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16 November 2025

Bibliometric Analysis of Research on Nanoplastics (NPs): Uptake, Bioaccumulation, and Cellular Internalization in Scientific Literature

,
,
and
1
Department of Science and Technology, Parthenope University of Naples, 80143 Naples, Italy
2
International PhD Programme, UNESCO Chair “Environment, Resources and Sustainable Development”, Department of Science and Technology, Parthenope University of Naples, 80143 Naples, Italy
3
Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn, Villa Comunale, 80121 Naples, Italy
4
National Biodiversity Future Center (NBFC), Piazza Marina 61, 90133 Palermo, Italy
Environments2025, 12(11), 441;https://doi.org/10.3390/environments12110441 
(registering DOI)
This article belongs to the Special Issue Environmental Risk Assessment of Aquatic Environments
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Abstract

Nanoplastics, due to their small size and high surface reactivity, have emerged as critical pollutants with potential impacts on both environmental and biological systems. Their capacity for cellular internalization, bioaccumulation, and trophic transfer raises serious concerns for ecosystem and human health. The objective of this study is to conduct a comprehensive bibliometric assessment of global research trends pertaining to biological endpoints such as the uptake, cell internalization, and bioaccumulation of nanoplastics. Using the Scopus database and VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20), 638 relevant scientific articles published between 2012 and 2024 were analyzed. The number of publications has grown significantly in recent years, particularly from 2020 onward, indicating increasing scientific attention. Co-authorship among authors and among countries analyses highlights the global and interdisciplinary nature of this field, with strong contributions from China, Europe, and the United States. Keyword co-occurrence analysis reveals a strong thematic focus on oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and the interaction of nanoplastics with heavy metals, suggesting emerging interest in combined toxicity effects. Citation analysis of journals confirms that leading publications in environmental science and toxicology have been central to the dissemination of key findings. The results emphasize a growing international commitment to understanding the behavior of nanoplastics in biological systems, particularly their accumulation and potential health risks. This analysis not only maps the evolution of research but also identifies gaps of knowledge and future directions, offering a foundation for guiding subsequent investigations and informing regulatory frameworks. The use of software tools such as VOSviewer (version 1.6.20) is essential for synthesizing large volumes of scientific data, reducing subjectivity, and, thus, providing visual insights into the structure and development of this research field.

1. Introduction

Plastic pollution has become a critical global environmental concern []. Among the various forms of plastic waste, nanoplastics (NPs) are of particular interest due to their unique physicochemical properties, such as high surface area, small size (0.001 to 0.1 µm), and potential for chemical reactivity []. NPs are typically formed through the degradation of larger plastic items into smaller fragments, or through the direct production and use of engineered nanomaterials []. The uptake of NPs by living organisms, ranging from microorganisms to vertebrate species, is a complex process influenced by several factors, including particle size, surface charge, and chemical composition []. These particles can be ingested through direct contact with contaminated water or soil, or through the consumption of contaminated food []. Once in the body, NPs may interact with various biological tissues, potentially entering cells via endocytosis or other cellular uptake pathways []. The internalization of NPs has been shown to trigger various cellular responses, including oxidative stress, inflammation, and interference with cellular processes such as membrane integrity and gene expression [,]. Moreover, the accumulation of NPs within cells may lead to long-term health risks, such as toxicity, inflammation, and altered cellular function [].
Bioaccumulation of NPs represents another critical concern, as these particles can accumulate in organisms over time, potentially moving through the food web []. The process of bioaccumulation occurs when the rate of uptake of NPs exceeds the rate of elimination by an organism []. This phenomenon raises concerns about the transfer of NPs across different trophic levels, which could ultimately affect entire ecosystems. For instance, small aquatic organisms that ingest NPs may serve as food for larger predators, leading to the bioaccumulation of NPs in higher trophic levels, including fishes and even humans []. This research aims to critically assess the current state of the art of scientific literature related to the uptake, internalization, and bioaccumulation of NPs through bibliometric network analysis.
Bibliometric network analysis has become an important tool for examining large volumes of scientific data, analyzing various aspects such as titles, keywords, occurrences, citations, authors, and journals, among others. This method by means of software eliminates the biases that may arise from human subjectivity in the document’s selection process [,]. Among the most popular bibliometric software tools, VOSviewer stands out as one of the most user-friendly, as it provides clear visualizations through network density maps and overlay visualizations, making it accessible to a wide range of users [,,]. In this study, a bibliometric analysis of scientific literature was conducted to examine the actual knowledge and the state of research related to the uptake, internalization and bioaccumulation of NPs, using the Scopus database and VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20) [].
Compared with recent bibliometric studies on plastics, which often analyze microplastics and nanoplastics together, our study provides a unique and exclusive focus on nanoplastics [,]. While previous works mainly addressed environmental occurrence and general toxicity [], our study integrates co-authorship, country collaborations, and keyword networks to highlight the mechanistic and ecological interconnections. This approach identifies emerging sub themes and knowledge gaps, demonstrating the novelty and significance of our contribution in mapping the biological impacts of nanoplastics.

2. Materials and Methods

Documents were extracted from the Scopus bibliographic database by searching the string “nanoplastic*” and “uptake*” or “bioaccumulation*” or “cell* internalization*” within each document’s title, abstract, and keywords, to include all the papers related to the investigated topic until the year 2024. The type of document was limited to article and the language to English. To perform the research it is possible to copy the following string and paste it in the advanced search section of Scopus: (TITLE-ABS-KEY (nanoplastic*) AND TITLE-ABS-KEY (uptake*) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (bioaccumulation*) OR TITLE-ABS-KEY (cell* internalization*)) AND PUBYEAR > 1959 AND PUBYEAR < 2025 AND (LIMIT-TO (DOCTYPE, “ar”)) AND (LIMIT-TO (LANGUAGE, “English”). The search produced 638 results, ranging from 2012 to 2024, which were saved as .csv files after selecting all the possible information and including the references. The obtained database was processed using the VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20) for the creation, visualization, and exploration of maps which are useful to facilitate the analysis of clustering solutions, and to display data. It is possible to create distance-based maps where nodes are positioned at a precise distance indicating the relatedness among them: the closer two nodes are, the stronger their connection. Each node size is proportional to the number of documents related to the item, and it is possible to set thresholds to enhance map visualization, aligning with the representation and weight of each item. In this study, several analyses were performed: the co-authorship among researchers and countries, the co-occurrence of keywords and cited scientific journals. For each analysis, a full counting method was applied, and thresholds were set, to optimize the map visualization according to the weight of each item. For the co-occurrence of author keywords analysis, before the generation of the maps a “thesaurus file” was created to merge terms if necessary (e.g., singular/plural, synonyms) to allow a correct count of occurrences and citations. For more information about the technical terms and the analyses used in the VOSviewer software, consider the VOSviewer manual []. In addition to the bibliometric network analysis, the temporal trend of the number of articles published per year was also investigated.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Temporal Trend Analysis

The research on the NP uptake, bioaccumulation and cell internalization on the Scopus database resulted in 638 documents published in a time-frame ranging from 2012 to 2024. This value is quite low, if compared to the more studied microplastics (2759 documents from Scopus on 26 March 2025). The number of publications shows an increasing trend, going from a minimum value of 1 document in 2012 to a maximum value of 196 documents in 2024. In particular, the last 4 years highlighted the growing research interest in NPs over time (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Temporal trend of publications on NP uptake, bioaccumulation and cell internalization, from 2012 to 2024. Graph generated using Microsoft Excel.
The increasing number of publications on NPs observed in recent years reflects a growing scientific interest in their potential ecological and toxicological impacts []. Despite their relatively low representation in the literature compared to microplastics (MPs) with 638 vs. 2759 documents retrieved from Scopus, research on NPs has seen a substantial acceleration, particularly since 2020. This surge corresponds with mounting evidence that NPs, due to their nanoscale size (<1 µm), have properties that allow them to cross biological membranes, accumulate within cells, and interact with subcellular components []. Studies have shown that NPs can induce oxidative stress, inflammation, and even genotoxic effects in various model organisms, raising concerns about their long-term implications for both environmental and human health [].
The marked increase in publications from 41 in 2020 to 195 in 2024 (Figure 1) suggests that this topic is becoming an established field of study. This trend may also be linked to technological advancements in nanoparticle detection methods, such as nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and electron microscopy, which have improved researchers’ ability to isolate, characterize, and study NPs in complex matrices []. In summary, the recent growth in NP publications underscores both an increasing capability to study these particles and a deeper recognition of their potential risks. Continued interdisciplinary studies are essential to clarify exposure pathways, dose–response relationships, and long-term consequences of NPs contamination.

3.2. Co-Authorship Analysis Based on Researchers

The body of research on NPs, their uptake, bioaccumulation, and cell internalization include contributions from a total of 3438 authors, of which a total of 37 surpassed the threshold of 5 documents and 5 citations. Table 1 provides a list of the top ten authors, ranked by their total number of publications. Among the most productive researchers are Hernandez A. and Marcos R., who published 24 documents each, and collectively received 621 citations. Both authors are affiliated with the same research group, which has been particularly influential in the study of NPs, especially from a genetic perspective [,].
Table 1. List of top 10 authors ranked by number of documents.
The co-authorship map (Figure 2A,B), which visualizes the relationships among authors based on their publication output, includes a total of 39 authors, each with at least five publications. The network highlights three dominant groups: one located in Spain, with a focus on genetics, and the other two in China, which is more heterogeneous in its composition. The Chinese group includes researchers from diverse fields such as biotechnology, marine science, animal science, and environmental science, reflecting a broad interdisciplinary approach to the study of NPs.
Figure 2. Co-authorship analysis of authors in overlay visualization, the node size reflects the number of publications. (A) Ranked by average citation number, and the color ranges from blue (fewer citations) to yellow (more citations). (B) Ranked by average publication year, and the color indicates the average publication year (blue = older, yellow = more recent). Visualization generated using VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20).
This co-authorship structure emphasizes the collaborative and global nature of research in this field, with a strong representation from both Europe and Asia. The presence of specialized groups and diverse range of disciplines indicates the complexity and multidisciplinary scope of research on NPs.
The lack of intergroup collaboration could potentially slow the global exchange of methodologies, data, and mechanistic insights on NPs uptake, bioaccumulation, and cellular internalization. Encouraging stronger collaborations between geographically and disciplinarily diverse groups may enhance the integration of knowledge, advancing a more comprehensive understanding of NPs impacts on both ecosystems and human health.

3.3. Co-Authorship Analysis Based on Countries

Among the 70 countries, a total of 32 overtook the threshold of 5 documents and 5 citations. Table 2. provides a ranking of the top ten countries based on the total number of publications. Among these, China stands out as the most prolific, with 314 publications and an impressive number of 15,044 citations. The United States follow with 62 publications and 4618 citations, while Spain ranks third with 45 publications and 1739 citations. Italy completes the top four with 44 publications and 3588 citations.
Table 2. List of top 10 countries ranked by number of documents.
The co-occurrence map provides insights into the global collaboration landscape in NPs research, offering a visual representation of global collaboration and research intensity (Figure 3A,B).
Figure 3. Co-authorship analysis of countries in overlay visualization, the node size reflects the number of documents. (A) Ranked by average citation number, and the color ranges from blue (fewer citations) to yellow (more citations). (B) Ranked by average publication year, and the color indicates the average publication year (blue = older, yellow = more recent). Visualization generated using VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20).
The increasing focus on NPs research in China in 2023, as compared to the period between 2021 and 2022 when Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland were leading in this field, may be due to ecological, economic, and social factors (Figure 3B).
China, as one of the world’s largest producers and consumers of plastics, is experiencing severe ecological consequences due to plastic pollution []. The nation’s rapid industrialization and high population density have contributed to a substantial increase in plastic waste, including microplastics and NPs, which pose a significant threat to ecosystems and biodiversity [].
Additionally, China’s commitment to achieving carbon neutrality by 2060, and sustainable growth [] has also intensified efforts to reduce plastic waste and mitigate its environmental impacts [].
The focus of NPs research was predominantly in Europe and North America between 2021 and 2022, with Italy, the Netherlands, and Switzerland being the leading countries in this research field as we can see from the map (Figure 3B), while in the United States, Germany, and Spain the research has been focused toward other pressing environmental issues, such as climate change and biodiversity loss [,].

3.4. Co-Occurrence Analysis of Author Keywords

The co-occurrence analysis of author keyword conducted on NPs research reveals significant trends and research intersections. Among the 1547 co-occurrences, a total of 150 keywords met the threshold of 3 occurrences, and after the thesaurus file a total of 18 keywords were displayed. As depicted in Table 3, the most prevalent terms include “nanoplastic” (316 occurrences), “polystyrene” (122 occurrences), “microplastic” (116 occurrences), and “oxidative stress” (54 occurrences), highlighting the dominant themes in the field.
Table 3. List of top 10 keywords ranked by occurrences.
The size of the nodes indicates the number of occurrences of the keyword in NPs research (Figure 4A,B). Instead, the proximity of the nodes indicates how much these research topics are related to each other, in fact “Nanoplastic”, “Microplastic”, and “Oxidative stress” keywords are very close to each other (Figure 4A). The size of these nodes and their proximity reflect the connection between the increase in oxidative stress induced by both micro and NPs [].
Figure 4. Co-occurrence analysis of keywords in overlay visualization. The node size reflects the number of occurrences. (A) Ranked by average citation number, and the color ranges from blue (fewer citations) to yellow (more citations). (B) Ranked by average publication year, and the color indicates the average publication year (blue = older, yellow = more recent). Visualization generated using VOSviewer software (version 1.6.20).
In recent years, there has been a notable increase in scientific interest concerning the redox and genotoxic effects induced by NPs []. Research highlights a strong correlation between the processes of uptake and accumulation of microplastics and the ecotoxicological effects these pollutants provoke. Specifically, the bioaccumulation of NPs in various organisms has been shown to disrupt cellular functions, leading to oxidative stress and genetic damage, thereby posing significant threats to environmental and human health [,].
Once internalized, NPs can translocate in organelles such as mitochondria [], lysosomes [], and nuclei [], where they interfere with normal cellular processes. Due to their high surface-area-to-volume ratio and the presence of reactive functional groups, NPs can generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) directly, through surface redox reactions, or indirectly, by disrupting mitochondrial electron transport chains [,]. Excessive ROS production overwhelms antioxidant defense systems, leading to oxidative stress characterized by lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, and DNA damage []. Persistent oxidative stress can initiate inflammatory signaling pathways and impair cellular homeostasis, often culminating in apoptosis or necrosis []. Moreover, NPs have been shown to induce genotoxic effects, including DNA strand breaks, chromosomal aberrations, and altered gene expression patterns []. A particularly concerning aspect is the capacity of NPs to adsorb (through electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions) and transport heavy metals [], promoting their uptake and bioaccumulation in organisms []. Once internalized, NPs and metal complexes can enhance intracellular metal delivery, further intensifying oxidative and genotoxic damage through synergistic toxicity [].
The bibliometric analysis reveals a distinct conceptual evolution in NPs research. Early investigations were largely descriptive, emphasizing marine environments, occurrence patterns, and exposure routes in aquatic organisms []. Over time, the thematic focus has progressively expanded toward terrestrial and freshwater systems, reflecting a recognition of the ubiquity of NPs pollution beyond the marine domain []. More recently, a conceptual transition is evident, from studies centered on exposure and distribution [] to those addressing cellular and molecular mechanisms of toxicity []. This shift demonstrates the field’s maturation from environmental observation to mechanistic exploration.

3.5. Citation Analysis of Journals

A citation analysis of journals in the fields of NPs, uptake, bioaccumulation, and cell internalization provide critical insights into both the dissemination and impact of research. Among the 138 results, only 26 met the threshold of 5 documents and 5 citations. The top 10 journals displayed in Table 4. represent key platforms for advancing research in environmental science, toxicology, and nanotechnology, each contributing unique perspectives and approaches to understanding the behavior of NPs in various ecosystems and biological systems. Below is a more in-depth examination of the themes and focus areas of the following journals:
Table 4. List of the top 10 journals ranked by number of documents. N.A. = not available.
  • Science of the Total Environment (100 documents, 4211 citations, Q1)
This multidisciplinary journal primarily focuses on environmental science and its intersection with human health, policy, and technology. It addresses broad environmental issues, including pollution, ecosystem services, environmental risk assessment, and contamination by pollutants such as NPs. Studies published in this journal often discuss the fate and transport of contaminants [], their bioaccumulation in organisms [] and their impact on environmental health. Research on NPs in this journal typically explores their long-term persistence, distribution, and potential for ecological disruption in various habitats, from marine environments [] to freshwater ecosystems [].
2.
Journal of Hazardous Materials (83 documents, 4957 citations, Q1)
The Journal of Hazardous Materials is a leading publication focused on materials science, toxicity, environmental health, and the behavior of hazardous substances, including nanomaterials. Research within this journal addresses the mechanisms by which NPs interact with living organisms, their potential for bioaccumulation in food chains, and the subsequent risks to both human and ecological health [,]. It provides a platform for understanding the environmental fate of these materials, investigating their transport in aquatic systems, and their bioavailability to organisms, which is central to the understanding of their uptake and cell internalization [].
3.
Environmental Pollution (64 documents, 4994 citations, Q1)
This journal publishes research on the impact of pollution, including both traditional and emerging pollutants, on the environment and public health. Articles on NPs in Environmental Pollution often focus on their ecological effects, including the potential for biomagnification and trophic transfer []. The journal also covers the toxicity of NPs in aquatic organisms, their impact on biodiversity, and their potential to enter the food web []. Furthermore, it addresses the challenges related to detecting, quantifying, and managing plastic pollution on a global scale [].
4.
Chemosphere (34 documents, 866 citations, Q1)
Chemosphere publishes research on the chemical interactions of pollutants, including emerging contaminants like NPs, with the environment. The journal covers a wide range of studies, from chemical analysis and environmental chemistry to ecotoxicology. Articles often focus on the behavior of NPs in different ecosystems, including the study of their persistence, degradation, and interaction with other pollutants []. Research on the bioaccumulation of NPs and their effects on microbial communities, aquatic life, and terrestrial organisms is frequently featured in this journal [].
5.
Environmental Science: Nano (32 documents, 809 citations, Q1)
Dedicated specifically to the intersection of nanotechnology and environmental science, Environmental Science: Nano is an essential journal for research on the environmental impact of nanomaterials, including NPs. It publishes studies on the fate, transport, and environmental behavior of nanomaterials, their interactions with biological systems, and their potential for bioaccumulation and biomagnification []. Research in this journal focuses on the molecular mechanisms of NPs uptake by organisms, their cellular internalization, and the subsequent physiological and toxicological effects [].
6.
Environmental Science and Technology (30 documents, 3826 citations, Q1)
This journal provides a rapid publication platform for cutting-edge research on environmental science and technology. It often includes studies on the detection and analysis of emerging pollutants, such as NPs, and explores innovative methods for monitoring and mitigating pollution. The topics covered include NPs transport in the environment, their interaction with wastewater treatment processes, and innovative strategies for environmental remediation []. The journal emphasizes the development of new technologies and methodologies to address the environmental challenges posed by nanomaterials.
7.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety (16 documents, 629 citations, Q1)
This journal focuses on the effects of environmental contaminants, including NPs, on ecosystems and organisms. It publishes research on the toxicological effects of NPs at various biological levels, from cellular mechanisms to organismal responses. Studies in Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety often explore the long-term impacts of nanoplastic exposure on animal behavior, reproduction, and survival [,]. Additionally, the journal covers the potential for NPs to disrupt ecological processes and their role in environmental safety assessments.
8.
Environment International (16 documents, 2908 citations, Q1)
Environment International publishes research on environmental science, with a strong focus on public health and the toxicological effects of pollutants. The journal includes studies on the distribution, bioaccumulation, and health effects of NPs in human and animal populations []. Topics of interest include the mechanisms by which NPs enter the human body, their potential to induce reproductive toxicity and the long-term health risks associated with exposure to these particles [,,].
9.
Aquatic Toxicology (10 documents, 1065 citations, Q1)
As a journal dedicated to the study of pollutants in aquatic ecosystems, Aquatic Toxicology is highly relevant for research on NPs. It publishes articles on the effects of NPs on aquatic organisms, focusing on toxicity, bioaccumulation, and behavioral changes in marine and freshwater species []. The journal also explores the potential for NPs to enter the aquatic food web, as well as their impact on ecosystem services such as nutrient cycling and water quality []. Research on the cellular mechanisms of NPs uptake in aquatic species is often featured, along with studies on how these particles affect aquatic biodiversity [].
10.
Environmental science and pollution research (8 documents, 113 citations, Q1)
Environmental Science and Pollution Research serve the international community in all areas of Environmental Science and related subjects with emphasis on chemical and environmental stressors []. Covers all areas of Environmental Science and related subjects. Publishes on the natural sciences but also includes the impacts of legislation and regulation on pollution control. Safeguards international and interdisciplinary character through a global network of editorial board members [].
The journals listed in Table 4 and displayed in Figure 5, represent leading scientific platforms that advance knowledge in the environmental and toxicological effects of NPs. Each journal has a unique focus, but they all contribute to a growing understanding of how NPs interact with the environment and biological systems. Whether addressing the molecular mechanisms of uptake, bioaccumulation, and cell internalization, or exploring the broader ecological and public health impacts, these journals collectively provide a comprehensive view of the global challenges posed by nanoplastics pollution. Their high citation counts, impact factors, and Q1 quartile rankings reflect their significant influence in shaping the scientific discourse surrounding this emerging area of research.
Figure 5. Graphical view of the top 10 journals (Q1) ranked by number of documents. This chart visualizes the relative contribution of publications across the ten most prominent Q1 journals. Science of the Total Environment, Journal of Hazardous Materials, and Environmental Pollution represent the largest shares, indicating a higher volume of published research on uptake, bioaccumulation, and cellular internalization. Other notable journals include Chemosphere, Environmental Science: Nano, and Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. Graph generated using Microsoft Excel.

4. Conclusions and Future Perspectives

The scientific interest in nanoplastics (NPs), particularly regarding their uptake, bioaccumulation, and cellular internalization, has increased markedly in recent years, and our analysis provide an overview on the relationships occurring among countries, authors, keywords, and journals related to the topic. This methodology proved to be a useful tool to understand that current research predominantly addresses the biological alterations induced by NP exposure, including oxidative stress, inflammatory responses, mitochondrial dysfunction, and genotoxicity, which suggest that NPs can significantly impair organism function and fitness. Despite these advances, in understanding the mechanisms of uptake, bioaccumulation and cellular internalization, critical knowledge gaps remain: for example, most data present in the literature come from laboratory experiments, which may not fully reflect the complexity and variability of natural ecosystems. Future experimental designs should reflect natural conditions, including exposure to low concentrations and multiple pollutants.
The long-term effects of NPs exposure are still poorly characterized, particularly regarding essential biological processes such as reproduction, development, and overall physiology. Consequently, long-term studies are required to clarify the chronic impacts of NPs on organisms. Furthermore, the role of particle-specific properties, such as size, shape, surface charge, and degree of aging must be clarified, so it is crucial to establish standardized methodologies for the detection, quantification, and physicochemical characterization of NPs.
Although significant progress has been made in understanding the behavior and toxicity of nanoplastics, substantial challenges remain, and it is essential to comprehensively assess the effects of NP exposure across diverse species and environmental matrices. Most existing studies have focused on aquatic organisms, even if the potential risks to terrestrial species and soil ecosystems require deeper investigation. Likewise, the possible implications for human health, particularly through oral and respiratory exposure pathways, demand more specific and long-term studies. Considering so, an interdisciplinary approach is essential to fully understand the risks of NPs on both environmental and human health. By mapping co-authorship, country collaborations, and keyword networks, our study identifies emerging research sub themes and critical knowledge gaps. Addressing these gaps will be vital to mitigate the impacts of NP pollution thorough regulatory frameworks, and to guide sustainable management strategies, to safeguard ecosystems and human health from the emerging contaminants.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, R.R. and A.C.d.M.; methodology, A.C.d.M.; validation, P.S. and R.S.; formal analysis, A.C.d.M. and R.R.; investigation, A.C.d.M. and R.R.; resources, P.S. and R.S.; writing—original draft preparation, R.R. and A.C.d.M.; writing—review and editing, R.R., A.C.d.M., P.S. and R.S.; visualization, R.R.; supervision, P.S. and R.S.; funding acquisition, R.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding authors.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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