Safety

23 pages, 1919 KB

Open AccessArticle

Machine Learning Assessment of Crash Severity in ADS and ADAS-L2 Involved Crashes with NHTSA Data

by Nasim Samadi, Ramina Javid, Sanam Ziaei Ansaroudi, Neda Dehestanimonfared, Mojtaba Naseri and Mansoureh Jeihani

Safety 2026, 12(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety12010002 - 23 Dec 2025

Abstract

As the deployment of Automated Driving Systems (ADS) and Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS-L2) expands, understanding their real-world safety performance becomes essential. This study examines the severity and contributing factors of crashes involving vehicles equipped with ADS and ADAS-L2 technologies using NHTSA data. [...] Read more.

As the deployment of Automated Driving Systems (ADS) and Advanced Driver Assistance Systems (ADAS-L2) expands, understanding their real-world safety performance becomes essential. This study examines the severity and contributing factors of crashes involving vehicles equipped with ADS and ADAS-L2 technologies using NHTSA data. Using machine learning models on crash datasets from 2021 to 2024, this research identifies patterns and risk factors influencing injury outcomes. After data preprocessing and handling missing values for severity classification, four models were trained: logistic regression, random forest, SVM, and XGBoost. XGBoost outperformed the others for both ADS and ADAS-L2, achieving the highest accuracy and recall. Variable importance analysis showed that for ADS crashes, interactions with other road users and poor lighting were the strongest predictors of injury severity, while for ADAS-L2 crashes, fixed object collisions and low light conditions were most influential. From a policy and engineering perspective, this study highlights the need for standardized crash reporting and improved ADS object detection and pedestrian response. It also emphasizes effective human–machine interface design and driver training for partial automation. Unlike previous research, this study conducts comparative model-based evaluations of both ADS and ADAS-L2 using recent crash reports to inform safety standards and policy frameworks. Full article

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21 pages, 1701 KB

Open AccessArticle

Uncovering the Ergonomic Risks Threatening the Health of Underground Female Coal Mineworkers

by Ouma S. Mokwena, Thabiso J. Morodi and Joyce Shirinde

Safety 2026, 12(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety12010001 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

Women in mining face unique health and safety challenges due to anatomical and physiological differences, making the assessment and management of ergonomic risks in underground coal mines critical. This study examines the ergonomic experiences of female mineworkers through six focus-group discussions, each comprising [...] Read more.

Women in mining face unique health and safety challenges due to anatomical and physiological differences, making the assessment and management of ergonomic risks in underground coal mines critical. This study examines the ergonomic experiences of female mineworkers through six focus-group discussions, each comprising eight participants, using a qualitative research design involving women actively engaged in core mining activities at three South African mines. Findings reveal that mining equipment and work environments often fail to accommodate the physiological needs of female workers, exposing them to a range of ergonomic hazards. Beyond physical risks, the study highlights organizational and systemic shortcomings, including inadequate implementation of existing policies and regulations. Poor hygiene in toilet facilities was also reported, with three out of eight participants taking medication for urinary tract infections, underscoring gaps in occupational health provision. The findings emphasize the urgent need for mine-specific ergonomic programs developed through participatory approaches, as part of a broader strategy to prevent musculoskeletal injuries and improve working conditions for female mineworkers. The establishment of the Women in Mining Forum further indicates that the industry is not yet fully prepared to support women in underground mining, highlighting the need for targeted interventions to create a safer, more inclusive work environment. Full article

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17 pages, 1011 KB

Open AccessArticle

Vulnerable Road Users in Romania: Forensic Autopsy-Based Analysis of Child and Elderly Fatalities

by Ştefania Ungureanu, Camelia-Oana Mureșan, Alexandra Enache, Emanuela Stan, Raluca Dumache, Octavia Vița, Ecaterina Dăescu, Alina-Cristina Barb and Veronica Ciocan

Safety 2025, 11(4), 125; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040125 - 15 Dec 2025

Abstract

Background: Vulnerable road users (VRUs), including children and older adults, face a high risk of fatal road traffic accidents (RTAs) due to limited protection and greater injury susceptibility. Romania reports some of the highest child and elderly RTA mortality rates in the European [...] Read more.

Background: Vulnerable road users (VRUs), including children and older adults, face a high risk of fatal road traffic accidents (RTAs) due to limited protection and greater injury susceptibility. Romania reports some of the highest child and elderly RTA mortality rates in the European Union. This study analyzed medico-legal autopsies from the Timisoara Institute of Legal Medicine (TILM) between 2017 and 2021 to compare fatalities in these two groups and identify key risk factors. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted on autopsy records of children (0–17 years) and older adults (>70 years) who died in RTAs during the study period. Data on demographics, type of road user, traumatic injuries, cause of death, and accident circumstances were extracted and supplemented by police reports. Comparative statistical analyses were performed for categorical and continuous variables. Results: Among 395 RTA autopsies, 23 (5.8%) involved children and 51 (12.9%) older adults. Most child victims were passengers (56.5%), whereas elderly fatalities occurred mainly among pedestrians (33.3%) and cyclists (25.5%), with statistically significant differences between age groups. Polytrauma was the leading cause of death in both categories, though isolated cranio-cerebral trauma was proportionally more frequent in children. Crash circumstances also showed age-related patterns, with children more involved in high-energy collisions and older adults more frequently struck as pedestrians. Survival intervals showed a similar distribution across groups. Conclusions: Child and elderly RTA fatalities in Romania share common determinants, primarily driver-related behaviors and insufficient safety measures, while also exhibiting distinct age-related vulnerabilities. Autopsy-based data highlights these patterns and can guide targeted interventions such as stricter law enforcement, public education, and infrastructure improvements. Full article

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17 pages, 1293 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Using a 360-Degree Swaying Chair on Physical Workload During VDT Work

by Sayaka Noda, Toshihisa Doi and Kuniko Yamashita

Safety 2025, 11(4), 124; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040124 - 15 Dec 2025

Abstract

Prolonged visual display terminal (VDT) work leads to static muscular loading, increasing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders. Active chairs have been proposed to alleviate such issues; however, solutions like balance balls often induce discomfort due to excessive instability. To address this trade-off, a [...] Read more.

Prolonged visual display terminal (VDT) work leads to static muscular loading, increasing the risk of musculoskeletal disorders. Active chairs have been proposed to alleviate such issues; however, solutions like balance balls often induce discomfort due to excessive instability. To address this trade-off, a 360° swaying chair was developed, though its physiological effects during VDT work remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 360° swaying chair on users performing VDT tasks. Two experiments compared the swaying chair with a standard office chair (OC) under two sitting postures: a forward tilt with feet forward (AC2) and with feet back (AC3). Muscle activity, motion analysis, and subjective evaluations were conducted. The results showed that the AC3 posture (feet back) better maintained the spinal S-curve and reduced activity in the thoracic and lumbar erector spinae and rectus abdominis compared to the AC2 posture and the OC, although it may increase lower-body load. A slight forward tilt promoted activation of the internal oblique muscle. Subjective comfort was not inferior to that of the OC. These findings suggest that the 360° swaying chair, particularly in the AC3 posture, can reduce upper-body muscular and postural loads during VDT work without compromising comfort. However, these findings should be interpreted as preliminary, as they are based on a small and homogeneous sample and short-term VDT tasks. Full article

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20 pages, 920 KB

Open AccessArticle

Analytical Assessment of Pedestrian Crashes on Low-Speed Corridors

by Therezia Matongo and Deo Chimba

Safety 2025, 11(4), 123; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040123 - 9 Dec 2025

Abstract

This study presents a comprehensive statewide analysis of pedestrian-involved crashes recorded in Tennessee between 2002 and 2025. We evaluated the influence of roadway, traffic, environmental, and socioeconomic factors on pedestrian crash frequency and severity with substantial components focused on lighting impacts including dark [...] Read more.

This study presents a comprehensive statewide analysis of pedestrian-involved crashes recorded in Tennessee between 2002 and 2025. We evaluated the influence of roadway, traffic, environmental, and socioeconomic factors on pedestrian crash frequency and severity with substantial components focused on lighting impacts including dark and nighttime. A multi-method analytical framework was implemented, combining descriptive statistics, non-parametric tests, regression analysis, and advanced machine learning techniques including the Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) and the gradient boosting model (XGBoost). Results indicated that dark and nighttime conditions accounted for a disproportionate share of severe crashes—fatal and serious injuries under dark conditions reached over 40%, compared to less than 20% during daylight. The statistical tests revealed statistically significant differences in both total injuries and fatalities between low-speed (≤35 mph) and higher-speed (40–45 mph) corridors. The regression result identified AADT and the number of lanes as the strongest predictors of crash frequency, showing that greater traffic exposure and wider cross-sections substantially elevate pedestrian risk, while terrain and peak-hour traffic exhibited negative associations with severe injuries. The XGBoost model, consisting of 300 trees, achieved R² = 0.857, in which the SHAP analysis revealed that AADT, the roadway functional class, and the number of lanes are the most influential variables. The ANFIS model demonstrated that areas with higher population density and greater proportions of households without vehicles experience more pedestrian crashes. These findings collectively establish how pedestrian crash risks are correlated with traffic exposure, roadway geometry, lighting, and socioeconomic conditions, providing a strong analytical foundation for data-driven safety interventions and policy development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Safety of Vulnerable Road Users at Night)

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17 pages, 368 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Biomechanical Analysis of Posture and Effort During Computer Activities: The Role of Furniture

by María Fernanda Trujillo-Guerrero, William Venegas-Toro, Danni De la Cruz-Guevara, Iván Zambrano-Orejuela, Alvaro Page-Del Pozo and Silvia Santos-Cuadros

Safety 2025, 11(4), 122; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040122 - 9 Dec 2025

Abstract

The ergonomic risks associated with posture in conventional office workstations have been extensively studied, but there is limited research available on these risks in the context of home-based work environments. Most available studies rely solely on questionnaire-based statistical analyses, leaving a gap in [...] Read more.

The ergonomic risks associated with posture in conventional office workstations have been extensively studied, but there is limited research available on these risks in the context of home-based work environments. Most available studies rely solely on questionnaire-based statistical analyses, leaving a gap in understanding the specific conditions of home-based work environments. This study focuses on evaluating the effects of workstation conditions on posture and muscular efforts across three anatomical segments: head-neck, trunk-upper trapezius, and arm-deltoid. The analysis is conducted by simulating workstation setups commonly associated with academic activities performed by students during the COVID-19 pandemic. The conditions examined in this study include inadequate desk height, the use of chairs without armrests, and the use of laptops. Eighteen volunteers, comprising nine women and nine men, participated in experiments conducted under scenarios designed using a

2^{k}

statistical approach. In all experiments, participants completed questionnaires, and text-writing activities were performed to evaluate the effects of these conditions. This research introduces a new non-invasive technique for ergonomic assessment that integrates photogrammetry and surface electromyography (sEMG) to simultaneously evaluate posture and muscular effort. The developed methodology allows precise, contactless analysis of ergonomic conditions and can be adapted for various professional and academic teleworking environments. Significant effects were observed in the posture (°) of the trunk and head, with both small and large effects identified at significance levels of p < 0.001 under the furniture conditions studied. In terms of EMG activity, moderate effects were observed at p < 0.01 levels between table height and upper trapezius activation, while small effects were detected at p < 0.05 levels between the use of chairs without armrests and neck. Similarly, small to moderate effects were observed in the arm-deltoid segment under the same furniture conditions. These findings reveal information about the posture and muscular effort patterns associated with the studied tasks, offering knowledge that can be referenced for similar tasks in other technical fields where telematics activities are performed. Full article

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31 pages, 1941 KB

Open AccessArticle

Boosting Traffic Crash Prediction Performance with Ensemble Techniques and Hyperparameter Tuning

by Naima Goubraim, Zouhair Elamrani Abou Elassad, Hajar Mousannif and Mohamed Ameksa

Safety 2025, 11(4), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040121 - 9 Dec 2025

Abstract

Road traffic crashes are a major global challenge, resulting in significant loss of life, economic burden, and societal impact. This study seeks to enhance the precision of traffic accident prediction using advanced machine learning techniques. This study employs an ensemble learning approach combining [...] Read more.

Road traffic crashes are a major global challenge, resulting in significant loss of life, economic burden, and societal impact. This study seeks to enhance the precision of traffic accident prediction using advanced machine learning techniques. This study employs an ensemble learning approach combining the Random Forest, the Bagging Classifier (Bootstrap Aggregating), the Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost) and the Light Gradient Boosting Machine (LightGBM) algorithms. To address class imbalance and feature relevance, we implement feature selection using the Extra Trees Classifier and oversampling using the Synthetic Minority Over-sampling Technique (SMOTE). Rigorous hyperparameter tuning is applied to optimize model performance. Our results show that the ensemble approach, coupled with hyperparameter optimization, significantly improves prediction accuracy. This research contributes to the development of more effective road safety strategies and can help to reduce the number of road accidents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Road Traffic Risk Assessment: Control and Prevention of Collisions)

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28 pages, 4585 KB

Open AccessArticle

Uncertainty-Aware Adaptive Intrusion Detection Using Hybrid CNN-LSTM with cWGAN-GP Augmentation and Human-in-the-Loop Feedback

by Clinton Manuel de Nascimento and Jin Hou

Safety 2025, 11(4), 120; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040120 - 5 Dec 2025

Abstract

Intrusion detection systems (IDSs) must operate under severe class imbalance, evolving attack behavior, and the need for calibrated decisions that integrate smoothly with security operations. We propose a human-in-the-loop IDS that combines a convolutional neural network and a long short-term memory network (CNN–LSTM) [...] Read more.

Intrusion detection systems (IDSs) must operate under severe class imbalance, evolving attack behavior, and the need for calibrated decisions that integrate smoothly with security operations. We propose a human-in-the-loop IDS that combines a convolutional neural network and a long short-term memory network (CNN–LSTM) classifier with a variational autoencoder (VAE)-seeded conditional Wasserstein generative adversarial network with gradient penalty (cWGAN-GP) augmentation and entropy-based abstention. Minority classes are reinforced offline via conditional generative adversarial (GAN) sampling, whereas high-entropy predictions are escalated for analysts and are incorporated into a curated retraining set. On CIC-IDS2017, the resulting framework delivered well-calibrated binary performance (ACC = 98.0%, DR = 96.6%, precision = 92.1%, F1 = 94.3%; baseline ECE ≈ 0.04, Brier ≈ 0.11) and substantially improved minority recall (e.g., Infiltration from 0% to >80%, Web Attack–XSS +25 pp, and DoS Slowhttptest +15 pp, for an overall +11 pp macro-recall gain). The deployed model remained lightweight (~42 MB, <10 ms per batch; ≈32 k flows/s on RTX-3050 Ti), and only approximately 1% of the flows were routed for human review. Extensive evaluation, including ROC/PR sweeps, reliability diagrams, cross-domain tests on CIC-IoT2023, and FGSM/PGD adversarial stress, highlights both the strengths and remaining limitations, notably residual errors on rare web attacks and limited IoT transfer. Overall, the framework provides a practical, calibrated, and extensible machine learning (ML) tier for modern IDS deployment and motivates future research on domain alignment and adversarial defense. Full article

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Graphical abstract

25 pages, 1853 KB

Open AccessArticle

Testing of a Safety Leadership Model

by Jian Shen and Maureen Hassall

Safety 2025, 11(4), 119; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040119 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

Fatal and serious injury rates remain unacceptably high in the construction industry. Leadership plays a critical role in safety management and serious and fatal injury prevention. However, limited research has examined industry practitioners’ perceptions of leadership and how it influences safety outcomes, particularly [...] Read more.

Fatal and serious injury rates remain unacceptably high in the construction industry. Leadership plays a critical role in safety management and serious and fatal injury prevention. However, limited research has examined industry practitioners’ perceptions of leadership and how it influences safety outcomes, particularly in the prevention of serious and fatal injuries in the construction industry. Therefore, a theoretical model for capturing perceptions of safety leadership was developed from a systematic literature review. To ensure that the labels and language used in the model can be understood by industry practitioners, a Delphi study was conducted involving twelve experts. Over three iterative rounds, the model was refined to include five leadership styles, seventeen elements, and eighty-five descriptive statements spanning the range from laissez-faire to transformational leadership. The refined model provides a comprehensive framework for understanding safety leadership and serves as a foundation for future empirical testing with frontline construction workers. Full article

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29 pages, 2341 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Prototype Risk Assessment Dashboard for the Construction Industry: Getting Experts in the Loop Thanks to Machine Learning

by Mirza Muntasir Nishat, Antoine Rauzy and Nils O. E. Olsson

Safety 2025, 11(4), 118; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040118 - 1 Dec 2025

Abstract

Construction work is fundamentally hazardous. Traditional risk assessment tools (e.g., checklists and audits) are static in essence and hard to make evolve. In this paper, we demonstrate how to get experts dynamically in the loop thanks to machine learning. Namely, we discussed the [...] Read more.

Construction work is fundamentally hazardous. Traditional risk assessment tools (e.g., checklists and audits) are static in essence and hard to make evolve. In this paper, we demonstrate how to get experts dynamically in the loop thanks to machine learning. Namely, we discussed the design of a prototype risk assessment dashboard dedicated to fall accidents. The interactive graphical user interface allows professionals to generate construction scenarios and compare their evaluation of risks with that of the dashboard. The latter continuously learns from expert feedback. The proof-of-concept we present here shows that it is possible to capitalize on expert knowledge in a dynamic and user-friendly way. Thanks to its neural network architecture, not only does the dashboard learn from the experts, but professionals also learn from the dashboard. Full article

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19 pages, 602 KB

Open AccessArticle

Examining the Effects of Sight Distance, Road Conditions, and Weather on Intersection Crash Severity: A Random Parameters Logit Approach with Heterogeneity in Means and Variances

by Irfan Ullah, Ahmed Farid and Khaled Ksaibati

Safety 2025, 11(4), 117; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040117 - 27 Nov 2025

Abstract

Intersections represent critical crash locations on road networks necessitating targeted safety interventions. This study employs a random parameters ordered logit (RPOL) model with heterogeneity in means to analyze injury severity contributing factors across 9108 Wyoming intersection crashes that occurred from 2007 to 2017. [...] Read more.

Intersections represent critical crash locations on road networks necessitating targeted safety interventions. This study employs a random parameters ordered logit (RPOL) model with heterogeneity in means to analyze injury severity contributing factors across 9108 Wyoming intersection crashes that occurred from 2007 to 2017. The analysis reveals that crashes on principal and minor arterial intersections are consistently associated with higher risks of severe/fatal injuries, while urban intersections exhibit less severe consequences, likely due to lower speeds and enhanced infrastructure. Adverse weather conditions, particularly snowy and icy road surfaces, increase the likelihood of property-damage-only (PDO) outcomes while reducing severe/fatal injuries. Temporal trends show a decline in crash severity over time, coinciding with advances in vehicle safety and policy improvements. Key behavioral factors, including left turn maneuvers and driver’s age heterogeneity, influence crash outcomes, whereas intersection sight distance (ISD) had no significant effect on crash severity underscoring data limitations requiring advanced analysis methods. This study’s findings prioritize the reconsideration of arterial intersection design, urban safety enhancements, and behavior-focused countermeasures for intersection safety. Full article

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13 pages, 1917 KB

Open AccessArticle

Occupational Ergonomic Risks Among Women in Underground Coal Mining, South Africa

by Ouma S. Mokwena, Joyce Shirinde and Thabiso J. Morodi

Safety 2025, 11(4), 116; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040116 - 25 Nov 2025

Cited by 1

Abstract

Although women have participated in mining activities across the world for centuries, the industry continues to be perceived as predominantly male-oriented. This perception persists largely due to the male-dominated workforce and the physically demanding nature of mining operations. This paper examines the ergonomic [...] Read more.

Although women have participated in mining activities across the world for centuries, the industry continues to be perceived as predominantly male-oriented. This perception persists largely due to the male-dominated workforce and the physically demanding nature of mining operations. This paper examines the ergonomic impacts of mining machinery on female mineworkers. The study was conducted in three underground coal mining operations located in Mpumalanga, South Africa, using a quantitative research approach. To evaluate the ergonomic demands placed on women working underground, the researchers employed the Rapid Entire Body Assessment (REBA) in combination with direct observation techniques. The findings revealed that female mineworkers experience considerable challenges when performing tasks requiring significant physical strength and endurance. The observed female mineworker recorded a final REBA score of seven, indicating a medium-risk level. Ergonomic challenges in underground coal mining are further intensified for female mineworkers due to the absence of gender-specific considerations in equipment design, task allocation, and the overall working environment. Although the risk classification was moderate, the results underscore the need for further investigation and the timely implementation of corrective measures. Addressing these issues will require the integration of inclusive ergonomic principles that account for gender diversity within the mining workforce. Full article

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19 pages, 1268 KB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing the Potential Impact of Fugitive Methane Emissions on Offshore Platform Safety

by Stuart N. Riddick, Mercy Mbua, Catherine Laughery and Daniel J. Zimmerle

Safety 2025, 11(4), 115; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040115 - 24 Nov 2025

Abstract

One of the biggest risks to safety on offshore platform safety is the ignition of high-pressure natural gas streams. Currently, the size and number of fugitive emissions on offshore platforms is unknown and methods used to detect fugitives have significant shortcomings. To investigate [...] Read more.

One of the biggest risks to safety on offshore platform safety is the ignition of high-pressure natural gas streams. Currently, the size and number of fugitive emissions on offshore platforms is unknown and methods used to detect fugitives have significant shortcomings. To investigate the frequency, size, and potential impact of fugitives, a data collection exercise was conducted using incidents reported, leak survey data, and independent measurements. The size and number of fugitives on offshore facilities were simulated to investigate likely areas of safety concern. Incident reports indicate in 2021 there were 113 reports of gas leaks on 1119 offshore facilities, suggesting 0.02 fugitives per Type 1 facility (older, shallow-water platforms) and 0.31 fugitives per Type 2 facility (larger deeper-water facilities). Leak survey data report 12 fugitives per Type 1 facility (average emission 0.6 kg CH₄ h⁻¹ leak⁻¹) and 15 fugitives per Type 2 facility (average emission 1.5 kg CH₄ h⁻¹ leak⁻¹). Reconciliation of direct measurements with a bottom-up model suggests that the number of fugitive emissions generated from the leak report data is an underestimate for Type 1 platforms (44 fugitives facility⁻¹; average emission 0.6 kg CH₄ h⁻¹ leak⁻¹) and in general agreement for the Type 2 platforms (15 fugitives facility⁻¹; average emission 1.5 kg CH₄ h⁻¹ leak⁻¹). Analysis of the fugitive emission rates on an offshore platform suggests that gas will not collect to explosive concentration if any air movement is present (>0.36 mph); however, large volumes of air (~600 m³) near representative leaks on the working deck could become explosive in hour-long zero-wind conditions. We suggest that wearable technology could be employed to indicate gas build up, safety regulations amended to consider low-wind conditions and real-world experiments are conducted to test assumptions of air mixing on the working deck. Full article

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21 pages, 1180 KB

Open AccessArticle

Disclosures of Occupational Health and Safety Performance Indicators: A Perspective from South African Listed Companies

by Oscar Rikhotso

Safety 2025, 11(4), 114; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040114 - 20 Nov 2025

Abstract

Employers in South Africa are mandated by labour laws to implement systems of work for the maintenance and promotion of health and safety at work. In response, companies have adopted and implemented occupational health and safety management systems (OHSMSs) whose effectiveness should be [...] Read more.

Employers in South Africa are mandated by labour laws to implement systems of work for the maintenance and promotion of health and safety at work. In response, companies have adopted and implemented occupational health and safety management systems (OHSMSs) whose effectiveness should be continuously monitored through performance measurement. However, there remains no national convention on the specific performance measurement indicators for companies to use. The objective of this study was to determine, characterise and compare lagging indicators adopted and reported by the top 150 Johannesburg Stock Exchange (JSE)-listed companies in South Africa. This qualitative study evaluated annual reports and data books from these companies by analysing textual data through qualitative document analysis. Only 87 of the 150 case companies reported performance using lagging indicators. The basic materials, consumer goods, consumer services and industrial sectors had the most companies which reported performance metrics. Fatality count and lost time injury frequency rate (LTIFR) were the most commonly reported performance metrics and were reported by 64 and 41 companies, respectively. There was variation in the number, type and form of adopted lagging indicators by the case companies. Companies in the manufacturing and mining sectors were more likely to report OHS performance, in general, than those in other sectors. The observed variation across sectors emphasises the need for harmonised indicators to measure and report OHS performance in South Africa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Occupational Health and Safety in A Changing World: Realities, Challenges and Perspectives)

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20 pages, 291 KB

Open AccessArticle

Occupational Safety and Injury Risk in Professional Football: The Portuguese Framework in Comparative Perspective

by Miguel Gouveia, Micaela Pinho and Paulo Botelho Pires

Safety 2025, 11(4), 113; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040113 - 18 Nov 2025

Abstract

Professional football players face considerable occupational hazards, with injuries posing serious challenges to player safety, club performance, and regulatory oversight. This descriptive study examines the multifaceted implications of Portugal’s Laws No. 48/2023, which formally recognises professional football as a high-risk occupation and strengthens [...] Read more.

Professional football players face considerable occupational hazards, with injuries posing serious challenges to player safety, club performance, and regulatory oversight. This descriptive study examines the multifaceted implications of Portugal’s Laws No. 48/2023, which formally recognises professional football as a high-risk occupation and strengthens the mandatory insurance regime through a major regulatory update. Adopting a qualitative approach, the analysis focuses on Portugal, where the professional football business model heavily relies on player commercialisation, and compares regulatory frameworks in Spain, Germany, England, Italy, France, and Brazil. Findings indicate that Portugal’s legal framework enhances player safety by ensuring comprehensive coverage and improved disability protections, yet also introduces financial pressures on clubs, particularly those with lower economic capacity. These pressures are exacerbated by limited market competition and high insurance concentration, increasing premium costs. Cross-country comparisons reveal persistent disparities in legal standards, insurance scope, and institutional coordination, which complicate risk allocation in an increasingly globalised football market. Notably, Portugal’s high-risk insurance model most closely aligns with France’s hybrid approach, in contrast to fully public schemes seen in countries like Germany and Italy. While complete harmonisation remains challenging, the study identifies key principles to guide policy reform and international cooperation. Overall, the findings advance understanding of occupational risk regulation in sport and offer practical insights for designing effective, equitable, and safety-oriented protection systems for professional athletes. Full article

34 pages, 380 KB

Open AccessReview

Subtractive Manufacturing of Hazardous Materials: A Review

by Leon Proud, Daniel Whitehead, Tom Slatter, Pete Crawforth and David Curtis

Safety 2025, 11(4), 112; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040112 - 17 Nov 2025

Abstract

Whilst subtractive manufacturing has been de-risked significantly over recent decades, the emergence of new unfamiliar materials is proving to be a significant challenge for social sustainability. Given this rapidly evolving landscape, this review serves to outline the current available data on the occupational [...] Read more.

Whilst subtractive manufacturing has been de-risked significantly over recent decades, the emergence of new unfamiliar materials is proving to be a significant challenge for social sustainability. Given this rapidly evolving landscape, this review serves to outline the current available data on the occupational health implications of various existing and emerging material species, ranging from radioactive metals to composite materials. A structured search of sources up to January 2025 was conducted using databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed and Web of Science in addition to various authoritative occupational health reports, prioritising the literature directly pertaining or analogous to machining-related hazards. Evidence highlights the complexity of the machining environment, with occupational hazards ranging from toxicological factors to fire risks (i.e., due to swarf pyrophoricity). Case studies outline both relatively benign pathologies (e.g., dermatitis and sensitisation) and much more severe health complications (e.g., carcinogenicity, systemic organ damage and death), underscoring the need for continuous assessment and updating of exposure controls, even for materials traditionally regarded as safe. Full article

29 pages, 5727 KB

Open AccessReview

Progress in Improving Safety Performance of Battery Separators Based on MOF Materials: Mechanisms, Materials and Applications

by Tian Zhao, Yajuan Bi, Jiayao Chen, Jiangrong Yu, Shilin Peng, Fuli Luo and Yi Chen

Safety 2025, 11(4), 111; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040111 - 17 Nov 2025

Abstract

This comprehensive review examines the transformative role of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) in advancing battery separator technology to address critical safety challenges in rechargeable lithium metal batteries. MOF-based separators leverage their highly specific surface area, tunable pore structures, and functionalized organic ligands to enable [...] Read more.

This comprehensive review examines the transformative role of metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) in advancing battery separator technology to address critical safety challenges in rechargeable lithium metal batteries. MOF-based separators leverage their highly specific surface area, tunable pore structures, and functionalized organic ligands to enable precise ion-sieving effects, uniform lithium-ion flux regulation, and dendrite suppression—significantly mitigating risks of internal short circuits and thermal runaway. We systematically analyze the mechanisms by which classical MOF families (e.g., ZIF, UiO, MIL series) enhance separator performance through physicochemical properties such as electrolyte wettability, thermal stability (>400 °C), and mechanical robustness. Furthermore, we highlight innovative composite strategies integrating MOFs with polymer matrices (e.g., PVDF, PAN) or traditional separators, which synergistically improve ionic conductivity while inhibiting polysulfide shuttling in lithium–sulfur batteries and side reactions in aqueous zinc-ion systems. Case studies demonstrate that functionalized MOF separators achieve exceptional electrochemical outcomes: Li–S batteries maintain >99% Coulombic efficiency over 500 cycles, while solid-state batteries exhibit 2400 h dendrite-free operation. Despite promising results, scalability challenges related to MOF synthesis costs and long-term stability under operational conditions require further research. This review underscores MOFs’ potential as multifunctional separator materials to enable safer, high-energy-density batteries and provides strategic insights for future material design. Full article

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11 pages, 1062 KB

Open AccessArticle

Static Rate of Failed Equipment-Related Fatal Accidents in General Aviation

by Douglas D. Boyd and Linfeng Jin

Safety 2025, 11(4), 109; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040109 - 14 Nov 2025

Abstract

General aviation (GA), comprised mainly of piston engine airplanes, has an inferior safety history compared with air carriers in the United States. Most studies addressing this safety disparity has focused on pilot deficiencies. Herein, we determined the rates/causes of equipment failure-related GA fatal [...] Read more.

General aviation (GA), comprised mainly of piston engine airplanes, has an inferior safety history compared with air carriers in the United States. Most studies addressing this safety disparity has focused on pilot deficiencies. Herein, we determined the rates/causes of equipment failure-related GA fatal accidents for type-certificated and experimental-amateur-built airplanes. Aviation accidents/injury severity were per the NTSB Access^R database. Statistical tests employed proportion/binomial tests/a Poisson distribution. The rate of fatal accidents (1990–2019) due to equipment failure was unchanged (p > 0.026), whereas the fatal mishap rate related to other causes declined (p < 0.001). A disproportionate (2× higher) count (p < 0.001) of equipment-related fatal accidents was evident for experimental-amateur-built aircraft with type-certificated references. Propulsion system (67%) and airframe (36%) failures were the most frequent causes of fatal accidents for type-certificated and experimental-amateur-built aircraft, respectively. The components “fatigue/corrosion” and “manufacturer–builder error” resulted in 60% and 55% of powerplant and airframe failures, respectively. Most (>90%) type-certificated aircraft propulsion system failures were within the manufacturer-prescribed engine time-between-overhaul (TBO) and involved components inaccessible for examination during an annual inspection. There is little evidence for a decline in equipment failure-related fatal accident rate over three decades. Considering the fact that powerplant failures mostly occur within the TBO and involve fatigue/corrosion of one or more components inaccessible for examination, GA pilots should avoid operations where a safe off-field landing within glide-range is not assured. Full article

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Open AccessReview

A Multidimensional Conceptualization of Employee Safety Voice

by Andrea Bazzoli, Valentina Sommovigo, Georgia Libera Finstad, Valerio Vinciarelli and Matteo Curcuruto

Safety 2025, 11(4), 110; https://doi.org/10.3390/safety11040110 - 13 Nov 2025

Abstract

Previous conceptualizations of safety voice have described this construct as fundamentally unidimensional, compared to several other multidimensional models that have been outlined for the more general concept of employee voice. Drawing from previous studies in occupational safety, previous safety voice conceptualizations (challenge vs. [...] Read more.

Previous conceptualizations of safety voice have described this construct as fundamentally unidimensional, compared to several other multidimensional models that have been outlined for the more general concept of employee voice. Drawing from previous studies in occupational safety, previous safety voice conceptualizations (challenge vs. defense of safety systems), dynamic safety capability, and wise proactivity, we outline an extended conceptualization of safety voice. Adopting a functionalist approach, we identified and described promotive, preventive, prohibitive, and hostile safety voice. For each type, we discuss the definition, its function, its implications, and examples. This multidimensional conceptualization provides a conceptual structure that supports more accurate measurement, intervention design, and discussions surrounding safety-related communication. It also clarifies when and how distinct forms of safety voice emerge, identifies levers for system and leadership design, and outlines actionable implications and testable propositions for advancing prevention, learning, and research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Occupational Health and Safety (OHS): Emerging Trends and Future Directions)

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