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Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 20 April 2026 | Viewed by 6630

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Dr. Jie Zhang

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College of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China
Interests: cement-based composites; mechanical properties analysis combining artificial intelligence and big data
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Dr. Fengling Zhang

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Guest Editor

School of Civil Engineering, Shandong University, Jinan, China
Interests: ultra-high performance concrete; 3D-printed concrete; projectile impact; explosion; machine learning
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Dr. Jian Liu

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Guest Editor

School of Civil Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, China
Interests: high performance and 3D printed high performance concrete, steel, ceramic and composite structures against explosion, impact and projectile penetration; finite element/meshfree numerical simulation
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Prof. Dr. Zhiyong Wang

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College of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan, China
Interests: damage and fractures; impact; numerical methods
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Recent advances in materials science and structural engineering have underscored the critical importance of understanding the multiscale mechanical behavior of cement-based and non-cement-based construction materials under various strain rates. From nanoscale hydration products to macroscale structural elements, the mechanical response of construction material systems is inherently influenced by both internal heterogeneities and external loading rates.

This Special Issue aims to bring together cutting-edge research on the characterization, modeling, and performance evaluation of cement-based and non-cement-based construction materials across multiple spatial and temporal scales. Topics of interest include, but are not limited to, multiscale modeling, experimental mechanics, rate-dependent behavior, energy dissipation mechanisms, machine learning-based predictions, and novel simulation strategies. Contributions that integrate experimental and computational approaches or those that propose innovative methodologies for investigating strain rate effects in complex material systems are especially encouraged.

This collection provides a platform for researchers to share insights that enhance the design and analysis of high-performance construction materials under dynamic and extreme loading conditions.

Dr. Jie Zhang
Dr. Fengling Zhang
Dr. Jian Liu
Prof. Dr. Zhiyong Wang
Guest Editors

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Keywords

cement-based materials
non-cement-based materials
multiscale modeling
strain rate effects
dynamic mechanical behavior
damage and fracture mechanisms
composite structures
experimental testing
simulation method
machine learning

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 4111 KB

Open AccessArticle

Anchorage and Bond Strength of SBPDN Bar Embedded in High-Strength Grout Mortar

by Takaaki Itoh, Ryoya Ueda, Bunka Son, Ayami Kuno and Yuping Sun

Materials 2026, 19(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma19010002 - 19 Dec 2025

Abstract

The SBPDN (Steel Bar Prestressed Deformed Normal relaxation) bar, which has ultra-high yield strength yet much lower bond resistance than conventional deformed bars, has been recently proposed to be used as the longitudinal rebar instead of a normal-strength deformed bar to simply realize strong earthquake-resilient concrete components. To facilitate and promote the application of concrete components reinforced with SBPDN rebars to the structures located in earthquake-prone regions, it is indispensable to develop reliable and effective anchoring means and clarify the bond strength of SBPDN bars embedded in concrete and/or grout mortar. This paper presents experimental information on the pull-out tests of fifteen SBPDN bars embedded in grout mortar, along with a discussion on the effective anchorage details and the bond strength of SBPDN bars. The tested SBPDN bars have a nominal diameter of 22.2 mm, the maximum diameter currently available on the market. All SBPDN bars were embedded in high-strength grout mortar with a targeted compressive strength of 60 MPa. The primary experimental variables included the end anchorage details, the diameter of sheath ducts, and the embedded length of the bars. Test results demonstrated that either screwing two nuts and a washer at the end of SBPDN bars or providing a rolling-threaded end region was effective in preventing them from premature slip from grout mortar. If the embedment length was 20 times the bar diameter or longer, the proposed two anchorages could ensure the SBPDN bar to fully develop its specific yielding strength as high as 1275 MPa. In addition, it has also been experimentally revealed that the bond strength of SBPDN bars embedded in grout mortar was much lower than that of conventional deformed bars and varied between 2.84 MPa and 3.98 MPa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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18 pages, 5045 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of MB Value and Proportion of Reclaimed Powder on Mechanical Strength and Equivalent Cement Content of Cement-Stabilized Macadam

by Ouyang Lou, Junhao Li, Huaiping Xiao, Yingjun Jiang and Jiangang Xu

Materials 2025, 18(24), 5686; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18245686 - 18 Dec 2025

Abstract

The fine clay content in reclaimed powder significantly influences the mechanical properties of cement-based materials. To promote the resource utilization of reclaimed powder in road engineering, using the methylene blue (MB) value as an indicator to evaluate the fine clay content of reclaimed powder, the influence of the MB value and proportion of reclaimed powder on the mechanical strength of cement-stabilized macadam was analyzed; fitting equations for the relationship between reclaimed powder proportion and mechanical strength were constructed; the required MB value and optimal proportion of reclaimed powder were clarified; the impact of MB value variation on mechanical strength under optimal proportion conditions was evaluated; and with mechanical strength consistency as the principle, equivalence analysis between reclaimed powder proportion and cement content was conducted. The results indicate that when the MB value of reclaimed powder is less than 5.0 g/kg, the MB value has no obvious influence on the mechanical strength of cement-stabilized macadam. With increasing reclaimed powder content, both the compressive strength and splitting tensile strength of cement-stabilized macadam first increase and then decrease, reaching peak values at reclaimed powder contents of 3.0–4.0% and 5.0–5.5%, respectively. As cement content increases, the strength-enhancing effect of reclaimed powder weakens. The MB value of reclaimed powder should be less than 5.0 g/kg with a content of 4%. When cement content is 3–4%, based on mechanical strength equivalence, a reclaimed powder content of 4% can replace at least 0.4–0.5% of cement content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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25 pages, 2736 KB

Open AccessArticle

Surface Performance Evaluation and Mix Design of Porous Concrete with Noise Reduction and Drainage Performance

by Yijun Xiu, Miao Hu, Chenlong Zhang, Shaoqi Wu, Mulian Zheng, Jinghan Xu and Xinghan Song

Materials 2025, 18(23), 5433; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18235433 - 2 Dec 2025

Viewed by 271

Abstract

Porous concrete is widely recognized as an eco-friendly pavement material; however, existing studies mainly focus on its use as a base course, and systematic investigations on porous concrete specifically designed for heavy-traffic pavements and multifunctional surface performance remain limited. In this study, a novel multifunctional porous concrete with integrated noise reduction and drainage performance (PCNRD) was developed as a top-layer pavement material, addressing the performance gap in current applications. A comprehensive evaluation of the surface properties of porous concrete was performed based on tests of the sound absorption, void ratio, permeability, and wear resistance. The results demonstrate that the porous concrete exhibits excellent sound absorption (sound absorption coefficient 0.22–0.35) and high permeability (permeability coefficient 0.63–1.13 cm/s), and superior abrasion resistance (abrasion loss ≤ 20%) within an optimized porosity range of 17–23%. Furthermore, an optimized pavement thickness (8–10 cm) was proposed, and functional correlations among key surface performance indicators were revealed for the first time. Based on a uniform experimental design, four key mix parameters (water–cement ratio, cement content, silica fume content, and cement strength grade) were examined using strength and effective porosity as dual control indices, leading to the development of a novel mix design method tailored for PCNRD. This study not only fills the technical gap in high-performance porous concrete for heavy-traffic pavement surfaces but also provides a practical scientific framework for its broader engineering application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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20 pages, 4047 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Mixing Uniformity Evaluation and Molding Method for Crumb Rubber Asphalt Mixtures

by Wenhua Wang, Yi Lu, Lingdi Kong, Wenke Yan, Yilong Li, Mulian Zheng, Chuan Lu and Guanglei Qu

Materials 2025, 18(22), 5245; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18225245 - 20 Nov 2025

Viewed by 378

Abstract

The broader adoption of crumb rubber asphalt mixtures (CRAM) as sustainable pavement materials is currently limited by two key technical barriers. Firstly, there is a lack of standardized methods to evaluate mixing uniformity. Secondly, the material’s tendency for elastic recovery after compaction remains problematic. These barriers ultimately hinder the realization of CRAM’s full potential in vibration reduction, noise abatement, and resource recycling. To improve the performance evaluation system of CRAM and promote its development in engineering applications. Based on the distribution characteristics of crumb rubber in asphalt mixtures, this study established a crumb rubber distribution area moment model. It proposed a coefficient of area–distance variation to evaluate the mixing uniformity of CRAM. Through compaction tests and orthogonal tests, the effects of mixing process, mixing time, mixing temperature, compaction temperature, compaction times, and compaction method on the mixing uniformity and performance of CRAM are systematically investigated. The results show that, compared with specimens prepared by single compaction and compaction after high-temperature curing, CRAM specimens prepared by secondary compaction exhibit superior mechanical performance. The 24 h elastic recovery rate of these specimens is reduced to 24% of that in single-compacted specimens. The mixing process and mixing time have a significant impact on the mixing uniformity of CRAM. Pre-mixing crumb rubber with aggregates or extending the mixing time can improve the CRAM mixing uniformity by 45% and 18%, respectively. The mixing and compaction temperatures primarily affect the bulk density and Marshall stability of the specimens. When the mixing and compaction temperatures are 180 °C and 170 °C, respectively, the bulk density and Marshall stability of the molded specimens reach their maximum values. Through orthogonal analysis, the optimal mixing method for CRAM is determined as follows: mix aggregates and crumb rubber at 180 °C for 40 s, then add asphalt and continue mixing for another 80 s. The optimal process for secondary compaction is as follows: the first compaction at 170 °C, compacting each side 47 times, and the second compaction at 80 °C, compacting each side 23 times. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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17 pages, 5428 KB

Open AccessArticle

Flexural Behavior of Tightly Spliced Concrete Composite Slabs with Diagonal Reinforcement

by Zechao Zhang, Kejian Cai and Jiang Yin

Materials 2025, 18(21), 4919; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18214919 - 28 Oct 2025

Viewed by 419

Abstract

To improve load transfer performance at the joints of standardized closely spaced concrete composite slabs, this study proposes two novel composite slab designs: the bent diagonal-reinforced tightly spliced slab and the ribbed diagonal-reinforced tightly spliced slab. The flexural behavior of these two types of inclined reinforcement closely spaced composite slabs was investigated through static loading tests and ABAQUS finite element simulations. The results indicate that both slab types exhibit excellent synergy between the precast base slab and the composite layer under load, achieving bending capacities at the joint sections comparable to those of cast-in-place slabs. Based on the finite element analysis, design recommendations for the Ribbed Diagonal-Reinforced Tightly Spliced Slab are provided, offering a practical reference for large-scale engineering applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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21 pages, 5467 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on Seismic Behavior of Earthquake-Damaged Joints Retrofitted with CFRP in Hybrid Reinforced Concrete–Steel Frames

by Xiaotong Ma, Tianxiang Guo, Yuxiao Xing, Ruize Qin, Huan Long, Chao Bao, Fusheng Cao and Ruixiao Hong

Materials 2025, 18(21), 4857; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18214857 - 23 Oct 2025

Viewed by 561

Abstract

Mixed structures with lightweight steel added stories are particularly vulnerable to damage and failure at the joints during seismic events. To evaluate the secondary seismic behavior of the joints in lightweight steel added stories after seismic damage repair, a low-cycle load test was conducted in this study. Following the initial damage, carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) was applied for reinforcement, along with epoxy resin for the repair of concrete cracks. The experimental analysis focused on the structural deformation, failure characteristics, and energy dissipation capacity in both the original and repaired joint states. On the basis of the experimental findings, finite element analysis was carried out to examine the influence of varying CFRP layer configurations on the seismic performance of the repaired joints. The results revealed a significant change in the damage pattern of the repaired specimen, shifting from secondary surface damage to significant concrete deterioration localized at the bottom of the column. The failure mechanism was characterized by the CFRP-induced tensile forces acting on the concrete at the column base, following considerable deformation at the beam’s end. When compared to the original joint, the repaired joints exhibited markedly improved performance, with a 33% increase in horizontal ultimate strength and an 85% increase in energy dissipation capacity at failure. Additionally, the rotation angle between the beams and columns was effectively controlled. Joints repaired with two layers of CFRP demonstrated superior performance in contrast to those with a single layer. However, once the repaired joints met the required strength, further increasing the number of CFRP layers had a minimal influence on the mechanical properties of the joints. The proposed CFRP-based seismic retrofit method, which accounts for the strength degradation of concrete in damaged joints due to earthquake-induced damage, has proven to be both feasible and straightforward, offering an easily implementable solution to improve the seismic behavior of structures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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22 pages, 2875 KB

Open AccessArticle

Uncertainty Quantification of Fatigue Life for Cement-Stabilized Cold Recycled Mixtures Using Probabilistic Programming

by Hao Liu, Jiaolong Ren, Lin Zhang, Qingyi Lv, Shenghan Zhuang and Hongbo Zhao

Materials 2025, 18(19), 4439; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18194439 - 23 Sep 2025

Viewed by 537

Abstract

The assessment of fatigue life is important for the design of pavement materials because fatigue cracks are one of the most common types of failure in pavement structures. The fatigue test is commonly used to determine the fatigue life. However, there are lots of uncertainties, such as the construction environment and personal operations, during the fatigue test due to the complexity of the pavement materials. Determining the fatigue life of pavement materials under uncertainty is a challenging task. In this study, considering cement-stabilized cold recycled mixtures (CSCRMs) as an example, an uncertainty quantification (UQ) method based on PyMC3, a novel and powerful probabilistic programming package, was developed to address the uncertainty in fatigue behavior based on fatigue tests. Probabilistic programming was employed to characterize the uncertainty of fatigue life based on fatigue test data and the fatigue life formula. The uncertainty of fatigue life was quantified by determining the unknown coefficient of the fatigue life formula. Two independent datasets for the CSCRM were used to illustrate and verify the developed method. The coefficients of determination (R²) for the prediction results of fatigue life were higher than 0.96, based on the obtained formula and test data. The maximum and average errors of the coefficients determined using the fatigue equation were less than 11% and 7%, respectively. The verification demonstrates that the predicted fatigue life closely agrees with the test data, and the determined coefficients of the fatigue equation are in excellent agreement with prior findings. The developed method avoided complex statistical computations and references. The UQ can evaluate the fatigue life and its uncertainty and significantly enhance the understanding of the fatigue behavior of the CSCRM. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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16 pages, 11594 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental-Theoretical Investigation of the Strength and Deformability of Full-Scale Second-Generation Profiled Sheeting Samples

by Volodymyr Semko, Nataliia Mahas, Pavlo Semko, Serhii Skliarenko and Roman Rabenseifer

Materials 2025, 18(18), 4365; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18184365 - 18 Sep 2025

Viewed by 538

Abstract

Steel trapezoidal profiled sheeting (STPS) is widely used in the construction industry. It is often viewed not as a structural element but as a material with its own properties, similar to bricks or masonry blocks. Consequently, to determine the load-bearing capacity and deformability of STPS, engineers most often rely on tables developed at the request of manufacturers. In Europe, these tables are compiled according to the EN 1993-1-3 methodology. However, there is a notable lack of studies comparing the results of theoretical calculations and manufacturer-provided data with the outcomes of experimental tests on full-scale profiled sheeting samples. For this reason, the authors conducted a study of 12 full-scale specimens of second-generation trapezoidal sheeting. The samples were tested under a two-span scheme, with deflections measured at the midpoint of each span and settlement of the sheeting at the supports. The study found that half the specimens showed higher deformability in the elastic stage than predicted, with differences of 16% to 105% based on span length and sheet thickness. For 11 out of 12 tested specimens, the onset of plastic deformations occurred before the samples reached their theoretical load-bearing capacity. The main novelty is identifying differences between Eurocode calculations and experimental results, showing higher deflections and earlier plastic deformations in tests. These full-scale STPS results offer both scientific and practical value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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19 pages, 2249 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study on the Thermoregulation Mechanism of Temperature Insensitive Asphalt Pavement

by Yongjun Yang, Xiaojun Cheng, Yang Qi, Meng Guo, Shanglin Song, Xiaoming Kou and Fukui Zhang

Materials 2025, 18(18), 4326; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18184326 - 16 Sep 2025

Viewed by 695

Abstract

Incorporating phase change materials into asphalt concrete and utilizing phase change heat transfer to control the temperature of asphalt pavement can effectively reduce the impact of high temperatures on the durability of asphalt pavement. In this study, microencapsulated composite phase change materials were prepared using calcium alginate and polyethylene glycol (PEG) 1500 and mixed into SMA-13 Marshall specimens for indoor high-temperature tests. The test results show that the temperature of the specimen was reduced by about 1.5 °C when the doping amount of the composite phase change material was 2.4% and the oven temperature was 60 °C. In order to further investigate the application of phase change energy storage materials in asphalt pavement structure, this study used Comsol finite element software to simulate the summer temperature field of the asphalt surface layer. A three-layer asphalt pavement model consisting of 4 cm SMA-13, 6 cm AC-20, and 8 cm AC-25 was established to study the effect of phase change materials on the temperature change in the pavement. The results of this study show that adding 2.4% of the composite phase change material to each of the top and middle surface layers kept the temperature of all pavement layers outside of the temperature range in which the asphalt’s dynamic stability plunges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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22 pages, 5507 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Study on the Pore Structure Evolution of Sandstone Under Brine Erosion

by Kang Peng, Tao Wu, Kun Luo, Song Luo, Jiaqi Zhou and Yuanmin Wang

Materials 2025, 18(15), 3500; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18153500 - 25 Jul 2025

Viewed by 651

Abstract

The mechanical properties of sandstone, a common building material, are influenced by a variety of factors. In the coastal areas of China, groundwater has gradually become salinized into brine, which inevitably alters the original microstructure of rocks and affects the stability of underground structures. To clarify the evolution of the rock microstructure under brine erosion, this study used NMR technology to investigate the pore evolution characteristics of red sandstone under brine erosion. The experimental results show that the water absorption capacity of sandstone is influenced by the solution environment, with the lowest absorption rate occurring in regard to brine. The pores in red sandstone undergo significant changes after brine erosion. Factors such as the composition of the brine and soaking time affect sandstone porosity, with transformations of mini-pores and meso-pores leading to changes in porosity. In addition, XRD tests were carried out on the soaked red sandstone samples to analyze the changes in the main mineral components of the sandstone after brine erosion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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33 pages, 31118 KB

Open AccessArticle

Crack Propagation of Ceramsite Lightweight Concrete Under Four-Point Bending Fatigue Conditions

by Kangqing Yang, Shenghan Zhuang, Yongjun Wang, Jiashu Li, Shuo Zhou and Jiaolong Ren

Materials 2025, 18(13), 2957; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18132957 - 22 Jun 2025

Viewed by 647

Abstract

The examination of crack propagation in concrete under fatigue conditions is crucial for comprehending the mechanisms of concrete fatigue failure. Variations in aggregate types result in notable differences in the fatigue crack propagation characteristics of lightweight concrete compared to ordinary concrete. Consequently, this research focused on analyzing the locations and angles of cracks in ceramsite lightweight concrete subjected to four-point bending fatigue conditions, while accounting for different levels of fatigue loading (i.e., stress levels). Furthermore, the study aimed to clarify the influence of ceramsite size and content on the fatigue crack propagation behavior in ceramsite lightweight concrete. The results indicated that an increase in the replacement rate of 5–10 mm and 10–20 mm ceramsite led to the highest probability of fatigue cracks occurring within the range of 15–45 mm from the specimen center, reaching 41.2% and 44.7%, respectively. The crack angle exhibited an increase corresponding to an increase in the content of 5–10 mm ceramsite, with the maximum average crack angle attaining a value of 86.5°. Conversely, a decrease in the content of 10–20 mm ceramsite resulted in a reduction in the crack angle. However, 20–30 mm ceramsite did not have a significant effect on the characteristics of fatigue cracks. The level of stress predominantly influenced the path of crack propagation. At stress levels of 0.55, 0.65, and 0.75, the highest proportions of crack angles fell within the range of 75° to 80°, with values of 47.1%, 43.8%, and 53.3%, respectively. Furthermore, an increase in stress levels did not affect the location of the cracks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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18 pages, 2648 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fundamental Properties of Expanded Perlite Aggregated Foamed Concrete with Different Supplementary Cementitious Materials

by Kaixing Fan, Jie Wei and Chengdong Feng

Materials 2025, 18(12), 2671; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18122671 - 6 Jun 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1214

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) on the material performance of foamed concrete containing lightweight coarse aggregates, namely hydrophobically modified expanded perlite (EP). The EP aggregates were treated with a sodium methyl silicate solution to impart water-repellent properties prior to being incorporated into the foamed concrete mixtures. Ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was partially replaced with various SCMs, namely, silica fume (SF), mineral powder (MP), and metakaolin (MK) at substitution levels of 3%, 6%, and 9%. Key indicators to evaluate the material performance of foamed concrete included 28-day uniaxial compressive strength, thermal conductivity, mass loss rate under thermal cycling, volumetric water absorption, and shrinkage. The results noted that all three SCMs improved the uniaxial compressive strength of foamed concrete, with MP achieving the greatest improvement, approximately 97% at the 9% replacement level. Thermal conductivity increased slightly with the addition of SF or MP but decreased with MK, highlighting the superior insulation capability of MK. Both SF and MK reduced the mass loss rate under thermal cycling, with SF exhibiting the highest thermal stability. Furthermore, MK was most effective in minimizing water absorption and shrinkage, attributed to its high pozzolanic reactivity and the resulting refinement of the microstructures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement-Based/Non-Cement-Based Constructional Materials: Multiscale Mechanics under Diverse Loadings)

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