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Polyethylene Recovery from Multilayer Plastic Packaging Waste
The Influence of Small Amounts of the Biobased Polyester PEF on the Mechanical Recycling of PET
Low-Power Three-Dimensional Graphene-Based Flexible Magnetic Sensor
Eugenol and Chavicol-Based Polyamides from Synthesis to Degradation: Moving Towards Closing the Circle

Journal Description

Polymers

Polymers is an international, peer-reviewed, open access journal of polymer science published semimonthly online by MDPI. Belgian Polymer Group (BPG), European Colloid & Interface Society (ECIS), National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology (INSTM) and North American Thermal Analysis Society (NATAS) are affiliated with Polymers and their members receive a discount on the article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within Scopus, SCIE (Web of Science), Ei Compendex, PubMed, PMC, FSTA, CAPlus / SciFinder, Inspec, and other databases.
Journal Rank: JCR - Q1 (Polymer Science) / CiteScore - Q1 (General Chemistry )
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 14.4 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.6 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in MDPI journals, in appreciation of the work.
Testimonials: See what our authors and editors say about Polymers.
Journal Cluster of Polymer and Macromolecular Science: Polymers, Gels, Polysaccharides, Textiles, Macromol, Microplastics and Adhesives.

Impact Factor: 4.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 5.2 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2073-4360

Latest Articles

20 pages, 807 KB

Open AccessArticle

Xylan-Polyvinyl Alcohol Biopolymer Films Incorporated with Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam. Extract: Development, Characterization, and Antimicrobial Activity for Active Food Packaging

by Janine Siqueira Nunes, Brunna Emanuelly Guedes de Oliveira, Fernanda Matias Cariri Marques, Abrahão Alves de Oliveira, Filho and Elquio Eleamen Oliveira

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1143; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091143 (registering DOI) - 6 May 2026

This study aimed to develop and characterize biodegradable films based on xylan and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), incorporated with ethanolic extract of Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam., for application in active food packaging. A Box–Behnken experimental design was employed to optimize the concentrations of xylan, PVA, [...] Read more.

This study aimed to develop and characterize biodegradable films based on xylan and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), incorporated with ethanolic extract of Zanthoxylum rhoifolium Lam., for application in active food packaging. A Box–Behnken experimental design was employed to optimize the concentrations of xylan, PVA, and glycerol, evaluating the mechanical properties of the films. The results indicated that glycerol reduced tensile strength and increased elongation at break, while higher concentrations of xylan and PVA promoted an increase in mechanical strength. FTIR and XRD analyses reveal structural change without the formation of new chemical structures. The Z. rhoifolium extract exhibited antibacterial activity with a minimum inhibitory concentration of 31.5 µg/mL for Klebsiella pneumoniae, increasing to 1000 µg/mL for Enterococcus faecium, Enterobacter cloacae, and Escherichia coli. In addition, hemolytic activity exceeded 80% at concentrations ≥ 1000 µg/mL, whereas concentrations up to 500 µg/mL can be considered safe, as hemolysis remained below 40%. The films incorporated with the extract showed antimicrobial activity, with emphasis on the formulation containing 60 mg of extract, which exhibited inhibition zones of up to 16 mm against Escherichia coli and 12 mm against Enterococcus faecalis. Thus, the results highlight the potential of functionalized xylan/PVA films as sustainable materials for the development of active packaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Nanocomposites and Nanoparticles: Preparation and Applications)

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21 pages, 2228 KB

Open AccessArticle

Quantitative Kinetic Modeling of Redox-Initiated Graft Copolymerization of MMA and Styrene onto Natural Rubber Latex

by Wanvimon Arayapranee and Weerawat Patthaveekongka

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1141; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091141 (registering DOI) - 6 May 2026

This study develops a quantitative kinetic framework for graft copolymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and styrene (ST) onto natural rubber latex (NRL), with emphasis on Redox initiation and Interfacial polymerization in a multiphase system. Experiments were conducted using a cumene hydroperoxide/tetraethylenepentamine (CHPO/TEPA) system. [...] Read more.

This study develops a quantitative kinetic framework for graft copolymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and styrene (ST) onto natural rubber latex (NRL), with emphasis on Redox initiation and Interfacial polymerization in a multiphase system. Experiments were conducted using a cumene hydroperoxide/tetraethylenepentamine (CHPO/TEPA) system. Core–shell particles, consisting of a soft NR core and a rigid poly(vinyl monomer) shell, were obtained at 40–60 °C with initiator concentrations of 0.0051–0.0205 mol L⁻¹ and monomer concentrations of 0.39–0.83 mol L⁻¹. Radical generation occurs predominantly at the aqueous rubber interface, where monomer partitioning takes place between phases. This leads to simultaneous homopolymerization in the aqueous phase, while grafting occurs on the rubber backbone. Overall conversion (x_p), graft conversion (x_g), and grafting efficiency were determined gravimetrically, while morphology was confirmed by FTIR and TEM. The conversion profiles show nonlinear behavior consistent with power-law kinetics, allowing formulation of rate expressions for overall polymerization rate (R_p) and grafting rate (R_g). Reaction order and Arrhenius analyses indicate fractional, heterogeneous behavior characteristic of multiphase reaction kinetics. Styrene shows lower activation energy, whereas MMA exhibits higher collision frequency. The model reproduces experimental trends well (R² up to 0.95) and provides insight into propagation–grafting competition in natural rubber latex systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Polymerization and Kinetic Studies)

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16 pages, 3480 KB

Open AccessArticle

Designing Soft and Transparent Films Based on Multi-Phase Polypropylene Copolymers and Styrene Block Copolymers

by Markus Gahleitner, Dietrich Gloger, Katja Klimke, Martina Sandholzer and Jingbo Wang

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1140; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091140 (registering DOI) - 6 May 2026

Concerns about the environmental and health impacts of plasticized poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), from plasticizer loss to microplastic formation, have created a clear demand to find alternative packaging materials for medical and pharmaceutical use. As a possible polyolefin-based alternative, we blended polypropylene–ethylene copolymers [...] Read more.

Concerns about the environmental and health impacts of plasticized poly (vinyl chloride) (PVC), from plasticizer loss to microplastic formation, have created a clear demand to find alternative packaging materials for medical and pharmaceutical use. As a possible polyolefin-based alternative, we blended polypropylene–ethylene copolymers with different ethylene content-controlled phase structures with styrene–ethylene/butylene–styrene block copolymer (SEBS), as modifier. SEBS is elastomeric and performs mechanically like a cross-linked rubber due to its unique microphase-separated morphology of hard spherical polystyrene (PS) domains dispersed in the soft elastomeric ethylene-butylene copolymer (EB) phase. Tests with injection-molded samples and cast films demonstrated promising combinations of flexibility, durability, and transparency—qualities essential for soft medical packaging like infusion pouches and blow–fill–seal bottles. For the desired level of flexibility (reflected by a flexural modulus of 150–250 MPa), blends with two random-heterophasic (RAHECO) copolymers achieved the lower limit with only 15–25 wt.-% SEBS, compared to the 37 wt.-% needed for a single-phase random copolymer (RACO). These blends also exhibited greater toughness and excellent transparency. In contrast, a standard impact copolymer (HECO), with its more crystalline matrix, required a higher modifier content of 45 wt.-% SEBS. Film morphology analysis indicated a gradual shift in disperse phase structure and orientation, leading to phase inversion at the highest SEBS content without negatively affecting transparency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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19 pages, 15275 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mesoscopic Modeling of Fracture in Heterogeneous Bituminous Polymer Composites: Coupling Random Aggregate Distribution with Bilinear Cohesive Zone Models

by Wenjing Li, Hang Gao, Linyu Xie, Zhifei Tan and Peng Cao

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1139; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091139 (registering DOI) - 6 May 2026

The fracture of bituminous polymer composites is fundamentally dictated by microstructural heterogeneity and the complex viscoelasticity of the asphalt matrix. This study develops a robust numerical framework coupling a random polygonal aggregate distribution algorithm with a bilinear cohesive zone model (CZM) to simulate [...] Read more.

The fracture of bituminous polymer composites is fundamentally dictated by microstructural heterogeneity and the complex viscoelasticity of the asphalt matrix. This study develops a robust numerical framework coupling a random polygonal aggregate distribution algorithm with a bilinear cohesive zone model (CZM) to simulate fracture mechanics in heterogeneous asphalt-based composites. A key feature of the model is the explicit accounting for the stochastic distribution of the coarse aggregate and the time-dependent mechanical response of the fine aggregate matrix (FAM). Following experimental validation via frequency sweep and semi-circular bending (SCB) tests, a multi-scale parametric analysis was conducted to quantify the impacts of aggregate gradation, volume fraction, and shape. Results demonstrate that mixtures with high percentages of large-sized aggregates effectively delay macroscopic fracture by increasing the energy dissipation required for cracks to bypass the aggregate phase. While increasing the volume fraction of aggregates improves peak strength, it simultaneously accelerates post-peak load deterioration and reduces total fracture work, indicating a critical loss in the composite’s deformation capacity. Furthermore, particles with higher angularity provide superior blocking effects compared to rounded counterparts. This research offers a high-efficiency computational tool for the structural optimization of highly filled composites and provides critical insights into their internal stress states and macroscopic fracture mechanics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Composites and Nanocomposites)

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18 pages, 7270 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancing Energy Absorption in PLA Prints Through Post-Thermal Treatment

by Roberto Orduz, Brayan Murgas, Sergio G. Torres-Cedillo, Jacinto Cortés-Pérez and Moises Jimenez-Martinez

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1138; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091138 - 6 May 2026

Energy absorption is a pivotal factor in impact mitigation, especially in engineering applications that demand lightweight and efficient mechanical absorbers. Traditionally, crash boxes are manufactured using metallic materials; however, advancements in additive manufacturing present new opportunities for producing lightweight prototypes quickly, without the [...] Read more.

Energy absorption is a pivotal factor in impact mitigation, especially in engineering applications that demand lightweight and efficient mechanical absorbers. Traditionally, crash boxes are manufactured using metallic materials; however, advancements in additive manufacturing present new opportunities for producing lightweight prototypes quickly, without the need for specialized tooling. This study explores the potential of 3D-printed polylactic acid (PLA) components with tailored stiffness to optimize energy absorption performance. By combining material properties, manufacturing parameters, and design strategies, varying mechanical strengths were achieved. Furthermore, the performance of the best combination was enhanced through post-processing via thermal treatment, resulting in improved crushing metrics. Experimental results revealed a 33% increase in energy absorption for honeycomb structures with variable thickness designs, demonstrating the benefits of tailored stiffness distribution. These findings highlight the promise of variable-thickness 3D-printed composites as highly effective and customizable energy absorbers, offering innovative solutions for micromobility and other engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 3D Printing Polymers: Design and Applications)

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18 pages, 2654 KB

Open AccessArticle

Thermal Decomposition Characteristics of Silicone Rubber in In-Service Power Equipment: A Study Combining Experiments and Molecular Simulations

by Jiaming Yan, Runmiao Shi, Zhijun An, Haoran Meng, Xinhan Qiao and Wenyu Ye

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1137; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091137 - 6 May 2026

To investigate the thermal decomposition characteristics of high-temperature vulcanized silicone rubber (HTV) and liquid silicone rubber (LSR) under different aging conditions, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermogravimetric analysis (TG) were employed to characterize the surface microstructure and chemical properties of silicone rubber samples [...] Read more.

To investigate the thermal decomposition characteristics of high-temperature vulcanized silicone rubber (HTV) and liquid silicone rubber (LSR) under different aging conditions, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermogravimetric analysis (TG) were employed to characterize the surface microstructure and chemical properties of silicone rubber samples that had been in service for 15 years. The influence of aging degree on the thermal stability of silicone rubber was initially investigated. ReaxFF-based reactive molecular dynamics simulations were conducted to analyze the decomposition pathways of silicone rubber under high-temperature conditions, as well as the dynamic evolution of decomposition products. In addition, key parameters—including glass transition temperature, mean square displacement, cohesive energy density, and free volume fraction—were calculated before and after decomposition using the Materials Studio platform. The results indicate that LSR exhibits higher thermal stability than HTV, while the thermal stability of both materials decreases after thermal decomposition. Furthermore, the variation in thermal stability was discussed based on these parameters from the perspectives of molecular mobility and intermolecular interactions. This research can provide a reference for the safety operation assessment, aging status determination, and high-temperature service reliability design of silicone rubber insulating materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Networks and Gels)

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29 pages, 4444 KB

Open AccessArticle

Design and Application of a Sawdust–Alginate Biocomposite for Sustainable Cationic Dyes Removal from Aqueous Solutions

by Narcis-Teodor Niță, Elena-Mirela Suceveanu, Florin Marian Nedeff, Lidia Favier, Eugen Herghelegiu and Lăcrămioara Rusu

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1136; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091136 - 5 May 2026

This study investigates a novel biocomposite material developed by immobilizing sawdust within a calcium alginate matrix (SDA 5%) for the removal of dyes from aqueous solutions. The material was synthesized and comprehensively characterized using FTIR, SEM, and EDS analyses and the pH_pzc [...] Read more.

This study investigates a novel biocomposite material developed by immobilizing sawdust within a calcium alginate matrix (SDA 5%) for the removal of dyes from aqueous solutions. The material was synthesized and comprehensively characterized using FTIR, SEM, and EDS analyses and the pH_pzc drift method. Laboratory-scale experiments were performed to evaluate its performance in removing Malachite Green (MG) under varying operational conditions, including initial dye concentration (10–50 mg/L), pH (3–6), and biosorbent dosage (1–6 g/L). At pH 6 and a biosorbent dose of 3 g/L, under constant agitation (130 rpm), SDA 5% achieved removal efficiencies exceeding 95% across all tested MG concentrations. Furthermore, the biosorption capacity increased with increasing initial dye concentration, reaching a maximum value of 15.93 mg/g at an initial MG concentration of 50 mg/L. Nonlinear kinetic modelling revealed that the pseudo-second-order model best described the biosorption process, while equilibrium analysis showed that the Hill and Sips nonlinear isotherm models, followed by Temkin, provided the most accurate fit to the experimental data. These results demonstrate the high biosorption capacity and favorable interaction between MG molecules and the biocomposite surface. Overall, the study highlights sawdust-alginate biocomposites as sustainable, low-cost, and environmentally friendly biosorbents with significant potential for practical wastewater treatment applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Materials for Ecological and Environmental Applications)

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17 pages, 3346 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigation of Residual Stresses in Extruded Thermoplastic PE-RT Pipes

by Arun Biradar and Pierre Mertiny

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1135; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091135 - 5 May 2026

Polyethylene of Raised Temperature resistance (PE-RT) is a versatile polymer with an enhanced ability to withstand higher temperatures than other standard polyethylene-derived materials. The application scope of PE-RT pipes extends across a broad range of residential and industrial uses. However, the inherent residual [...] Read more.

Polyethylene of Raised Temperature resistance (PE-RT) is a versatile polymer with an enhanced ability to withstand higher temperatures than other standard polyethylene-derived materials. The application scope of PE-RT pipes extends across a broad range of residential and industrial uses. However, the inherent residual stresses developed during the fabrication processes of these pipes pose a significant challenge to their service performance. Moreover, the technical literature on residual stresses in PE-RT pipes is scarce. The investigations presented in this paper address this scientific and technical gap by experimentally quantifying the residual stresses present in different sizes of PE-RT pipes manufactured at the same plant. The slitting method was employed as the primary experimental procedure in these investigations. In addition to establishing experimental processes, this study aims to mitigate residual stresses in PE-RT pipes by investigating their sensitivity to varying annealing temperatures for one selected pipe size. Subsequently, the optimal annealing temperature (115 °C) was applied to the remaining pipe sizes to determine its efficacy in residual stress mitigation. Through the implementation of these procedures, the circumferential residual stresses in PE-RT pipes subjected to annealing at 115 °C were significantly reduced, with a minimum decrease of 78%. Furthermore, the longitudinal residual stresses were substantially diminished, reaching a state of near-complete elimination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Thermal Behaviour of Polymers)

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28 pages, 4139 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhancement of the Solubility and Dissolution Profile of Rivaroxaban by the Antisolvent Precipitation Technique: A Promising Approach

by Claudia Maria Benga, Emma Adriana Ozon, Adina Magdalena Musuc, Valentina Anuța, Iulian Sârbu, Vasile-Adrian Surdu, Florina Teodorescu, Adriana Rusu, Lăcrămioara Popa, Mihaela Violeta Ghica, Abhay Chandak and Cristina Elena Dinu Pîrvu

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1134; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091134 - 5 May 2026

The development of new pharmaceutical forms with high solubility and enhanced bioavailability currently represents a significant challenge in the pharmaceutical industry. Currently, methods are still being explored to improve the oral bioavailability of Rivaroxaban, estimated to be 60%, due to its low solubility. [...] Read more.

The development of new pharmaceutical forms with high solubility and enhanced bioavailability currently represents a significant challenge in the pharmaceutical industry. Currently, methods are still being explored to improve the oral bioavailability of Rivaroxaban, estimated to be 60%, due to its low solubility. To address these challenges, this study uses the antisolvent precipitation method to obtain three nanosuspensions of rivaroxaban (RIV), using Poloxamer 188 (P188) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) by varying their concentrations (1:1:1, 1:1:2, and 1:2:1 molar ratios). The RIV nanosuspensions were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The antisolvent precipitation method led to the successful formulation of the three RIV nanosuspensions. Afterward, the formulated tablets containing dry RIV nanosuspensions were pharmaceutically characterized. RIV-P188-HPMC (1:1:1) and RIV-P188-HPMC (1:2:1) dry nanosuspensions demonstrated a uniform flow, and they were subsequently analyzed to establish the in vitro dissolution profile. The nanosuspension formulation with a higher content of P188 showed superior performance. Overall‚ the results of this study show that the antisolvent precipitation method in the presence of different amounts of HPMC and P188 is very efficient in increasing the dissolution rate of rivaroxaban to achieve its better efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

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41 pages, 2925 KB

Open AccessReview

Electrosprayed PLGA Nanoparticles for Dual Drug Delivery: Design, Optimization and Applications

by Bahareh Azimi, Fatemeh Ahmadpoor, Alessia Tozzi, Afsaneh Shahraki, Homa Maleki, Pier Francesco Ferrari and Serena Danti

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1133; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091133 - 5 May 2026

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a biodegradable biopolymer widely used in advanced drug delivery systems (DDSs) due to its biocompatibility, controllable degradation behavior, and tunable physicochemical properties. Its degradation into naturally metabolized lactic and glycolic acids makes PLGA particularly attractive for biomedical [...] Read more.

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) is a biodegradable biopolymer widely used in advanced drug delivery systems (DDSs) due to its biocompatibility, controllable degradation behavior, and tunable physicochemical properties. Its degradation into naturally metabolized lactic and glycolic acids makes PLGA particularly attractive for biomedical applications, positioning PLGA nanoparticles as versatile carriers that bridge material design and therapeutic delivery. In this context, electrospray (electrohydrodynamic atomization) has emerged as an innovative and scalable processing technique that enables precise control over nanoparticle size, morphology, and internal structure under mild conditions, which is particularly suitable for engineering biopolymer-based DDSs. This review provides a comprehensive overview of electrospray-fabricated PLGA nanoparticles, with emphasis on the relationship between processing conditions, polymer structure, and functional performance. The fundamental mechanisms governing drug release, including diffusion, polymer degradation, and their combined effects, are discussed in relation to PLGA properties. The influence of electrospray parameters on nanoparticle formation, morphology, and internal architecture is analyzed, highlighting how process–structure–property relationships can be tailored to achieve specific release profiles. Structural design strategies, including single-matrix, core–shell, and surface-functionalized nanoparticles, are further examined as approaches to enable controlled and sequential dual-DDSs. In addition, emerging modeling and computational approaches are briefly discussed as complementary tools for understanding and optimizing nanoparticle behavior. Challenges and technical problems, such as substrates for nanoparticle detachment, are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sustainable Biopolymer Materials for Industrial Applications)

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24 pages, 3287 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Sugarcane Bagasse-Derived Cellulose Nanocrystals on the Thermal, Structural, Morphological and Biodegradation Properties of Poly(ε-caprolactone) and Poly(lactic Acid)

by Mbongeni Ngwenya, Thandi Patricia Gumede and Bennie Motloung

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1132; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091132 - 4 May 2026

Biodegradable materials offer promising alternatives to petroleum-based polymers. This study investigates poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanocomposites reinforced with 1, 3 and 5 wt.% cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) extracted from sugarcane bagasse via melt blending. The thermal, structural, morphological and biodegradation properties were [...] Read more.

Biodegradable materials offer promising alternatives to petroleum-based polymers. This study investigates poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanocomposites reinforced with 1, 3 and 5 wt.% cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) extracted from sugarcane bagasse via melt blending. The thermal, structural, morphological and biodegradation properties were evaluated using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray scattering (WAXS/SAXS), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and biodegradation tests. SEM results revealed uniform dispersion of CNCs at low concentrations, whereas agglomeration occurred at higher concentrations for both PCL and PLA. At 1 wt.% CNCs, there was minimal impact on the biodegradation rates of both polymers, despite achieving uniform dispersion. However, significant acceleration in biodegradation was observed at 5 wt.% CNCs, attributed to the enhanced hydrophilic nature of the nanocomposites. CNCs acted as nucleating agents in PCL crystallization, while reducing the crystallization rate of PLA. This led to a mass loss of 36.4% for PCL and 82.2% for PLA, correlating with increased and decreased crystallinities, respectively. The study concludes that the hydrophilic–hydrophobic balance has a more significant influence on biodegradation rates than crystallinity or CNC dispersion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adsorption of Pollutants from the Environment Using Polymers and Their Composites)

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20 pages, 1358 KB

Open AccessReview

Progress in Materials for Metallic Cultural Heritage Conservation: Mechanisms, Applications, and Future Perspectives

by Yutong Liu, Xiang Liu, Shanxiang Xu and Xinyou Liu

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091131 - 4 May 2026

Metallic cultural heritage artifacts are highly susceptible to multi-factor electrochemical degradation, driven by chloride ions, humidity, acidic deposition, and heterogeneous material interfaces. Traditional conservation materials, including organic and inorganic coatings and corrosion inhibitors, often exhibit limited interfacial compatibility, poor long-term stability, and insufficient [...] Read more.

Metallic cultural heritage artifacts are highly susceptible to multi-factor electrochemical degradation, driven by chloride ions, humidity, acidic deposition, and heterogeneous material interfaces. Traditional conservation materials, including organic and inorganic coatings and corrosion inhibitors, often exhibit limited interfacial compatibility, poor long-term stability, and insufficient multifunctionality. Recent advances in protective materials—including nano-enhanced coatings, self-healing systems, smart-responsive polymers, green biodegradable formulations, and metal–organic framework (MOF)-based composites—offer multifunctional, long-lasting, and minimally invasive solutions. These materials enhance corrosion inhibition, barrier performance, structural reinforcement, and environmental responsiveness, while enabling in situ sensing, reversible application, and ethical deployment. Laboratory evaluation, accelerated aging tests, and field verification demonstrate their efficacy in preserving artifact integrity and aesthetics. This review systematically discusses degradation mechanisms, limitations of traditional materials, and the mechanisms, applications, and future perspectives of novel functional coatings, providing a roadmap for scientifically optimized and ethically responsible conservation of metallic heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Polymer Coatings)

27 pages, 8165 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Multilayer Coatings on the Mechanical and Durability Performance of FRCM Composites

by Ali Çopuroğlu and Bekir Yilmaz Pekmezci

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1130; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091130 - 4 May 2026

Fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) composites are strengthening systems composed of a technical textile embedded in a cementitious or lime-based matrix and are increasingly used for strengthening existing masonry and concrete structures due to their compatibility with traditional substrates. The mechanical behavior of FRCM [...] Read more.

Fabric-reinforced cementitious matrix (FRCM) composites are strengthening systems composed of a technical textile embedded in a cementitious or lime-based matrix and are increasingly used for strengthening existing masonry and concrete structures due to their compatibility with traditional substrates. The mechanical behavior of FRCM composites is controlled by the combined contribution of the textile reinforcement, the matrix, and the interface developed between them, with the textile–matrix interface playing a critical role in stress transfer, crack development, and post-cracking response. Since this interface is primarily defined by the coating applied to the textile, coating configuration represents a key parameter influencing both the mechanical and durability performance of the composite. In this study, carbon textile–reinforced FRCM systems incorporating a lime-based matrix and different coating strategies, including single-layer SBR coatings and multilayer SBR–epoxy coatings, were experimentally investigated. Tensile tests were conducted on unconditioned specimens as well as after exposure to water and alkaline environments to assess the evolution of tensile behavior and damage mechanisms under durability-related conditioning. The results indicated that the influence of coating configuration is slightly detectable in the pre-cracking elastic stage but becomes significant in the post-cracking stages, where load transfer and damage evolution are predominantly governed by the textile–matrix interface. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) observations supported the mechanical findings by revealing distinct differences in coating, interfacial continuity, and fiber–matrix bonding, particularly after environmental exposure. Overall, the multilayer coating configuration, consisting of the factory SBR-coated carbon textile further modified with epoxy, resulted in higher maximum tensile strength (reaching up to 1958 MPa compared with 1531–1780 MPa for the single SBR-coated configuration), greater strain capacity (ε_max up to 0.01244 mm/mm compared with 0.00925–0.01066 mm/mm), and higher energy absorption under prolonged water and alkaline conditioning up to 3000 h. In quantitative terms, the multilayer SBR–epoxy coating improved the maximum tensile stress by approximately 10–15% and the total energy absorption capacity by 25–35%, depending on the conditioning regime. These findings demonstrate the effectiveness of multilayer coating architecture in improving long-term tensile retention, interfacial stress transfer, and post-cracking deformation capacity of lime-based carbon FRCM systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Coatings Technology and Their Multidisciplinary Applications)

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20 pages, 3413 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bifunctional Poly(ionic liquid) Membranes for CO₂ Utilization

by Maria Atlaskina, Kirill Smorodin, Sergey Kryuchkov, Artem Atlaskin, Nikolay Lukashov, Anton Petukhov, Andrey Vorotyntsev and Ilya Vorotyntsev

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1129; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091129 - 3 May 2026

In this study, the task of integrating capture and conversion of CO₂ into a single material platform is realized by developing bifunctional membranes based on polymer ionic liquids (PILs). The novelty of this work lies in the fabrication and comprehensive evaluation of [...] Read more.

In this study, the task of integrating capture and conversion of CO₂ into a single material platform is realized by developing bifunctional membranes based on polymer ionic liquids (PILs). The novelty of this work lies in the fabrication and comprehensive evaluation of PIL-based membrane materials that combine catalytic activity toward CO₂ conversion with gas separation performance within one material system. In contrast to most previously reported imidazolium-based PILs, which have mainly been considered either as catalysts or as membrane materials, the present approach focuses on their dual functionality under both catalytic and gas transport conditions. A series of imidazolium-based PILs, including homopolymers and block copolymers with polystyrene, were synthesized. The materials were characterized to determine their catalytic activity during the cycloaddition of CO₂ to epichlorohydrin and to determine their gas transport properties using pure gases (N₂, O₂, CO₂) and a simulated dry flue gas mixture; membrane morphology was studied by scanning electron microscopy. Block copolymers exhibited higher catalytic conversions (up to 82.7%) than homopolymers, with selectivities above 93%. Chloride-containing block copolymers gave the best combination of CO₂ permeability (up to 7.5 Barrer) and CO₂/N₂ selectivity (18–22) under mixed-gas conditions. Iodide-containing analogs demonstrated higher selectivity (up to 30) but lower CO₂ permeability. Morphological analysis confirmed the presence of dense, defect-free structures in materials with the chloride anion, while materials with the iodide anion showed increased free volume and microheterogeneity. These results indicate that by altering the polymer and anion architecture, PIL-based membranes can effectively combine catalytic activity with selective CO₂ transport, providing a promising avenue for enhancing carbon capture and utilization processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Functional Polymers for Catalysts)

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20 pages, 4230 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Emulsifier Type on the Properties of SBR-Modified Cement-Based Materials

by Anhua Xu, Laifa Wang, Suining Zheng, Huiting Jia, Xinyan Wang, Yindong Xu and Huaxin Chen

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1128; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091128 - 3 May 2026

Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is a commonly used polymer modifier that can improve the mechanical properties and durability of cement mortar. However, the effects of different emulsifier types on cement hydration behavior and structural evolution still need to be systematically studied. To clarify [...] Read more.

Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) is a commonly used polymer modifier that can improve the mechanical properties and durability of cement mortar. However, the effects of different emulsifier types on cement hydration behavior and structural evolution still need to be systematically studied. To clarify the differences among anionic, cationic, and nonionic SBR emulsions on mortar performance, three types of SBR emulsion were selected in this study. Setting time, chemically bound water, mechanical properties, chloride ion diffusion, freeze–thaw cycles, and microstructure were tested to evaluate the effects of different types and dosages on cement mortar. The results show that all three types of SBR emulsion prolong the setting time of cement paste and reduce the early hydration degree. The cationic SBR emulsion shows a more obvious effect. At 28 d, the compressive strength of mortar with 10% cationic SBR emulsion increases from 38.5 MPa to 41.2 MPa, and the flexural strength also increases. In terms of impermeability, the chloride ion diffusion coefficient decreases from 7.47 × 10⁻¹² m²/s to 5.12 × 10⁻¹² m²/s after adding 10% cationic SBR emulsion. After 100 freeze–thaw cycles, the compressive strength loss of ordinary mortar is 16%, while it decreases to 7.2% with 15% cationic SBR emulsion, and the mass loss is also reduced. Microstructural analysis shows that the modified mortar has a denser internal structure, improved interfacial continuity, and reduced crack development after freeze–thaw cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymers and Functional Additives in Construction Materials)

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17 pages, 2709 KB

Open AccessArticle

Empirical Structure–Property Relationships of PLLA-b-PEG-b-PLLA Triblock Copolymers with Tunable Thermal, Tensile, and Swelling Behavior

by Yang Hu, Xiaoya Sun, Wei Wu and Adam K. Ekenseair

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1127; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091127 - 2 May 2026

PLLA-b-PEG-b-PLLA triblock copolymers are promising materials because of their highly tunable properties. However, a systematic understanding of composition–property relationships remains limited. In this study, a series of A-B-A triblock copolymers was synthesized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) as soft center [...] Read more.

PLLA-b-PEG-b-PLLA triblock copolymers are promising materials because of their highly tunable properties. However, a systematic understanding of composition–property relationships remains limited. In this study, a series of A-B-A triblock copolymers was synthesized with polyethylene glycol (PEG) as soft center (B) domains and poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) as hard end (A) domains via ring-opening polymerization. Copolymer composition and molecular weights were characterized by proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹H NMR) and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The thermal and mechanical properties of the copolymers were evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and tensile testing. We established quantitative structure–property relationships using empirical data, demonstrating that PLLA block length played a key role in modulating tensile properties, with a near-linear relationship, while PEG molecular weight critically influenced mechanical stability. An approximate minimum PLLA block length of 20 repeat units was found as a threshold required to maintain structural integrity during in vitro 24 h swelling. These findings provide insights and practical guidance for the design of triblock copolymers with tunable thermal, mechanical, and swelling properties of PLLA-b-PEG-b-PLLA triblock copolymers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Analysis and Characterization)

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29 pages, 1887 KB

Open AccessReview

Viscoelastic Hydrogels Governed by Molecular Interactions and Mechanochemical Effects

by Wenjie Zhang, Dianrui Zhang, Haocheng Niu, Junsheng Zhang and Yiran Li

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1126; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091126 - 2 May 2026

Hydrogels, particularly those based on polymer networks, exhibit complex mechanical behaviors arising from the interplay between network architecture, molecular interactions, and external stimuli. In particular, their viscoelasticity, energy dissipation, and nonlinear mechanical responses arise from the dynamic nature of crosslinking and multiscale relaxation [...] Read more.

Hydrogels, particularly those based on polymer networks, exhibit complex mechanical behaviors arising from the interplay between network architecture, molecular interactions, and external stimuli. In particular, their viscoelasticity, energy dissipation, and nonlinear mechanical responses arise from the dynamic nature of crosslinking and multiscale relaxation processes. This review provides a comprehensive overview of hydrogel mechanics from a multiscale perspective, covering viscoelastic behavior, relaxation dynamics, energy dissipation mechanisms, nonlinear deformation, and fracture properties. We summarize recent advances in experimental characterization, including bulk rheology and single-molecule force spectroscopy, and discuss how molecular-level interactions, bond kinetics and mechanochemical processes contribute to macroscopic mechanical performance. In addition, theoretical models and constitutive frameworks describing transient and dynamic polymer networks are critically evaluated to bridge microscopic dynamics with bulk responses. Emerging strategies that integrate dynamic bonding and force-responsive elements are also discussed in the context of tailoring mechanical adaptability and functionality. Finally, we outline current challenges and future directions toward the rational design of hydrogels with tunable viscoelasticity, enhanced mechanical robustness, and programmable mechanical functions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymer Mechanochemistry: From Fundamentals to Applications)

17 pages, 4960 KB

Open AccessArticle

FFF-Printed PET and PMMA for Provisional Restorations: An In Vitro Evaluation of Mechanical Properties, Dimensional Accuracy, and Bonding Behavior

by Julia Gmeiner, John Meinen, Moritz Hoffmann and Bogna Stawarczyk

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1125; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091125 - 2 May 2026

The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate the mechanical performance, dimensional accuracy, and bonding behavior of fused filament fabrication (FFF)-printed provisional restorations made from polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and compare them with digital light processing (DLP)-printed and [...] Read more.

The purpose of this in vitro study was to evaluate the mechanical performance, dimensional accuracy, and bonding behavior of fused filament fabrication (FFF)-printed provisional restorations made from polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and polyethylene terephthalate (PET), and compare them with digital light processing (DLP)-printed and computer-aided numerical control (CNC)-milled ones. Occlusal veneers (OV), posterior crowns (PC), and anterior crowns (AC) (n = 30) were fabricated using FFF (PMMA, PET), DLP (acrylate), and CNC (PMMA) to assess initial fracture load (IFL). To determine reproducibility three restorations of each group were scanned and compared with each other; to determine printing accuracy the scanned restorations were compared with the STL generated for manufacturing. For shear bond strength (SBS) testing, 72 PMMA (FFF) specimens were conditioned with either Monobond Plus (MP) or Visiolink (VL) and bonded with acrylic cylinders using a dual-cure luting composite (Variolink Esthetic DC). Half of each group underwent thermocycling (10,000 cycles, 5 °C/55 °C, 30 s dwell time); the remainder was tested initially. Additionally, 48 FFF-printed PC were fabricated from PET and PMMA to investigate the fracture load in relation to the adhesive material (FL). PMMA crowns were conditioned with MP (n = 16) or VL (n = 16) and bonded with Variolink Esthetic DC. PET crowns were cemented with either Meron (ME) or Ketac Cem Plus (KE). Half of the PMMA and all PET crowns were subjected to masticatory simulation (1,200,000 cycles, 5 N, 5 °C/55 °C, 60 s dwell). Data were analyzed using Kolmogorov–Smirnov, Kruskal–Wallis, and Mann–Whitney U tests, including IFL, SBS and FL parametric tests, and comparisons were carried out using an independent t-test (

α

= 0.05). FFF-fabricated restorations showed the lowest fracture load values and CNC-fabricated the highest (p < 0.001). OV fabricated via DLP and CNC exhibited the highest fracture load (p < 0.001). For FFF, PC demonstrated the highest values (p < 0.028), whereas AC showed the lowest fracture load values (p < 0.001). VL showed higher initial SBS than MP (p < 0.001) and no impact on aging (p < 0.608). All MP samples showed debonding after thermocycling. Within PET and PMMA, no impact of luting/cement material on fracture load was observed (p = 0.116–0.282). The fracture load decreased after masticatory simulation (MP-PMMA: p < 0.001, VL-PMMA: p = 0.27). DLP-fabricated restorations showed the highest reproducibility and printing accuracy. CNC and FFF-PET showed comparable values. FFF-PMMA showed the greatest deviations. CNC-fabricated provisional restorations exhibited the highest fracture load. AC presented the lowest fracture load values. DLP provided the highest reproducibility and accuracy. VL achieved superior bonding to PMMA surfaces. Thermomechanical aging significantly reduced fracture load in both PET and PMMA restorations, regardless of luting material. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Polymer Applications)

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25 pages, 4445 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable Protective Composite Textiles: Valorizing Hemp Hurd and Corn Stover Lignin via Electrospinning

by Dorota B. Szlek, Nara Han, Chang Geun Yoo and Margaret W. Frey

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1124; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091124 - 2 May 2026

Valorization of abundant agricultural residues, particularly lignin, provides the opportunity to divert waste streams while enabling materials to inherently exhibit durable functionalities, including UV-blocking, antioxidant properties and water repellency. This study reports the side-by-side valorization of hemp hurd (HL) and corn stover lignin [...] Read more.

Valorization of abundant agricultural residues, particularly lignin, provides the opportunity to divert waste streams while enabling materials to inherently exhibit durable functionalities, including UV-blocking, antioxidant properties and water repellency. This study reports the side-by-side valorization of hemp hurd (HL) and corn stover lignin (CL), extracted using the CELF process, into electrospun lignin/nylon 6 nanofiber membranes, establishing how lignin botanical origin, molecular weight (M_w), and blend ratio govern multifunctional performance relevant to protective membranes in textiles. Lignin–nylon 6 hydrogen bonding was regulated by the OH content and accessibility, M_w, and purity, and influenced the functional properties of the fibers. While stronger in low-M_w nanofibers, these interactions were weakest in low-M_w HL samples due to the lowest purity, despite the highest OH content. Fibers with low-M_w lignin yielded finer, brittle fibers with higher UV blocking, whereas high-M_w fractions showed higher antioxidant performance due to decreased interactions with nylon 6. Overall, lignin/nylon 6 nanofiber membranes delivered biobased UPF 50+ performance, 55–61% antioxidant activity at the optimal concentration, and exhibited tunable water repellency via fraction selection and the blend ratio. In combination with a nanofiber architecture, these membranes can impart durable inherent functionality onto textile substrates without affecting their existing properties, including water vapor permeability, without the use of chemical finishing, while utilizing renewable resources from agricultural residues. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Study on Lignin-Containing Composites)

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21 pages, 23707 KB

Open AccessArticle

Corrosion Behaviour of Injection- and Compression-Moulded Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N Magnets with Different Polymer Binders

by Nikolina Lešić, Nataša Kovačević and Ingrid Milošev

Polymers 2026, 18(9), 1123; https://doi.org/10.3390/polym18091123 - 2 May 2026

The corrosion behaviour and environmental durability of injection- and compression-moulded Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N magnets were investigated. For injection-moulded magnets, the effects of magnetic powder type (Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N), magnetic powder particle size (100 µm and 400 µm), and polymer binder (PPS and PA12) [...] Read more.

The corrosion behaviour and environmental durability of injection- and compression-moulded Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N magnets were investigated. For injection-moulded magnets, the effects of magnetic powder type (Nd–Fe–B and Sm–Fe–N), magnetic powder particle size (100 µm and 400 µm), and polymer binder (PPS and PA12) on corrosion resistance were studied. For compression-moulded magnets with an epoxy binder, the effects of powder type and size were examined. Corrosion resistance was investigated using potentiodynamic polarisation in electrolytes of varying pH (1.8–12.8). The Sm–Fe–N magnets exhibited slightly better corrosion resistance than the Nd–Fe–B magnets, irrespective of the polymer binder. The finer magnetic powders (100 µm) showed lower corrosion resistance due to their larger specific surface area, with a more pronounced effect in the compression-moulded magnets. The type of polymer binder had only a minor effect. The hygrothermal corrosion resistance and thermal stability were evaluated using bulk corrosion (BCT) and thermal shock tests, respectively. Surface corrosion was observed in all magnets after the BCT, with the compression-moulded magnets exhibiting a greater irreversible loss of magnetic properties. The thermal shock test caused a temporary reduction in magnetic properties, with recovery after remagnetisation, demonstrating the good thermal stability of both magnet types. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Processing Strategy for Functional Polymer Materials: 2nd Edition)

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