleyball, and water polo) completed the Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire-2 and [...] Read more.

This study examined the relationship between perceived mother- and father-initiated motivational climate and grit in youth male team sports players. A total of 336 players from five team sports (basketball, football, handball, volleyball, and water polo) completed the Parent-Initiated Motivational Climate Questionnaire-2 and the Short Grit Scale. Multiple linear regressions showed that parental motivational climates explained between 8% and 16% of the variance in grit dimensions (R² = 0.08–0.16, p < 0.001). Specifically, ego-oriented climates (worry-conducive and success-without-effort) was positively associated with consistency of interests (β = 0.20–0.27, p < 0.01), whereas mastery-oriented climates (learning/enjoyment) were negatively associated with this dimension (β = −0.09 to −0.26, p < 0.05). Conversely, both learning/enjoyment- and worry-conducive climates were positively associated with perseverance of effort (β = 0.26–0.37, p < 0.001), while success-without-effort climates had negative associations (β = −0.16, p < 0.01). When analyses were performed by sport, significant models were found for basketball, football, and volleyball (R² = 0.07–0.34, p < 0.05), but not for handball or water polo. These findings underscore the differentiated and context-dependent associations of mothers’ and fathers’ motivational climates on the two dimensions of grit, providing evidence-based insights for parents, coaches, and sport organizations aiming to promote perseverance and long-term engagement in youth sport. By fostering appropriate motivational climates, stakeholder efforts towards more adaptive motivational climates may be tentatively associated with higher grit indicators, thereby contributing to developmental and psychological outcomes relevant to sustained participation in sport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

18 pages, 1934 KB

Open AccessArticle

Testing ACL-Reconstructed Football Players on the Field: An Algorithm to Assess Cutting Biomechanics Injury Risk Through Wearable Sensors

by Stefano Di Paolo, Marianna Viotto, Margherita Mendicino, Chiara Valastro, Alberto Grassi and Stefano Zaffagnini

Sports 2025, 13(11), 391; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110391 - 5 Nov 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2839

Abstract

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in football mostly occur during defensive (pressing) cut maneuvers. Football-specific cutting movements are key to identifying dangerous biomechanics but hard to evaluate clinically. This study aimed to develop a practical field-based tool—Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk Profile Detection [...] Read more.

Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries in football mostly occur during defensive (pressing) cut maneuvers. Football-specific cutting movements are key to identifying dangerous biomechanics but hard to evaluate clinically. This study aimed to develop a practical field-based tool—Anterior Cruciate Ligament Injury Risk Profile Detection (ACL-IRD)—to assess ACL injury risk during return to sport (RTS). It was hypothesized that the ACL-IRD could detect ACL injury risk profiles after ACLR players had RTS clearance. Sixty-one footballers (21 ACLR, 40 healthy; 16.2 ± 2.2 years old, >14 months post-surgery) were tested on a regular football pitch. Players performed pre-planned (AGTT) and unplanned football-specific cut maneuvers simulating defensive pressing (FS deceiving action). Kinematic data were collected via eight wearable inertial sensors (MTw Awinda, Movella) on trunk and lower limbs. The ACL-IRD analyzed biomechanics in three risk categories, knee valgus collapse, sagittal knee loading, and trunk–pelvis imbalance, using thresholds from healthy players. A clinician-friendly, automatic report was generated. At-risk biomechanics were identified in 36–37/104 AGTT trials and 25–41/97 FS deceiving actions (at initial contact and peak knee flexion). Over 60% of risky trials involved the ACLR limb. Major risk factors were altered knee/hip flexion ratio, knee valgus, and hip abduction. The ACL-IRD is a novel, clinical-friendly tool designed to identify potential ACL injury risk profiles and is intended to support safer RTS decisions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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17 pages, 1550 KB

Open AccessArticle

Precision of an Inertial System to Evaluate the Finger Tapping Test in Women with Fibromyalgia

by Nancy Brígida, David Catela, Cristiana Mercê and Marco Branco

Sports 2025, 13(11), 373; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13110373 - 31 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1221

Abstract

Background: This study investigates the precision of an inertial measurement unit (IMU) in evaluating the Finger Tapping Test (FTT) to differentiate motor control competencies in women with fibromyalgia, a clinical population characterized by motor impairments. Methods: The sample consisted of 240 FTT trials [...] Read more.

Background: This study investigates the precision of an inertial measurement unit (IMU) in evaluating the Finger Tapping Test (FTT) to differentiate motor control competencies in women with fibromyalgia, a clinical population characterized by motor impairments. Methods: The sample consisted of 240 FTT trials collected from 20 women, half of whom were diagnosed with fibromyalgia (F = 46.4 ± 12.714; C = 45.9 ± 12.950). Procedures consisted of participants completing FTT while data were collected from a high-speed camera and an IMU for linear acceleration and angular velocity, respectively. Analyses employed the Bland–Altman technique with both parametric and bootstrap-derived limits of agreement and intraclass correlation coefficients to assess levels of agreement between traditional and IMU-derived methods. Results: The results showed a strong agreement at subject×hand aggregation for the number of taps (RPC = 4.3 and ICC = 0.94) and for the inter-tap interval (RPC = 0.02 and ICC = 0.89), indicating minimal differences between measurements and demonstrating the potential for highly sensitive motor function assessment using an IMU. Conclusions: These findings suggest that IMU technology can effectively detect subtle aspects of motor control, supporting its use in exercise, rehabilitation, and clinical physiotherapy settings, including functional training, adapted rehabilitation exercises, and home-based monitoring for fibromyalgia. This approach offers detailed insights into subtle motor impairments, emphasizing its value for both clinical and exercise applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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13 pages, 244 KB

Open AccessArticle

Correlation Between Physical Activity and Psychological Problems in Secondary School Students in Spain

by Pablo Pueyo Gutiérrez-Rivas, Demetrio Lozano, Alberto Roso-Moliner, Rafael Albalad-Aiguabella, Oscar Villanueva-Guerrero and Elena Mainer-Pardos

Sports 2025, 13(10), 362; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100362 - 11 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3083

Abstract

Physical activity (PA) has been identified as a protective factor for adolescent mental health. This study analysed the association between PA and levels of anxiety, depression, and stress among adolescents, considering gender, educational stage, and type of sport. A cross-sectional design was conducted [...] Read more.

Physical activity (PA) has been identified as a protective factor for adolescent mental health. This study analysed the association between PA and levels of anxiety, depression, and stress among adolescents, considering gender, educational stage, and type of sport. A cross-sectional design was conducted with 106 Spanish secondary school students aged 12–16 years. Data were collected through a self-reported questionnaire on PA participation and the validated DASS-21 scale. Descriptive statistics, chi-square (χ²) tests, and adjusted residual analyses were performed. The results showed a significant negative association between PA and anxiety (χ² = 303.34, p < 0.01), stress (χ² = 310.64, p < 0.01), and depression (χ² = 324.32, p < 0.01). Non-athletes presented higher levels of psychological problems compared with active peers, while girls and older students showed greater vulnerability. Adolescents involved in team sports exhibited lower anxiety and stress than those participating in individual sports. In conclusion, higher participation in physical activity, particularly team-based disciplines, is associated with better mental health in adolescents. These findings reinforce the importance of integrating regular physical activity into school contexts to support psychological well-being during adolescence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

18 pages, 1406 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Value of the First Repetition: Force, Impulse, and Linear Velocity in Flywheel Deadlifts and Their Link to Maximal Free-Weight Strength

by Athanasios Tsoukos and Gregory C. Bogdanis

Sports 2025, 13(10), 345; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100345 - 3 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3347

Abstract

The purpose of this study was threefold: (a) to analyze differences in mean force, impulse, mean concentric and eccentric velocity, and peak concentric velocity across six repetitions of the flywheel deadlift exercise, with a particular focus on the first repetition initiated from zero [...] Read more.

The purpose of this study was threefold: (a) to analyze differences in mean force, impulse, mean concentric and eccentric velocity, and peak concentric velocity across six repetitions of the flywheel deadlift exercise, with a particular focus on the first repetition initiated from zero momentum; (b) to explore relationships between these kinetic and kinematic variables and one-repetition maximum (1-RM) performance in the free-weight deadlift; (c) to examine the effects of different flywheel inertial loads on the relationships among mean force (MF), impulse, time under tension (TUT), and velocity, with the aim of identifying the most valid and reliable parameter for flywheel load prescription. Thirteen resistance-trained men (24.7 ± 5.0 y; 82.2 ± 11.7 kg; 1-RM deadlift: 174 ± 24 kg) performed six repetitions of the flywheel deadlift against six inertial loads (0.025 to 0.145 kg∙m²) on a kBox 5 device. Results showed that although the first repetition had 25–30% lower mean concentric velocity and 7–11% lower mean force compared to subsequent repetitions (p < 0.001), it exhibited 4–8% higher impulse due to the 14–20% longer time under tension. MF, velocity, and impulse in the first repetition showed moderate-to-strong correlations with 1-RM (r = 0.58 to 0.85, p < 0.05), particularly at the two higher inertia loads. MF plateaued at moderate inertia loads, while impulse and TUT increased linearly with increasing inertial load and demonstrated the strongest and most consistent relationships with inertial load (r = 0.99 ± 0.01 and 0.97 ± 0.02, p < 0.001), enabling individualized flywheel training prescription. This study highlights the distinct value of the first repetition in flywheel deadlifts and its practical value for both assessment and training. Also, it suggests that impulse and TUT may be used as simple and practical flywheel exercise prescription variables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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13 pages, 422 KB

Open AccessArticle

Ischemic Preconditioning Attenuates the Decline in Repeated Anaerobic Performance Under Simulated Altitude: A Randomized Crossover Study

by Miłosz Drozd, Jakub Chycki, Adam Maszczyk, Hiago L. R. Souza, Adam Zajac and Moacir Marocolo

Sports 2025, 13(9), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090313 - 8 Sep 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1469

Abstract

Background: This study examined the effects of repeated ischemic preconditioning (IPC) combined with normobaric hypoxia on anaerobic performance and physiological stress markers. Methods: Fourteen physically active males (22.3 ± 3.1 years) completed three randomized, single-blind crossover sessions under the following conditions: (1) normoxia [...] Read more.

Background: This study examined the effects of repeated ischemic preconditioning (IPC) combined with normobaric hypoxia on anaerobic performance and physiological stress markers. Methods: Fourteen physically active males (22.3 ± 3.1 years) completed three randomized, single-blind crossover sessions under the following conditions: (1) normoxia (NOR), (2) normobaric hypoxia (HYP; FiO₂ = 14.7%), and (3) hypoxia with IPC (IPC-HYP). Each session included three 30 s cycling Wingate tests separated by four minutes of passive recovery. Blood samples were collected pre-exercise, immediately post-exercise, and 15 min post-exercise to assess lactate, pH, bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), and creatine kinase (CK) activity. Results: Peak power output was highest under NOR during Wingate II and III. IPC-HYP attenuated the decline in peak power compared to that under HYP (e.g., Wingate II: 15.56 vs. 12.52 W/kg). IPC-HYP induced greater lactate accumulation (peak: 15.45 mmol/L, p < 0.01), more pronounced acidosis (pH: 7.18 post-exercise), and lower bicarbonate (9.9 mmol/L, p < 0.01). CK activity, measured immediately and then 1 h and 24 h post-exercise, was highest under IPC-HYP at 24 h (568.5 U/L). Conclusions: IPC-HYP mitigates the decline in peak anaerobic power observed under hypoxia, despite eliciting greater metabolic and muscular stress. These findings suggest that IPC may enhance physiological adaptation to hypoxic training, potentially improving anaerobic performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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9 pages, 399 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Basketball Referee Decision-Making Using the DMQ-II Questionnaire

by Raúl Nieto-Acevedo, Carlos García-Sánchez, Moisés Marquina Nieto, Daniel Mon-Lopez, Andrea Hortiguela-Herradas and Jorge Lorenzo-Calvo

Sports 2025, 13(8), 270; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080270 - 15 Aug 2025

Viewed by 2036

Abstract

Basketball is a sport whose regulations require quick and complex refereeing decisions. Since the inception of sports, research on sports judgment and refereeing has been consistently present in the scientific literature. However, decision-making and the psycho-emotional factors that influence it remain somewhat unexplored [...] Read more.

Basketball is a sport whose regulations require quick and complex refereeing decisions. Since the inception of sports, research on sports judgment and refereeing has been consistently present in the scientific literature. However, decision-making and the psycho-emotional factors that influence it remain somewhat unexplored in studies. The decision-making of the basketball referee has been analyzed using the DMQ II questionnaire. To achieve this, 58 referees from the Spanish Basketball Federation collaborated, comprising 45 men and 13 women, all between the ages of 18 and 38 (M = 26.5, SD = 5.5). Participants completed the 31-question DMQ II questionnaire online, yielding results with significant differences based on age and gender about stress in decision-making. A modification of the referee’s teaching methodology that includes psychological strategies is proposed both in the initiation course and throughout the refereeing career. The findings highlight the need for mental health support systems for referees, particularly addressing stress management in young and female officials. This aligns with global efforts to safeguard psychological well-being in sports professionals. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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13 pages, 827 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cardiac Autonomic Function in Patients with Systemic Sclerosis: The Impact of Exercise Training and Detraining

by Maria Anifanti, Andriana Teloudi, Alexandros Mitropoulos, Niki Syrakou, Eleni Pagkopoulou, Eva Triantafyllidou, Carina Boström, Louise Pyndt Diederichsen, Tiziana Nava, Theodoros Dimitroulas, Markos Klonizakis and Evangelia Kouidi

Sports 2025, 13(8), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13080267 - 13 Aug 2025

Viewed by 1768

Abstract

Adverse cardiovascular events and increased mortality are associated with cardiac autonomic nervous system dysfunction in the early stages of the systemic sclerosis (SSc), even prior to the development of cardiac fibrosis. The objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of a [...] Read more.

Adverse cardiovascular events and increased mortality are associated with cardiac autonomic nervous system dysfunction in the early stages of the systemic sclerosis (SSc), even prior to the development of cardiac fibrosis. The objective of the study was to evaluate the impact of a three-month exercise training regimen and a subsequent comparable period of detraining on the activity of the cardiac autonomic nervous system in patients with SSc. A total of forty patients with SSc were randomized to either the control group (Group COΝ) or the exercise training group (Group ET). Cardiopulmonary exercise testing was performed at baseline, three months later, and six months later to assess peak oxygen uptake (VO₂peak). They also had 24 h electrocardiogram monitoring for heart rate variability (HRV) and heart rate turbulence analysis. The following time-domain indices were evaluated in the context of HRV analysis: the standard deviation of NN intervals (SDNN), the root mean square of successive RR interval differences (rMSSD), and the percentage of successive RR intervals that differ by more than 50 ms (pNN50). Additionally, regarding the frequency-domain indicators, the low-frequency (LF) and high-frequency (HF) components, as well as the LF/HF ratio, were evaluated. Independent t-tests and Chi-square tests were used for baseline comparisons, while two-way repeated measures ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests assessed changes over time and between groups. Linear and multiple regression analyses were conducted to explore relationships among variables and identify predictors of HRV indices and VO₂peak. Group ET implemented a three-month mixed-type exercise training program, while Group COΝ received standard care. Group ET improved indices of vagal activity [rMSSD by 32.6% (p = 0.017), pNN50 by 57.1% (p = 0.01) and HF by 20.1% (p = 0.01)] and sympathovagal activity [SDNN by 15.5% (p = 0.002) and LF/HF by 12.03% (p = 0.004)] after three months. Exercising patients also increased their VO₂peak by 20.8% (p = 0.001). A robust positive correlation was observed between ΔVO₂peak and ΔSDNN (r = 0.754, p < 0.001). After three months, there was no statistically significant difference in the VO₂peak or any HRV index in the group COΝ. Compared to the baseline values, there was no statistically significant difference in group ET at 6 months, whereas the control group exhibited a decline. In summary, a three-month mixed-type exercise training program can enhance the cardiorespiratory efficiency and cardiac autonomic nervous system function of patients with SSc, as well as alleviate the deterioration that arises following the detraining period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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Review

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23 pages, 499 KB

Open AccessReview

Exercise in Hypoxic Environments: An Overview of Systematic Reviews on Performance, Physiological Adaptation, and Clinical Implications

by Héctor Fuentes-Barría, Raúl Aguilera-Eguía, Miguel Alarcón-Rivera, Lisse Angarita-Davila, Eduardo Pena, Samia El Alam and Cherie Flores-Fernández

Sports 2026, 14(4), 147; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports14040147 - 10 Apr 2026

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Abstract

Objectives: This overview of systematic reviews aimed to synthesize and critically evaluate the current evidence on the effects of exercise performed under hypoxic or altitude conditions in adults, with particular attention to studies reporting altitude-related clinical outcomes. Materials and Methods: Following PRIOR and [...] Read more.

Objectives: This overview of systematic reviews aimed to synthesize and critically evaluate the current evidence on the effects of exercise performed under hypoxic or altitude conditions in adults, with particular attention to studies reporting altitude-related clinical outcomes. Materials and Methods: Following PRIOR and PRISMA guidelines, and with the protocol registered in PROSPERO CRD420261325746, a comprehensive search was conducted on 22 February 2026 across Medline/PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, Epistemonikos, and Preprints.org, using the query “Exercise AND Hypoxic AND Altitude Sickness.” Because the search included “Altitude Sickness,” this review may miss some studies on performance or physiological adaptations under hypoxia. Eligibility was defined according to the PICOS framework, including only systematic reviews with or without meta-analyses in adults exposed to normobaric or hypobaric hypoxia. Methodological quality was assessed using AMSTAR 2. Results: A total of 137 records were identified (114 from databases and 23 through citation tracking), of which 28 systematic reviews met inclusion criteria. Nineteen included quantitative meta-analyses. Structured altitude training strategies—live high–train low (LHTL), live low–train high (LLTH), and live high–train high (LHTH)—were generally associated with improvements in maximal oxygen uptake and hematological parameters, particularly in trained and athletic populations. In contrast, acute hypoxic exposure was consistently associated with reduced exercise performance and increased susceptibility to altitude-related symptoms in unacclimatized individuals. Evidence regarding effects on body composition and metabolic outcomes was heterogeneous and inconsistent. According to AMSTAR 2, most meta-analyses presented critically low or low methodological quality. Conclusions: Exercise under hypoxic conditions may enhances aerobic and hematological adaptations in trained populations, whereas acute exposure tends to impair performance and entails clinical risks. However, given the restricted search strategy, substantial heterogeneity, lack of formal overlap quantification, and the predominance of low methodological quality reviews, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Evidence on metabolic benefits remains limited, highlighting the need for further high-quality systematic reviews and meta-analyses to clarify optimal hypoxic training protocols and outcomes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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20 pages, 351 KB

Open AccessReview

Yoga for Neurodegenerative Disorders: Therapeutic Effects, Mechanisms, and Applications in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Disease

by Federico Zoila, Maria Ida de Stefano, Alessia Sgobbio, Maria Antonietta Panaro, Angela Bruna Maffione, Laura Antonucci, Tarek Benameur, Michele Massaro, Socorro Vanesca Frota Gaban, Francesca Martina Filannino and Chiara Porro

Sports 2025, 13(12), 458; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13120458 - 18 Dec 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2458

Abstract

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) represent a growing global health concern with no definitive cure. Increasing evidence suggests that mind–body practices like yoga may offer neuroprotective benefits by modulating stress, neuroinflammation, and neuroplasticity. This narrative review [...] Read more.

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and Parkinson’s disease (PD) represent a growing global health concern with no definitive cure. Increasing evidence suggests that mind–body practices like yoga may offer neuroprotective benefits by modulating stress, neuroinflammation, and neuroplasticity. This narrative review explores the clinical outcomes, mechanistic insights, and biomarker evidence supporting yoga as a therapeutic intervention for AD and PD. Different studies indicate that regular yoga improves motor and cognitive functions, mood, and quality of life in affected individuals. At the molecular level, yoga enhances neurotrophic factors such as brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-6, TNF-α), mitigates oxidative stress, and may preserve gray matter volume in key brain regions. These findings support the hypothesis that yoga induces favorable neuroplastic adaptations that may slow neurodegeneration. Despite encouraging early results, heterogeneity in study design, intervention duration, and sample size issues have limited the incorporation of neuroimaging and biomarker endpoints, which means further studies are warranted to clarify yoga’s therapeutic potential and mechanism in ND management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

Other

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20 pages, 555 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Impact of Active Methodologies Involving Physical Activity on Primary School Students: A Systematic Review (2018–2024)

by Rafael Francisco Caracuel-Cáliz, José Luis Ubago-Jiménez, José Manuel Alonso-Vargas and Eduardo Melguizo-Ibáñez

Sports 2025, 13(10), 358; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13100358 - 10 Oct 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3161

Abstract

Physical activity integration in elementary education seeks to promote academic performance and the physical, emotional and social health of students. This study aims to examine the effect of active methodologies involving physical activity in primary school students through a detailed review of the [...] Read more.

Physical activity integration in elementary education seeks to promote academic performance and the physical, emotional and social health of students. This study aims to examine the effect of active methodologies involving physical activity in primary school students through a detailed review of the scientific literature. A systematic review was conducted regarding PRISMA guidelines. Searches were performed in Web of Science, Scopus and SPORTDiscus. Studies published between 2018 and April 2024 were selected. The studies focused on the application of active methodologies in primary school populations. The quality of the studies was assessed using the Standard Quality Assessment Criteria for Evaluating Primary Research Articles from Various Fields. After screening and review, 22 articles were included. Most of the studies had longitudinal quasi-experimental or repeated measures designs with a randomized cluster-controlled pilot trial. Cross-sectional studies with descriptive data and mixed methods were also included. Cooperative learning and active breaks were found to improve engagement, classroom behavior, and academic outcomes. In addition, gamification and challenge-based learning also showed positive effects on motivation and engagement, although these were more context-dependent. Shorter or small-scale interventions produced promising but less robust results. Active methodologies improve primary education outcomes, but inconsistent designs limit generalization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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16 pages, 1521 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Therapeutic Exercise for Hospitalized Sarcopenic Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

by Olivier Chan-Fook, Javier Martin-Núñez, Julia Raya-Benítez, Alba Navas-Otero, Irene Cabrera-Martos, Marie Carmen Valenza and Alejandro Heredia-Ciuró

Sports 2025, 13(9), 326; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090326 - 12 Sep 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2207

Abstract

Sarcopenia is a progressive and generalized skeletal muscle disorder associated with an impairment of functional status, increasing dependency and mortality. The high prevalence among hospitalized patients has increased interest in active interventions such as exercise; however, the effectiveness of therapeutic exercise in this [...] Read more.

Sarcopenia is a progressive and generalized skeletal muscle disorder associated with an impairment of functional status, increasing dependency and mortality. The high prevalence among hospitalized patients has increased interest in active interventions such as exercise; however, the effectiveness of therapeutic exercise in this population remains unclear. This systematic review with a meta-analysis aims to evaluate the effectiveness of therapeutic exercises in hospitalized patients diagnosed with or at risk of sarcopenia. A systematic search was conducted in Medline, Web of Science, and Scopus databases following PRISMA guidelines. Randomized controlled trials assessing therapeutic exercises for sarcopenic or at-risk hospitalized patients were included. Methodological quality was evaluated using the TIDieR Checklist and the ROB2 tool. We performed a meta-analysis addressing muscle strength, physical performance and cognitive function. Six studies met the inclusion criteria, with a total of 1468 participants. Similar interventions were observed, including mainly resistance and balance exercises. Therapeutic exercises demonstrated significant improvements in physical performance (2.98 (1.13–4.83); p = 0.002; I² = 99%), muscle strength (2.11 (0.20–4.01); p = 0.03; I² = 99%) and cognitive function (0.77 (0.25–1.29); p = 0.004; I² = 98%) across several studies. Therapeutic exercises appear to improve sarcopenic outcomes in hospitalized patients, supporting their role as a non-pharmacological intervention to mitigate sarcopenia-related complications. However, due to the lack of reported muscle mass outcomes, as well as the limited number and methodological quality of the included studies, further well-designed trials are needed to confirm these findings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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12 pages, 302 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Impact of Exercise Therapy in ERAS Prehabilitation for Major Surgery: A Systematic Review

by Anna Antonia Valenzano, Paride Vasco, Gabriella D’Orsi, Tommaso Cassano, Raffaella Marzovillo, Antonio Di Stasi and Giuseppe Cibelli

Sports 2025, 13(9), 315; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13090315 - 10 Sep 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 5546

Abstract

(1) This systematic review evaluates the role of structured exercise within the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocol, a multidisciplinary approach designed to reduce surgical stress and enhance recovery. Prehabilitation, primarily through controlled physical activity, is a fundamental component of ERAS, preparing patients, [...] Read more.

(1) This systematic review evaluates the role of structured exercise within the Enhanced Recovery After Surgery (ERAS) protocol, a multidisciplinary approach designed to reduce surgical stress and enhance recovery. Prehabilitation, primarily through controlled physical activity, is a fundamental component of ERAS, preparing patients, both physically and mentally, for major surgery. (2) A systematic search following PRISMA guidelines was conducted using PubMed, ScienceDirect, Cochrane Library, Web of Science and Wiley databases to identify relevant studies published up to January 2025. Inclusion criteria encompassed randomized controlled trials, cohort studies, and meta-analyses reporting postoperative complications, length of hospital stay (LOS), and overall recovery. (3) A total of 64 studies met the inclusion criteria. The findings consistently demonstrate that structured exercise interventions—such as aerobic activities, resistance training, and flexibility routines—were associated with postoperative complications, shorten hospital stays, and enhance functional recovery. These interventions improve cardiorespiratory fitness, muscle strength, and psychological well-being. (4) Despite potential limitations in the systematic search, as heterogeneity of protocols, publication bias, language restrictions, the evidence supports the integration of structured exercise as a cornerstone of ERAS prehabilitation. Future research should focus on standardizing exercise protocols and exploring personalized strategies to optimize surgical outcomes across diverse patient populations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Health Through Physical Activity and Sports Science: Innovations in Applied Research)

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