Special Issue "Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education"

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Emilio Abad-Segura
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Guest Editor
Department of Economics and Business, University of Almeria, 04120 Almeria, Spain
Interests: financial accounting; network science; data science; sustainable finance; data analysis
Special Issues and Collections in MDPI journals
Dr. Mariana-Daniela González-Zamar
E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Education, University of Almeria, 04120 Almeria, Spain
Interests: teaching and digital learning; learning & innovation spaces; creativity; higher education; art education; sustainability education
Special Issues and Collections in MDPI journals
Prof. Esteban Vázquez-Cano
E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Didactics and School Organization, Faculty of Education, National Distance Education University (UNED), 28040, Spain
Interests: ICT in education; school organization and supervision; MOOCs; online and ubiquitous learning
Special Issues and Collections in MDPI journals
Dr. Eloy López Meneses
E-Mail Website
Guest Editor

Special Issue Information

Dear colleagues,

The coronavirus disease that started in 2019 (COVID-19) has meant a radical and unexpected alteration in certain habits and aspects of daily life globally. Among these, its appearance has caused important changes in both the health and education sectors, highlighting how government organizations have been able to adapt to the pandemic. The repercussions on educational capacities are assessed at the same time as the evolution of the disease. This new scenario requires adaptation measures and adjustments that reduce the economic, social, and technological gap in society. Likewise, COVID-19 has effects on the health economy, with consequences that are difficult to assess at present. It is interesting to understand the pandemic as an opportunity to study, in-depth, the functioning of the educational and economic systems in relation to the implications of the disease. This Special Issue on the “Effects of COVID-19: Issues in Health Economics and Education” aims to publish high-quality articles covering all fields of the implications of COVID-19 in health economics and education. Its scope includes the study of the socioeconomic and other variables inherent in these sectors that are affected by the disease. The articles will discuss scientific results from different perspectives, so that they make it possible to provide evidence on the study of the impact of coronavirus disease (COVID-19).

 

Prof. Esteban Vázquez-Cano
Dr. Eloy López Meneses
Dr. Mariana-Daniela González-Zamar
Dr. Emilio Abad-Segura
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • socioeconomic impacts
  • COVID-19 economic response plan
  • social vulnerability
  • educational challenges
  • health versus COVID-19 for educational centers
  • promotion of health and well-being
  • online education and emerging technologies

Published Papers (13 papers)

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Research

Article
One Year of Online Education in COVID-19 Age, a Challenge for the Romanian Education System
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 8129; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158129 - 31 Jul 2021
Viewed by 905
Abstract
The study tried to analyze the implication of one year of online education in the Romanian education system. To achieve this goal, the authors of this study analyzed all the levels of education, primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education, and even [...] Read more.
The study tried to analyze the implication of one year of online education in the Romanian education system. To achieve this goal, the authors of this study analyzed all the levels of education, primary education, lower secondary education, upper secondary education, and even the early childhood system, but also one of the smallest Romanian universities, considered representative for grade 1 universities representing 60% of the Romanian universities. The study is based on four online questionnaires for investigation, first with more than 2500 respondents from the primary and secondary Romanian education system, and the other three applied to more than 800 students and professors from the University of Petroșani. The investigation took place during 29 January 2021 and 11 February 2021. The authors had investigated the main feature of a standard online or a classical e-learning solution, such as the meeting solution or the video conference software, the collaborative work, such as homework or projects, and the testing method or the quizzes from both perspectives of the students and of the professors. The study results could influence the expected future hybrid educational system because these results were not covered in the previous literature but proved to be necessary for relevant knowledge strategies to be implemented in the new pandemic and also in the future context. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Article
Analysis of Digital Competence for Spanish Teachers at Pre-University Educational Key Stages during COVID-19
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 8093; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158093 - 30 Jul 2021
Viewed by 453
Abstract
Over time, the role of information and communication technologies (ICT) has become increasingly important in most areas of our lives, including education. So much so, that during the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of these tools has been essential to continue the teaching process. [...] Read more.
Over time, the role of information and communication technologies (ICT) has become increasingly important in most areas of our lives, including education. So much so, that during the COVID-19 pandemic, the use of these tools has been essential to continue the teaching process. One of the great challenges facing teachers today is their need to adapt to this new educational scenario by acquiring the necessary digital skills. The aim of this study is to determine the level of competence of teaching in pre-university education key stages. To this end, a questionnaire was distributed among education centres and teachers in the Autonomous Community of Extremadura, obtaining 109 valid responses. The analysis methodology was the formation of clusters using the K-means model. The results confirmed that the teachers perceived a medium-high level of knowledge and use of ICT. Moreover, that this digital competence is conditioned by factors such as age, experience, gender, and level of education. In conclusion, public administrations are encouraged to facilitate teachers’ knowledge and application of ICT according to the profiles identified. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
Article
Emergency Remote Education, Family Support and the Digital Divide in the Context of the COVID-19 Lockdown
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 7956; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157956 - 28 Jul 2021
Viewed by 485
Abstract
To contain the COVID-19 pandemic, governments all over the world implemented strong lockdown measures to a large part of the population, including the closing of educational centres. Teachers were urged to transform their teaching methodology, moving from a face-to-face model to an emergency [...] Read more.
To contain the COVID-19 pandemic, governments all over the world implemented strong lockdown measures to a large part of the population, including the closing of educational centres. Teachers were urged to transform their teaching methodology, moving from a face-to-face model to an emergency remote education (ERE) model, characterised by the use of technologies to continue with lectures and maintain the physical distance with the students. The aim of the present study was to analyse the existence of socio-digital inequalities and the educational challenges posed by the development of an ERE model, hence, contributing to the literature by proposing a systematic and holistic approach on this phenomenon. Based on the characteristics of the research problem and the objectives set, a qualitative methodology was applied. On the one hand, a semi-structured interview was conducted with 136 active teachers as the main data gathering technique. On the other hand, grounded theory was key in interpreting the results, with the aim of generating the theory in a systematic and holistic manner. It can be asserted that ERE was very useful during the lockdown of schools, and its potential to transform education was demonstrated. However, it was also shown that the development of an ERE model can cause socio-digital inequalities among students, due to the lack of access to digital devices and Internet connection, mainly due to factors, such as the socio-educational level of the family and the rural or urban context of the centre. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
Article
Pedagogical Leaders and the Teaching—Learning Processes in COVID-19 Times
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(15), 7731; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157731 - 21 Jul 2021
Viewed by 530
Abstract
This study aimed to identify the main decisions made by pedagogical leaders, comprising institutional management teams, heads of departments, and teachers in general, in order to improve teaching–learning processes and promote the comprehensive education of students—in particular, secondary school students during the pandemic [...] Read more.
This study aimed to identify the main decisions made by pedagogical leaders, comprising institutional management teams, heads of departments, and teachers in general, in order to improve teaching–learning processes and promote the comprehensive education of students—in particular, secondary school students during the pandemic period, located in the regions of Andalusia and Madrid (Spain). An integrated mixed methodology was applied, composed of the contributions of discussion groups and content analysis of the corresponding open questions presented in each of the constitutive dimensions of the questionnaire. Such analyses were expanded by applying an ad-hoc designed questionnaire, which indicates the main actions developed by leaders and their implications in the educational community, when working on communication facilitation processes, using program planning through the support of technologies and decision making regarding the training of teachers, didactic resources, and the emergence of competences to be trained by the leaders participating in the research. The results highlight the dedication, commitment, and implication of pedagogical leaders during the COVID-19 period. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
Article
The Educational Community in the Face of COVID-19. Discursive Analysis on Vulnerability and Education
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(13), 6716; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136716 - 22 Jun 2021
Viewed by 663
Abstract
This article presents the results of research the objective of which was to know the opinion of directors of different educational centers about the management carried out in their centers and the possible difficulties encountered during the suspension of face-to-face classes caused by [...] Read more.
This article presents the results of research the objective of which was to know the opinion of directors of different educational centers about the management carried out in their centers and the possible difficulties encountered during the suspension of face-to-face classes caused by the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. The research method is qualitative, exploratory, descriptive, and inductive. The study sample is made up of 43 managers of educational centers, who were selected by applying an intentional sampling based on criteria of age, experience, ownership of the center, teachings that are taught, and the socioeconomic context where it is located. A questionnaire was used to collect the information, previously designed and validated through the judgment of experts, to inquire about the organization and management from the management team, the development of the academic task with the students, and the relationship with the families during the course period of cessation of classroom activities. To make an adequate approximation to the reality studied, an exhaustive content analysis of the speeches issued by the participants was carried out. Among the main conclusions of the research are the difficulties they have experienced during the closure of schools in relation to the lack of strategic planning to reconvert face-to-face education to the online format, scarcity of technological resources in centers and homes, training deficit in digital skills, increasing the digital divide, attention to students with special educational needs or communication problems with students and their families. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Article
Learners’ Perspective towards E-Exams during COVID-19 Outbreak: Evidence from Higher Educational Institutions of India and Saudi Arabia
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(12), 6534; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18126534 - 17 Jun 2021
Viewed by 607
Abstract
Online examinations, commonly referred to as e-exams (electronic examinations), underwent a considerable progression, getting adapted ubiquitously among higher education institutions worldwide. Their preferment was rapid due to the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic. The process of conducting exams online is being opted as [...] Read more.
Online examinations, commonly referred to as e-exams (electronic examinations), underwent a considerable progression, getting adapted ubiquitously among higher education institutions worldwide. Their preferment was rapid due to the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic. The process of conducting exams online is being opted as the appropriate way of assessment, ensuring the students’ safety and well-being. According to Warts et al., this form of examination has been pretty effective in the past when blended with the conventional assessment. However, at present, implemented as the singular way of assessment, e-exams have shown a more significant promise in being beneficial to the learners. As a matter of fact, a comprehensive analysis on understanding the learners’ perception towards the e-exams was not done earlier, particularly in the developing nations. Thus, it was pertinent to examine the pre-requisites of e-exams to promote it as a useful tool for the smooth conduct of exams in the aforesaid nations. Against such a backdrop, this study was conducted during January to March 2021 on 207 students enrolled in four universities, three situated in the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi, India: Delhi University (DU), Jamia Millia Islamia (JMI), and Jawaharlal Nehru University (JNU), and one situated in Saudi Arabia, namely Saudi Electronic University (SEU). A quantitative approach was employed for the study, with the responses recorded via web questionnaires. Confirmatory -factor analysis (CFA) was applied in the study to examine whether the process of conducting online examinations is being chosen as the appropriate form of assessment, ensuring the safety and well-being of students through AMOS (version 24) software. For determining the reliability of the two latent constructs, namely “Perceptions of students towards E-exams (PSE)” and “Pre-requisites of E-exams (POE),” Cronbach’s alpha was used through SPSS (version 25) software in the study, and the results reveal that the strong internal consistency exists between all the measured variables. In addition, the mean and standard deviation were used by the researchers to find out the pre-requisites of the online examination system. The participants expressed their insights on the relative benefits of online examination. Their perception was based on pedagogy, validity and reliability, affective factors, practicality, and security. From their insights, it was concluded that online examination is more advantageous than conventional paper-based exams. The outcome also applies to the authenticity of grading and the overall efficiency concerning the time, effort, and expenditure on conducting the examination. Contrarily, the participating students also recognized numerous hurdles in implementing e-exams concerning security, validity, and impartiality. The conclusion further revealed that online examination is especially relevant for formative assessment of learning instead of summative assessment, provided authenticity, security, and flexibility are used as fundamental tenants in the proper implementation of e-exams. The outcome of the present study will facilitate higher education institutions and policymakers in taking the electronic examination system to the next level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Article
EU27 Higher Education Institutions and COVID-19, Year 2020
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(11), 5963; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18115963 - 02 Jun 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 829
Abstract
COVID-19 forced higher education institutions to reinvent themselves. The (usually) face-to-face education has swapped to distance contingency education. This change brought about numerous challenges that impose adjustments in several dimensions, such as pedagogical strategies and the dependence on teaching platforms and computer systems—and, [...] Read more.
COVID-19 forced higher education institutions to reinvent themselves. The (usually) face-to-face education has swapped to distance contingency education. This change brought about numerous challenges that impose adjustments in several dimensions, such as pedagogical strategies and the dependence on teaching platforms and computer systems—and, above all, the new relationship between the various actors (students, teachers, and management staff). All the sudden changes, combined with uncertainty concerning what was happening, created several strategies and options. This paper has the main purpose of analyzing the scientific production on higher education of EU27 academic institutions during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic in journals indexed in Clarivate Analytics’ Web of Science and Elsevier’s Scopus. The sample is composed of 22 articles in total. The results show that the articles were published in 19 journals; their main focuses are Higher Education, COVID-19, and distance learning. In our database, we find several types of concerns, which shows that HEIs have a wide range of dimensions. We intend this article to be an instrument, not only to identify what was done in 2020, but to point out clues for the future. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Article
The Pandemic and Changes in the Self-Perception of Teacher Digital Competences of Infant Grade Students: A Cross Sectional Study
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(9), 4756; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18094756 - 29 Apr 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 973
Abstract
Without having a reaction time, the pandemic has caused an unprecedented transformation in universities around the world, leading to a revolution from structured models anchored in the conception of transmission of training towards a teaching approach-learning saved thanks to the incorporation of technology. [...] Read more.
Without having a reaction time, the pandemic has caused an unprecedented transformation in universities around the world, leading to a revolution from structured models anchored in the conception of transmission of training towards a teaching approach-learning saved thanks to the incorporation of technology. This study aims to verify whether the pandemic situation has influenced the digital competence self-perception of students. Comparing two groups during the academic years 2019/2020 and 2020/2021, the instrument used is the questionnaire for digital competence “DigCompEdu Check-In” for future teachers. After the educational intervention, group A (before COVID-19) presented higher self-perceptions of competence than group B (during COVID-19); the pandemic situation caused by COVID-19 has negatively influenced students’ self-perception of their digital skills in the pretest in the different dimensions under study. Before receiving the training, the group that did not experience the pandemic enjoyed a higher self-perception of their competencies than the group that experienced the pandemic. The data obtained indicate that the difference exists, and that it is statistically significant, and may be a consequence of the clear relationship between self-perception and the way in which students face reality through their personal and subjective vision. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
Article
Spanish Adaptation and Validation of the Teaching and Learning Experiences Questionnaire
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(7), 3518; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073518 - 29 Mar 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 751
Abstract
Training processes are mainly based on the pedagogical methods applied by teachers. In many cases, these pedagogical methods are adapted to the social, economic, and cultural environment of the students themselves. In this study, we used a psychometric analysis based on the analysis [...] Read more.
Training processes are mainly based on the pedagogical methods applied by teachers. In many cases, these pedagogical methods are adapted to the social, economic, and cultural environment of the students themselves. In this study, we used a psychometric analysis based on the analysis of structural equations to detect the psychometric properties through classical goodness-of-fit indices. The objective of this study was to translate, adapt, and validate the instrument called the Teaching and Learning Experiences Questionnaire (ETLQ) for the population of Spanish adolescents in secondary education. The rrecommendations in the literature were followed for its translation and adaptation into Spanish. The results indicate that, after translation and adaptation, the model remained in 11 factors with acceptable goodness-of-fit indices. We conclude that the process of translation, adaptation, and validation of the ETLQ has produced a valid and reliable tool due to the psychometric findings revealed in the present work. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Article
Facing COVID-19 Challenges: 1st-Year Students’ Experience with the Romanian Hybrid Higher Educational System
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(6), 3058; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063058 - 16 Mar 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1544
Abstract
First-year students undergo several transformations like the transition from high school to university schedules, teaching methods, and discipline specificities to social changes that come with meeting new colleagues or moving to other locations far from family and friends. The COVID-19 outbreak brought additional [...] Read more.
First-year students undergo several transformations like the transition from high school to university schedules, teaching methods, and discipline specificities to social changes that come with meeting new colleagues or moving to other locations far from family and friends. The COVID-19 outbreak brought additional concerns and uncertainties once educational systems implemented distance learning schemes for public health management. Nevertheless, higher educational organizations preferred to implement hybrid approaches for student engagement motivation and high dropout rate avoidance. In Romania, such an educational system has been applied with caution. Since the pandemic needs to be understood as an opportunity for adaptation and education improvements, the purpose of the present paper is to uncover lessons learned and to develop a systematized model based on students’ perception regarding face-to-face, online and hybrid systems. For this reason, a grounded theory approach has been preferred. Thus, 149 Romanian students enrolled in the first year in engineering specialities with ages between 18–26 years both male (50.3%) and female (49.7%) have answered the research questions in an online environment due to pandemic restrictions. Based on the online asynchronous student interviews, 220 codes and a further 13 categories have been developed. After a pertinent analysis of the relationships between categories and relevant literature sorting, a theoretical model for the Romanian higher educational current pandemic situation has been proposed. The main face-to-face and online education characteristics are outlined, the hybrid approach becoming a bridge between the two systems. Management implications are outlined together with further research directions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Article
The Teaching Digital Competence of Health Sciences Teachers. A Study at Andalusian Universities (Spain)
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2552; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052552 - 04 Mar 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1131
Abstract
The impact and benefit that information and communication technologies (ICT) have in the educational field require new teaching skills. This fact has been increased by the recent crisis caused by COVID-19. This study tries to investigate the level of digital teaching competence (DTC) [...] Read more.
The impact and benefit that information and communication technologies (ICT) have in the educational field require new teaching skills. This fact has been increased by the recent crisis caused by COVID-19. This study tries to investigate the level of digital teaching competence (DTC) of Higher Education teachers of Health Sciences, and its relationship with several variables. For this, it has the participation of 300 teachers from the 9 universities of Andalusia (Spain). The research is structured through a descriptive (RQ1) and inferential (RQ2) design. The answers given to the DigCompEdu Check-In questionnaire adapted to the Spanish context are analyzed. The results, which show high levels of reliability of the questionnaire (Cronbach and McDonald) and validity (CFA), indicate that the level of competence is basic-intermediate. In addition, the area in which teachers excel is digital resources. For this reason, it is proposed to structure personalized training plans and continue expanding the characteristics of this study at an international level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Article
Measuring Online Teaching Service Quality in Higher Education in the COVID-19 Environment
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(5), 2403; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18052403 - 01 Mar 2021
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1309
Abstract
The use of the Internet to develop new technologies has generated a considerable change in teaching and student learning in higher education. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has forced universities to switch from face-to-face to online instruction. Furthermore, this transfer process was planned [...] Read more.
The use of the Internet to develop new technologies has generated a considerable change in teaching and student learning in higher education. The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has forced universities to switch from face-to-face to online instruction. Furthermore, this transfer process was planned and executed quickly, with urgent redesigns of courses originally conceived for live teaching. The aim of this work is to measure the service quality of online teaching delivered during the COVID-19 period. The methodology was based on an importance-performance analysis using a structural equations model. The data were obtained from a sample of 467 students attending a university in southern Spain. The results reveal five priority attributes of online teaching that need to be improved in order to enhance the service quality of the virtual instruction provided to students. Universities need to redefine their online format by integrating methodological and technological decisions and involving collaboration between teachers, students and administration staff and services. The results do not apply to educational institutions that exclusively teach courses online, but to those institutions that had to rapidly adapt, and shift course material originally designed for face-to-face training. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Article
The Outbreak of the COVID-19 Pandemic and its Social Impact on Education: Were Engineering Teachers Ready to Teach Online?
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18(4), 2127; https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042127 - 22 Feb 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1643
Abstract
The major impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic are still affecting all social dimensions. Its specific impact on education is extensive and quite evident in the adaptation from Face-to-Face (F2F) teaching to online methodologies throughout the first wave of the pandemic and the strict [...] Read more.
The major impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic are still affecting all social dimensions. Its specific impact on education is extensive and quite evident in the adaptation from Face-to-Face (F2F) teaching to online methodologies throughout the first wave of the pandemic and the strict rules on lockdown. As lesson formats changed radically, the relevance of evaluating student on-line learning processes in university degrees throughout this period became clear. For this purpose, the perceptions of engineering students towards five specific course units forming part of engineering degree courses at the University of Burgos, Spain, were evaluated to assess the quality of the online teaching they received. Comparisons were also drawn with their perceptions of the F2F teaching of the course units prior to the outbreak of the pandemic. According to the students’ perceptions, the teachers possessed the technical knowledge, the social skills, and the personal capabilities (empathy and understanding of the at times troubled situation of each student) for a very abrupt adaptation of their courses to an online methodology. The shortcomings of the online teaching were related to its particularities and each teacher’s personality traits. Overall, engineering teachers appeared well prepared for a situation of these characteristics and, if similar online teaching scenarios were ever repeated, the quality of engineering teaching appears to be guaranteed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of COVID-19: Issues on Health Economics and Education)
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Planned Papers

The below list represents only planned manuscripts. Some of these manuscripts have not been received by the Editorial Office yet. Papers submitted to MDPI journals are subject to peer-review.

Title: Managerial Challenges and Opportunities in Managing Schools after the Post-COVID-19 in Nepal
Authors: Navin Poudel Dil Prasad Shrestha
Affiliation: Faculty of Social Science and Education, Nepal Open University, Lalitpur, Nepal
Abstract: This study explores the managerial challenges and opportunities in managing schools in the context of the post-COVID-19 (new normal situation). The study is based on the information obtained from teachers, headteachers, school administrators, university teachers, and others from both private and public educational institutions of Nepal. The study concludes: (a) schools have problems/issues to get involved teachers and students in teaching-learning process to attain curricular goals, (b) retaining qualified and experienced teachers appeared to be another challenge, (c) there are limited learning opportunities for the students and their learning is declining, (d) although there is a need for various pedagogic approaches to create conducive environment for students learning, some teachers still prefer to use traditional approach of teaching, (e) there is a possibility of hybridization of pedagogic approaches in the future, (f) there are managerial challenges related to teachers, students, pedagogic approach, physical and technical, financial, administrative, health/psychological, and others, (g) opportunities have appeared for teachers’ professional development, adaptation of hybrid learning approach, and pedagogical shift in teaching-learning, and (h) local governments must be responsible to, and accountable for, managing, supervising, and supporting the schools in their locality.

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