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Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy

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A special issue of Recycling (ISSN 2313-4321).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (1 May 2022) | Viewed by 41069

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Dr. Ismael Leonardo Vera Puerto

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School of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering Sciences - Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile
Interests: nature-based solutions; wastewater treatment; constructed wetlands; reuse; circular economy
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Dr. Carlos A. Arias

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Guest Editor

Department of Biology-Aquatic Biology, Aarhus University, Ole Worms Allé 1, 8000 Aarhus, Denmark
Interests: constructed wetlands; wastewater; wastewater treatment plants circular economy; resource recovery technical development
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Considering the need for sustainable water management, and to comply with the UN sustainable Development Goals, resource recovery from wastewater is a necessity for the future. However, at present wastewater treatment plants are generally seen as disposal sites—a vision that must be changed to “resource factories”. Some technical issues related to the way that resources such as nutrients, acids, energy, and water can be recovered remain to be solved in order to transform wastewater treatment plants. Furthermore, new applications of traditional resources such as water, or successful experiences of resources recovery at full-scale installation, bring with them the possibility to show a starting phase of this new vision of treatment installations. In addition, incipient research to recover new resources that are as-yet unknown can open new possibilities. Through original research, proof of concept, and scientific evidence, this Special Issue aims to highlight the state of different strategies, new applications, successful experiences, and new resources available in wastewater, and how the resources can be recovered during the treatment for improving the quality of wastewater.

Dr. Ismael Leonardo Vera Puerto
Dr. Carlos A. Arias
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Recycling is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 1800 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

nutrient recovery
biomass recovery
energy recovery
recycled water
reuse
circular economy
ecotechnologies
wastewater treatment plants

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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24 pages, 9622 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agro-Industrial Wastewater Treatment with Acacia dealbata Coagulation/Flocculation and Photo-Fenton-Based Processes

by Nuno Jorge, Ana R. Teixeira, Marco S. Lucas and José A. Peres

Recycling 2022, 7(4), 54; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7040054 - 8 Aug 2022

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 3771

Abstract

The removal of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and total polyphenols (TPh) from agro-industrial wastewater was evaluated via the application of coagulation–flocculation–decantation (CFD) and Fenton-based processes. For the CFD process, an organic coagulant based on Acacia dealbata Link. leaf powder (LP) was applied. The results showed that the application of the LP at pH 3.0, with an LP:DOC ratio of 0.5:1 (w/w), achieved a high removal of turbidity, total suspended solids (TSS), and volatile suspended solids (VSS) of 84.7, 79.1, and 76.6%, respectively. The CFD sludge was recycled as fertilizer in plant culture (germination index ≥ 80%). Afterwards, the direct application of Fenton-based processes to raw WW was assessed. The Fenton-based processes (UV/Fenton, UV/Fenton-like, and heterogeneous UV/Fenton) showed high energy efficiency and a cost of 1.29, 1.31 and 1.82 €/g/L DOC removal, respectively. The combination of both processes showed the near complete removal of TPh and DOC after 240 min of reaction time, with high energy efficiency. In accordance with the results obtained, the combination of CFD with Fenton-based processes achieves the legal limits for the disposal of water into the environment, thus allowing the water to be recycled for irrigation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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25 pages, 5904 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Assessing Alternative Supporting Organic Materials for the Enhancement of Water Reuse in Subsurface Constructed Wetlands Receiving Acid Mine Drainage

by Martha M. Oberholzer, Paul J. Oberholster, Luyanda L. Ndlela, Anna-Maria Botha and Johannes C. Truter

Recycling 2022, 7(3), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7030041 - 14 Jun 2022

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2500

Abstract

Acid mine drainage (AMD) is a global problem with severe consequences for the environment. South Africa’s abandoned mines are a legacy from the country’s economic dependence on the mining sector, with consequent negative impacts on ecosystems. AMD remediation includes active and passive techniques. Constructed wetlands (a passive technique) have lower operational costs but require larger spaces and longer timeframes to achieve the remediation of AMD, and are supported by anaerobic sulphate-reducing bacteria (SRB), which capable of remediating high-sulphate-laden AMD while precipitating dissolved metals from the AMD. Organic substrates supporting these activities are often the limiting factor. When enhancing existing passive AMD remediation technologies, alternative waste material research that may support SRB activity is required to support the circular economy through the reduction in waste products. Chicken feathers show potential as a substrate enhancer, boosting organic carbon availability to SRB, which sustains passive AMD treatment processes by achieving pH elevation, sulphate and metal reductions in AMD water for reuse. Microbial biodiversity is essential to ensure the longevity of passive treatment systems, and chicken feathers are proven to have an association with SRB microbial taxa. However, the longer-term associations between the AMD water parameters, microbial diversity and the selected substrates remain to be further investigated. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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13 pages, 2013 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Factors That Affect Methane Yield Using Raw Olive Alperujo (Unhydrolyzed) as Substrate in BMP Assays

by Valentina Ortega, Andrés Donoso-Bravo, Rolando Chamy-Maggy, José Luis Campos, Anuska Mosquera-Corral and Marisol Belmonte

Recycling 2022, 7(2), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7020015 - 4 Mar 2022

Viewed by 3047

Abstract

The olive alperujo (OA) corresponds to the solid waste generated in the olive oil extraction process using the two-phase centrifugation method. OA is produced in large quantities (800 kg OA/ton olives processed) and is characterized by its high moisture content, organic matter, and low pH. In Chile, the olive oil industry is recent, and one of its main challenges is to be able to manage OA to reduce the impact caused by its disposal. In this sense, its valorization as biogas by means of anaerobic digestion is an economically attractive option. For this, it is previously necessary to evaluate the biomethane potential (BMP) of the raw OA using batch assays. This study was focused on evaluating the factors that most affect the methane yield (MY) when using OA as substrate in BMP tests. First, a sweep analysis (Plackett–Burman) was applied to determine those factors that, according to the literature, would have an influence on the BMP tests. Among the factors studied, the most significant were preincubation, OA concentration, and agitation level. Subsequently, a 2³ factorial experimental design was applied to evaluate the effect of these factors on MY at different levels. Results show that the OA concentration was the most significant factor affecting MY. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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16 pages, 2600 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Physicochemical and Biological Contribution of Native Macrophytes in the Constructed Wetlands to Treat Municipal Wastewater: A Pilot-Scale Experiment in a Sub-Tropical Climate Region

by Tofeeq Aalam, Carlos Alberto Arias and Nadeem Khalil

Recycling 2022, 7(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7010008 - 17 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2853

Abstract

In this study, the physicochemical and biological contributions of different macrophytes in horizontal sub-surface flow constructed wetlands (HSSF-CWs) to treat low-strength municipal wastewater operated at high hydraulic loads under a sub-tropical climatic region is investigated. Out of the four identical beds, three were planted with locally available macrophytes (P. australis, Sagittaria, and Iris), whereas one bed was kept as a control. The beds were filled with media and operated in parallel continuously for eight months, with increasing the surface loading rate (SLR) from 0.19 to 2.78 m day⁻¹. The results indicate that the planted beds performed significantly (p < 0.01) better to remove TSS (70% to 78%), BOD₅ (66% to 77%), COD (59% to 75%), NO₃-N (56% to 64%), NH₄-N (41% to 69%), TN (36% to 41%), and TP (44% to 61%) as compared to the unplanted bed for the same parameters (48%, 39%, 40%, 33%, 18%, 20%, and 29%, respectively). The presence of macrophytes in HSSF-CWs was found to be highly significant. The average relative growth rate (RGR) was observed in the order of P. australis (0.0086 day⁻¹) > Sagittaria (0.0061 day⁻¹) > Iris (0.0059 day⁻¹). When compared to the performances of the species used, Sagittaria and P. australis produced better results than Iris. The investigations on biomass showed that Sagittaria yielded higher production, followed by P. australis and Iris. The proportions of uptake by the macrophytes were found to be 9.3%, 6.3%, and 3.9% of mass N removal, and 7.6%, 5.1%, and 4.4% of mass p removal in Sagittaria, P. australis, and Iris, respectively. This study contributes to the effective response to the environment, which validates a major role of macrophytes and their disparate response to pollutant removal processes by different species from municipal wastewater through HSSF-CWs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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17 pages, 5917 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Best Available Technology for P-Recycling from Sewage Sludge—An Overview of Sewage Sludge Composting in Austria

by Bernhard Stürmer and Melanie Waltner

Recycling 2021, 6(4), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6040082 - 17 Dec 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4060

Abstract

In order to close the phosphorus cycle in the long term, efficient recycling processes are necessary to ensure that this critical nutrient can be returned to arable land. Sewage sludge recycling is of particular importance due to the relatively high phosphorus content of sewage sludge. In this article, the current recycling paths of Austrian sewage sludge are highlighted, focusing on the advantages and limitations of sewage sludge composting. In addition to nutrient contents, pollutant loads were also analyzed in order to also discuss the limitations of this recycling pathway. Therefore, data from Austrian composting plants with focus on sewage sludge are used. The results show that the currently relevant pollutants (heavy metals) are predominantly below the limits prescribed for recycling and spreading on arable land. However, in order to decide on a recycling path at an early stage, a pollutant monitoring system must be in place. Due to pollution, mono-incineration with subsequent phosphorus recovery is also currently being discussed in Austria. Mono-incineration can represent an important component of sewage sludge disposal, because some sewage sludges are not suitable for composting due to potential environmental hazards. Therefore, it is important that evidence-based limit values and measures for the reduction in pollutants for input sources are determined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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16 pages, 2347 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multistage Constructed Wetland in the Treatment of Greywater under Tropical Conditions: Performance, Operation, and Maintenance

by Fernando J. C. Magalhães Filho, José C. M. de Souza Filho and Paula L. Paulo

Recycling 2021, 6(4), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6040063 - 26 Sep 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4408

Abstract

Greywater (GW) can be separated in different fractions where the kitchen component might be included. Constructed wetland (CW) systems are commonly used for the onsite treatment of GW, and the fraction treated might impact the performance, operation, and maintenance. These aspects are still poorly explored in the literature and are of importance for a proper design and system sustainability. In this study, a multi-stage household-scale CW system composed of a horizontal flow (HF), followed by a vertical flow (VF) unit, was monitored over 1330 days, focusing on different GW fractions and hydraulic and organic loading rates. The biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) was ~50% lower without the kitchen sink component (GW_L) in the system inlet, while no drop was observed in the chemical oxygen demand (COD). Treatment with the GW_L component caused a sudden drop in the hydraulic loading rate applied at the HF-CW (~114 to 35 mm per day) and the VF-CW (~230 to 70 mm per day). Even when the HF-CW received ~90 gCOD m⁻² per day (GW), the multistage system reached a COD removal of 90%. The lower BOD load when treating GW_L avoids clogging and decreases the frequency of maintenance. These variables can be used for the optimal design and operation of a CW, contributing with empirical data to CW guidelines in Brazil, and could additionally be expanded for application in other countries with similar climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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17 pages, 4425 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Integrating Pyrolysis or Combustion with Scrubbing to Maximize the Nutrient and Energy Recovery from Municipal Sewage Sludge

by Ali Saud, Jouni Havukainen, Petteri Peltola and Mika Horttanainen

Recycling 2021, 6(3), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6030052 - 4 Aug 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3974

Abstract

Based on mass and energy balance calculations, this work investigates the possibility of recovering heat and nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) from municipal sewage sludge using pyrolysis or combustion in combination with a gas scrubbing technology. Considering a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) with 65,000 t/a of mechanically dewatered digestate (29% total solids), 550 t/a nitrogen and 500 t/a phosphorus were recovered from the 4900 t/a total nitrogen and 600 t/a total phosphorus that entered the WWTP. Overall, 3600 t/a (73%) of total nitrogen was lost to the air (as N₂) and clean water, while 90 t/a (15%) of total phosphorus was lost to clean water released by the WWTP. Both in combustion and in pyrolysis, the nitrogen (3%) released within thermal drying fumes was recovered through condensate stripping and subsequent gas scrubbing, and together with the recovery of nitrogen from WWTP reject water, a total of 3500 t/a of ammonium sulfate fertilizer can be produced. Furthermore, 120 GWh/a of district heat and 9700 t/a of ash with 500 t/a phosphorus were obtained in the combustion scenario and 12,000 t/a of biochar with 500 t/a phosphorus was obtained in the pyrolysis scenario. The addition of a stripper and a scrubber for nitrogen recovery increases the total electricity consumption in both scenarios. According to an approximate cost estimation, combustion and pyrolysis require annual investment costs of 2–4 M EUR/a and 2–3 M EUR/a, respectively, while 3–5 M EUR/a and 3–3.5 M EUR/a will be generated as revenues from the products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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26 pages, 7110 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cleaner Approach for Atrazine Removal Using Recycling Biowaste/Waste in Permeable Barriers

by Ana Lago, Bruna Silva and Teresa Tavares

Recycling 2021, 6(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6020041 - 17 Jun 2021

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 3631

Abstract

This work addresses the rehabilitation of water contaminated with atrazine, entrapping it in a permeable and sustainable barrier designed with waste materials (sepiolite) and with biomaterials (cork and pine bark). Atrazine adsorption was assessed by kinetics and equilibrium assays and desorption was tested with different extraction solvents. Adsorbed atrazine was 100% recovered from sepiolite using 20% acetonitrile solution, while 40% acetonitrile was needed to leach it from cork (98%) and pine bark (94%). Continuous fixed-bed experiments using those sorbents as PRB were performed to evaluate atrazine removal for up-scale applications. The modified dose-response model properly described the breakthrough data. The highest adsorption capacity was achieved by sepiolite (23.3 (±0.8) mg/g), followed by pine bark (14.8 (±0.6) mg/g) and cork (13.0 (±0.9) mg/g). Recyclability of sorbents was evaluated by adsorption-desorption cycles. After two regenerations, sepiolite achieved 81% of atrazine removal, followed by pine with 78% and cork with 54%. Sepiolite had the best performance in terms of adsorption capacity/stability. SEM and FTIR analyses confirmed no significant differences in material morphology and structure. This study demonstrates that recycling waste/biowaste is a sustainable option for wastewater treatment, with waste valorization and environmental protection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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14 pages, 806 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Phosphorus Recovery from Wastewater: Bioavailability of P Bound to Calcareous Material for Maize (Zea Mays L.) Growth

by Solvei M. Jensen, Chiara Esposito, Dennis Konnerup, Hans Brix and Carlos A. Arias

Recycling 2021, 6(2), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling6020025 - 13 Apr 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3843

Abstract

(1) Phosphorus (P) is an essential plant nutrient, and P deficiency negatively affects plant growth and development. Furthermore, P is a finite and nonrenewable resource, and there is an urgent need to recover P from some of the important waste streams in society. Newly engineered calcareous materials (sol–gel coated cat litter (CATSAN^®)) can bind P from wastewater in decentralized treatment systems and potentially enable P recycling into agricultural production by direct addition of the P saturated material. (2) The effects of the addition of two P-enriched calcareous materials as fertilizers for maize (Zea mays L.) growth were investigated in a mesocosm experiment. We compared fertilization with the P-enriched materials at rates of 6, 12, 25, 50, 100 kg P ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ with fertilization with commercial NPK fertilizer. (3) The P fertilization by the P-enriched materials had a significant positive effect on plant height, biomass, maximum light-saturated photosynthetic rate, respiration rate, and total P content in biomass. However, plants fertilized by the commercial NPK fertilizer performed significantly better in the majority of measured parameters at identical fertilization rates. (4) The bioavailability of the P bound to the calcareous material was very low. However, the studied material has the potential to be used as part of a decentralized treatment solution to remove and subsequently recover and recycle P from wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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Review

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17 pages, 1190 KiB

Open AccessReview

Zero Liquid Discharge System for the Tannery Industry—An Overview of Sustainable Approaches

by Rajamanickam Ricky, Subramanian Shanthakumar, Ganapathy Pattukandan Ganapathy and Fulvia Chiampo

Recycling 2022, 7(3), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/recycling7030031 - 24 May 2022

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 6806

Abstract

The tannery industry is characterized by the consumption of a large quantity of water, around 30–40 m³ for processing 1000 kg of hide or skin. This amount becomes wastewater, containing about 300 kg of different chemicals, mainly refractory organic compounds, with high chemical oxygen demand (COD), total dissolved salts (TDS), chromium, and evolution of toxic gases, such as ammonia and sulfides, etc. The remaining tanning chemicals are released as effluent having high resistance against biological degradation, becoming a serious environmental issue. Usually, end-of-pipe treatment is not sufficient to meet the concerns of environmental issues. In terms of cleaner production options, the redesigning of the existing effluent treatment procedures with alternate or additional treatment techniques, which “supports resource recovery with no added chemicals”, is expected to give a sustainable solution for the management of toxic effluent. The Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) system serves to ensure zero water emission, as well as treatment facilities by recycling, recovery, and reuse of the treated wastewater using advanced cleanup technology. The international scenario shows the implementation of ZLD thanks to pressure from regulatory agencies. The ZLD system consists of a pre-treatment system with conventional physicochemical treatment, tertiary treatment, softening of the treated effluent, reverse osmosis (RO) treatment for desalination, and thermal evaporation of the saline reject from RO to separate the salts. By adopting this system, water consumption is reduced. Moreover, ZLD also becomes effective in disaster mitigation in areas where the tannery industry is a strong economic actor. With this review, we aim to give an outlook of the current framework. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Reuse of Wastewater: Recovery of Water, Nutrients, and Energy)

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