Dairy

Fermented dairy products such as yogurt, kefir, and traditional cheeses are increasingly consumed worldwide for their nutritional and probiotic properties. Lipidomic profiling provides valuable insights into microbial-driven biochemical changes during fermentation. In this study, we performed a comprehensive untargeted lipidomic analysis of sheep milk and Gioddu, a traditional Sardinian fermented dairy product. Using UHPLC-QTOF-MS platform, we observed that fermentation significantly reshaped the lipidome. Gioddu samples showed higher levels of phosphatidylethanolamines (PE) and lysophosphatidylethanolamines (LPE), together with a pronounced reduction in sphingolipids (glucosylceramides, ceramides, sphingomyelins) and glycerophospholipids (phosphatidylinositols, phosphatidylserines, phosphatidylcholines) compared to sheep milk. These findings align with known enzymatic activities of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), including phospholipases A1 and A2, phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC), and sphingomyelinase. Fermentation also affected triglycerides, with reduced levels of FA 18:1-containing species, suggesting the selective lipolysis of monounsaturated fatty acids by microbial lipases. Complementary metabolomic profiling revealed reduced levels of simple sugars such as galactose and inositol in Gioddu samples, consistent with their use as primary carbon sources during early fermentation. Conversely, a marked accumulation of carboxylic acids (succinic, malic, hydroxyisovaleric, hydroxyglutaric, glyceric) was revealed, reflecting enhanced microbial fermentative activity. Increased levels of amino acids, including alanine, serine, proline, and ethanolamine, further highlighted active proteolysis and membrane remodeling driven by LAB metabolism. These findings show that LAB enzymes play a key role in modifying the lipidome of fermented dairy products, highlighting their metabolic flexibility and potential impact on nutritional and health properties. This integrated approach sheds new light on the metabolic plasticity of fermentative processes and underscores the value of omics-based tools in understanding traditional food systems. Full article

Bovine tuberculosis (bTB) is mainly caused by Mycobacterium bovis, which affects cattle, leading to significant economic losses. In Chile, the vaccination with the M. bovis Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) strain has been implemented in dairy herds with high prevalence of bTB. This study evaluated non-specific protection associated with BCG on the detection of pathogen-associated genes (nsp5, stx1, stx2, invA, IS1081) and mortality related to diarrhea and pneumonia in calves. A total of 186 calves from a commercial dairy farm were enrolled and grouped as vaccinated (n = 96) and non-vaccinated (n = 90). The BCG Russia strain (2–5 × 10⁵ UFC) was inoculated subcutaneously within the first 30 days after birth. Animals were monitored through fecal sampling at 3 and 6 months of age for molecular detection of gene sequences. A logistic regression analysis showed differences in detection rates of the stx1 sequence at 3 months, with a higher risk for the non-vaccinated individuals (OR 2.91, CI 1.42–5.94, p = 0.03) and for those born in the cold season (OR 9.55, CI 2.02–45.11, p = 0.004). A Kaplan–Meier survival analysis showed a significant difference in deaths in vaccinated calves compared with non-vaccinated animals (p = 0.018), suggesting that BCG confers non-specific protection during the first 3 months after birth, in field conditions. Full article

The dairy industry faces challenges from mastitis, which affects milk quality. Somatic Cell Counts (SCCs) are key indicators of udder health, subclinical mastitis presence, and legal thresholds. However, limited research has explored geographic disparities and temporal patterns in SCCs across the USA, despite their critical role in informing targeted herd management strategies, optimizing policy interventions, and ensuring consistent milk quality standards. This study aimed to examine temporal trends and geographic disparities in median weighted SCCs (mwSCCs) across USA states. This study analyzes SCC data using records from the Dairy Herd Improvement Association across 42–45 states between 2011 and 2023. State-level differences in mwSCCs were examined, with temporal changes assessed using percent differences between 2011 and 2023. Moran’s I and Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA) were used to identify spatial clusters of states with high and low mwSCCs. The mwSCCs decreased by 24.8%, from 234,000 cells/mL in 2011 to 176,000 cells/mL in 2023, with significant reductions in Virginia and Georgia, while Tennessee and South Carolina had minimal declines. However, Texas, California, and Colorado saw increases, with Colorado rising by 147.9%. Spatial clustering revealed high mwSCCs in the southeast and low levels in the northeast, highlighting the need for region-specific strategies. Full article

Milk products are a diverse group of foods and important sources of essential nutrients, including high-quality proteins, fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals. Among their key quality attributes, texture is particularly critical, as it strongly influences consumer perception and overall product quality. Numerous devices and techniques have been developed to evaluate the texture of milk products, most of which rely on mechanical tests such as puncture, compression, shearing, creep, and relaxation. Instrumental evaluations are essential for correlating physical measurements with sensory perceptions, yet several challenges limit their reliability. Inconsistencies in testing protocols—such as reporting force versus penetration depth versus force versus time; variations in testing temperature, sample shape and dimensions; probe geometry; compression depth; and container size for semisolid samples contribute to discrepancies across studies. Additionally, many studies omit these critical methodological details, reducing reproducibility and comparability. This review systematically examines the current methods used to assess dairy product texture, identifies gaps and challenges in standardization, and provides guidance to support future research aimed at obtaining accurate, reproducible, and meaningful texture measurements. Full article

Profitable dairy farming requires continuous appraisal and adaptation of production systems in response to changing market and agricultural policy conditions. Geopolitical and climate events have exemplified the exposure of farm incomes to the increased volatility associated with often-global market factors. In this context, bio-economic models can be a useful tool for researchers seeking to understand the financial resilience of different production systems to these changing circumstances. The AFBI Dairy Systems Model is presented and used to simulate the impacts of alternative price scenarios for Northern Ireland-based dairy systems. The whole farm model consists of four interdependent components, comprising farm system, animal nutrition, feed supply and financial sub models. The model is used to evaluate how fluctuations in milk, concentrate, fertiliser, contractor, and electricity prices, as well as interest rate changes, affect three distinct production systems. The financial performance of all systems was sensitive to variations in milk and concentrate prices but relatively insensitive to variations in fertiliser, contractor, and electricity prices and interest rate changes. The profitability of a low-output system was less exposed to variations in prices. In contrast, a high-output system was more exposed to price variations. However, a medium-input system was the most profitable across the majority of price scenarios investigated. Full article

This research work evaluated the application of whey-based edible coatings to cheeses. Coatings were prepared with a bioprotective culture (BC) containing Lacticaseibacillus paracasei and Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus alone, or in conjunction with thyme essential oil (TEO). The samples containing the BC or the BC plus TEO were compared with cheeses without coating, with cheeses with whey-based coatings without BC or TEO, and with cheeses treated with natamycin. The cheeses were evaluated regarding their physicochemical, microbiological, and sensory properties. All cheeses produced were classified as full-fat (≥45–60% fat in dry matter—FDM) and semihard (>54–<63% moisture in the defatted cheese—MDC), with an exception made for the control cheese, which presented lower levels of MDC, graded as hard (>49–<56% MDC). Most of the parameters evaluated presented significant differences between samples and as a result of ripening time. Regarding color parameters, it was observed that, after ripening, the external color of the samples with the whey coating presented higher lightness values (L*), higher a* values, and lower b* values. These differences clearly resulted from the white color imparted by the coating. Significant differences were also observed with respect to the texture parameters of the cheeses. The samples containing the BC or the BC plus TEO presented higher values for hardness and chewiness. In what concerns the microbiological evaluation, in all cases, lactic acid bacteria counts increased from log 7.5–8 CFU/g on the first day to ca. log 10 CFU/g at the end of the ripening period. Yeast and mold counts were significantly lower in samples containing the BC or the BC plus TEO, with values of ca. log 3 CFU/g and log 2.5 CFU/g, respectively. These values are like those obtained in samples with natamycin, with 1–2 log cycles below those of cheeses without treatment. However, the use of BC and BC plus TEO had a negative impact on the sensory properties of cheeses. Future work should evaluate the synergistic effect of different BCs and EOs. Full article

Doce de leite (DL) is a product originating in South America, particularly in countries such as Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. The product is widely used for direct consumption and industrial applications and can be added with thickening agents to modify its rheological properties. This study aimed to produce DL with the addition of three different components (skimmed milk powder—SMP, whey protein concentrate—WPC, and microparticulated whey protein—MWP) in two different concentrations (2.1 and 4.2%). The composition of the products aligned with Mercosur regulations, except for the fat content, where the result was slightly lower. The HMF (5-hydroxymethylfurfural) concentration in the samples was also determined, showing no statistically significant differences between products. The products with SMP showed a higher browning index and color saturation compared to WPC and MWP formulations. The addition of MWP increased the hardness (from 10.2 to 467.8 g), gumminess (from 8.2 to 362.1 g), and viscosity (from 6.7 to 18.3 Pa.s) of the DL compared to the control product (SMP). These findings suggest that adding MWP can modulate the rheological and textural characteristics of such products without significantly altering their proximate composition, offering an alternative to using thickeners in this type of product. Full article

This pilot study evaluated the effects of cannabidiol (CBD) oil supplementation on growth performance, stress biomarkers, and haematological profiles in dairy calves undergoing the weaning transition. Nineteen Holstein calves were divided into two paternal-sibling groups: a CBD-supplemented experimental group (n = 10) and a CON-control group (n = 9). The CBD group received 5 mL/head/day of CBD oil for the first two days (pre-weaning), followed by 10 mL/head/day for three consecutive days post-weaning. Body weight increased significantly over time in both groups (p = 0.000); nevertheless, no significant differences were observed between groups (p = 0.173) or for the group × time interaction (p = 0.929), indicating that CBD did not affect overall growth trajectory. However, a significant group × time interaction (p = 0.006) for average daily gains in the CBD group was observed. Serum cortisol concentrations were significantly lower in CBD-supplemented calves at Day 0 and +2 days, compared to the CON group, indicating a transient anti-stress effect (p = 0.043 for group effect). At +5 days, cortisol levels in the CBD group increased, surpassing control values, though this difference was not significant. A trend-level group × time interaction (p = 0.067) suggested a distinct temporal cortisol response in CBD-treated calves. Immune cell counts (LYM, MON, NEU) showed no significant differences, though monocyte levels trended lower in CBD calves at early time points. Platelet indices revealed a significant reduction in mean platelet volume (p = 0.047) and stable PDWc and plateletcrit values in the CBD group, suggesting modulation of inflammatory status. Alanine aminotransferase levels increased over time with a significant group effect (p = 0.014), indicating a mild hepatic response, while glucose and alkaline phosphatase remained within physiological ranges. These findings suggest that short-term CBD supplementation may transiently modulate stress and inflammatory responses during weaning, with potential benefits for physiological resilience. However, rebound endocrine effects and hepatic sensitivity highlight the need for further research to refine dosing strategies and assess long-term safety in dairy production systems. Full article

Stereotypic behaviors are common in farm animals and often signal poor welfare. Tongue-rolling is the most prevalent stereotypic behavior in cows. In this study, we compared the plasma and milk composition of 16 high-frequency tongue-rolling cows (HTR group) and 16 non-stereotypic cows (CON group). All cows were primiparous cows. Biochemical tests, plasma metabolomics, and milk proteomics revealed higher plasma triiodothyronine levels in HTR cows, and lower levels of αs1-casein, β-casein, κ-casein, and lactoferrin in their milk. Multi-omics analyses identified 103 differential metabolites and 73 differential proteins, including various GTP-binding proteins, with the Ras signaling pathway being significantly upregulated in the HTR cows. GO enrichment analysis highlighted significant changes in molecular function, particularly related to GTP/GDP-binding proteins. Additionally, HTR cows exhibited elevated cellular metabolic activity. These findings suggest that high-frequency tongue-rolling is associated with altered endocrine and metabolic profiles, disrupted milk protein synthesis, and impaired immune function potential. The reduction in key milk proteins and lactoferrin may negatively impact milk quality and immune defense. Further research is needed to clarify the causal relationship between these physiological changes and tongue-rolling, providing insights into the underlying mechanisms of stereotypic behaviors in dairy cows and their implications for animal welfare and milk production. Full article

Cheese products worldwide have gained protected designation of origin status in many instances, yet this food group also has the highest reported fraud rates. Quesillo Caquetá is the first Colombian cheese to acquire a protected designation of origin, but still there is a lack of information regarding its composition. In this study, a compositional analysis was performed to establish a set of characteristic parameters to aid the identification of the authenticity of Quesillo Caquetá. Physicochemical analysis, mineral composition determination, carbohydrate, fatty acid, and peptide profiles were conducted on 29 samples of Quesillo Caquetá made with milk from the northern, southern, and central regions of the province of Caquetá. The results revealed 7 minerals, 3 carbohydrates, 19 fatty acids, and 45 peptides (21 peptides from bovine αs1-casein and 24 peptides from bovine β-casein). This suggests that Quesillo Caquetá is a significant source of sodium, calcium, phosphorus, and monounsaturated fatty acids such as oleic acid, omega-3, and omega-6, as well as some peptides that match sequences with antihypertensive, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, and antimicrobial activity reported in the literature. The specificity of the fatty acid and peptide profiles can become a valuable tool for identifying the authenticity of Quesillo Caquetá against possible imitations in the market. Full article

Total Mixed Ration (TMR) particle size significantly impacts dairy cow health and productivity. This study investigated the effects of TMR particle size tertiles on rumen pH, dry matter intake (DMI), and milk characteristics in Simmental cows by continuous pH monitoring (Moonsyst Ltd., Kilkenny, Republic of Ireland) and particle separation by 19, 8, 4 mm sieves and pad using the Wasserbauer particle separator, along with regular milk and DMI measurements. Data were analyzed by IBM SPSS 26.0 with ANOVA, Pearson correlations and statistically significant differences between tertiles by post hoc Tukey HSD test were performed (p < 0.05). Tertiles by frequency analysis were used to categorize particle size proportions into three groups, each containing an equal number of observations. Principal component analysis (PCA) and heatmaps by SRplot were generated. Moderate particle size distributions (second tertiles of 19 mm, 8 mm, 4 mm sieves, and pad as the fraction of TMR particles that pass through the all sieves and are collected in the bottom pan) optimized rumen pH stability, reducing time below 6.2 (SARA risk) or above 6.8, and correlated with milk β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB), oleic acid, and acetone levels. Moreover, milk production was maximized with a combination of coarser (19 mm and 8 mm, third tertiles) and finer (4 mm, first tertile) particles, milk fat peaked in both the finest pad fraction (third tertile) and coarsest larger sieves (first tertiles), and milk protein in the first tertiles of 19 mm and 8 mm sieves. Similarly, DMI positively correlated with coarser particles, but sometimes negatively with milk quality. In addition, PCA showed fine particle groups clustering with higher milk fat-to-protein ratios, somatic cell counts, and urea. In conclusion, mid-range TMR particle sizes (second tertiles) consistently provided the most benefits across ruminal, metabolic, and production parameters, underscoring TMR structure as a crucial precision feeding tool. Full article

The convergence of genomic selection and artificial intelligence (AI) is redefining precision breeding in dairy cattle, enabling earlier, more accurate, and multi-trait selection for health, fertility, climate resilience, and economic efficiency. This review critically examines how advanced genomic tools—such as genome-wide association studies (GWAS), genomic breeding values (GEBVs), machine learning (ML), and deep learning (DL) models to accelerate genetic gain for complex, low heritability traits. Key applications include improved resistance to mastitis and metabolic diseases, enhanced thermotolerance, reduced enteric methane emissions, and increased milk yield. We discuss emerging computational frameworks that combine sensor-derived phenotypes, omics datasets, and environmental data to support data-driven selection decisions. Furthermore, we address implementation challenges related to data integration, model interpretability, ethical considerations, and access in low-resource settings. By synthesizing interdisciplinary advances, this review provides a roadmap for developing AI-augmented genomic selection pipelines that support sustainable, climate-smart, and economically viable dairy systems. Full article

Managing transition cows and preventing diseases related to this period is challenging due to the latter’s multifactorial nature. The aim of this applied observational case study is to illustrate and discuss the different aspects involved and provide an approach to analysis and the resulting management solutions using a real-life case within a 500-cow herd. The initial assessment, involving the collection of data on the level of production, animal health and behaviour, and metabolic indicators, as well as management and housing key indicators, revealed key risk factors, including overcrowding, suboptimal feeding strategies, inadequate water supply, and insufficient disease monitoring. These factors contributed to increased cases of metabolic disorders such as hypocalcemia (annual incidence 7.8%), excessive lipomobilisation, and displaced abomasum (annual incidence 5.2%). A holistic approach combining feeding adjustments, disease monitoring, facility improvements, and long-term management strategies was implemented to address these challenges. Short-term interventions, such as optimizing the dietary cation–anion balance and enhancing disease detection protocols, led to noticeable improvements. However, structural constraints and external factors, such as extreme weather conditions (heat stress) and economic limitations, created significant hurdles in achieving immediate and sustained success. The farm ultimately opted for infrastructural improvements, including a new transition cow facility, to provide a long-term solution to these recurring issues. This case highlights the complexity of transition cow management, demonstrating that long-term success depends on continuous monitoring, interdisciplinary collaboration, and adaptability in response to evolving challenges in dairy production. Full article

Methane (CH₄) is the second largest greenhouse gas (GHG) after carbon dioxide (CO₂), and ruminant production is an important source of CH₄ emissions. Among the six types of livestock animal species that produce GHGs, cattle (including beef cattle and dairy cows) are responsible for 62% of livestock-produced GHGs. Compared to beef cattle, continuous lactation in dairy cows requires sustained energy intake to drive rumen fermentation and CH₄ production, making it a key mitigation target for balancing dairy production and environmental sustainability. Determining how to safely and efficiently reduce CH₄ emissions from dairy cows is essential to promote the sustainable development of animal husbandry and environmental friendliness and plays an important role in improving feed conversion, reducing environmental pollution, and improving the performance of dairy cows. Combined with the factors influencing CH₄ emissions from dairy cows and previous research reports, this paper reviews the research progress on reducing the enteric CH₄ emissions (EMEs) of dairy cows from the perspectives of the CH₄ generation mechanism and emission reduction strategies, and it summarizes various measures for CH₄ emission reduction in dairy cows, mainly including accelerating genetic breeding, improving diet composition, optimizing feeding management, and improving fecal treatment. Future research should focus on optimizing the combination of strategies, explore more innovative methods, reduce EME without affecting the growth performance of dairy cows and milk safety, and scientifically and effectively promote the sustainable development of animal husbandry. Full article

Use of sedation for disbudding is common practice in a number European countries, with United Kingdom (UK) practices adopting its use. This study assessed the effects of disbudding with and without xylazine sedation on growth rates and calf health on a UK calf rearing unit. Data was collected from 485 dairy crossed with beef breed calves between April and August 2024 from a single calf rearing unit in England. Calves were purchased from multiple farms across the UK and arrived on site at approximately 21 days of age. Calves were disbudded—and, in the case of male calves, surgically castrated—at approximately three weeks after arrival on farm. Pens of calves were assigned to undergo disbudding with (SED, n = 238) or without (CTL = 234) xylazine sedation at a dose of 0.2 mg/kg administered intramuscularly. Calves from both groups were provided with local anaesthetic (procaine hydrochloride) as a cornual nerve block and a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (meloxicam). While other studies have demonstrated some behavioural and physiological indicators of pain to be reduced with sedation, this study found that calves in the SED group had a reduced daily liveweight gain (DLWG) of 0.14 kg/day in the short term (mean 20 days) following disbudding (p < 0.001), but there was no difference in growth rates in the medium-term (mean 43 days) post-disbudding (p = 0.30). Some of this difference could be explained by the slightly higher DLWG pre-disbudding in the CTR group, and it is likely that the physiological impacts of sedation accounted for the rest of this difference. This initial reduction in DLWG following disbudding with sedation should be considered by vets, especially on farms where growth rates may already be compromised. In the sedated calves, 19.3% exhibited either some movement or entry into sternal recumbency. Specifically, a light plane of sedation with calves entering sternal recumbency was associated with a reduction in DLWG of 0.89 kg/day compared to 0.98 kg/day for those that remained in lateral recumbency throughout (p = 0.008). The light plane of sedation may have created additional calf stress, impacted feeding behaviours, and impinged welfare, with further work needed to establish the reasons for insufficient sedation. There was no difference in the number of post-disbudding treatment outcomes between calves disbudded with and without sedation (p = 0.97). Full article

This study aimed to examine the relationship between a high somatic cell count (SCC) in cows and milk quality during the hot season in different breeds. Milk samples from 500 cows in the hot season and 431 in the cold season of 2022 were collected across 39 farms in Santa Catarina, Brazil. The samples were analyzed for SCC, milk composition, and physical attributes. Cows were also evaluated for udder depth, udder clearance, teat-end condition, and leg and udder cleanliness. Based on the SCC levels, cows were categorized as low (≤200,000 cells/mL), medium (>200,000 and ≤615,000), or high (>615,000). Data were analyzed by ANOVA with a statistical model that included the effects of the SCC class, season, days in milk, parity, genetic group, and the interaction of the SCC level and season. The results showed that cows with a high SCC produced less milk with lower component levels but higher chloride content. Milk from the hot season had lower acidity and reduced component levels. The impact of SCC on the physical traits of milk did not vary with season. Furthermore, cows with deeper udders and lower udder clearance were more likely to have a high SCC, regardless of genetics. Both a high SCC and hot temperatures independently compromised milk yield and quality, thereby increasing the risk of culling. Therefore, improving udder conformation and avoiding cows with deep udders may help to reduce SCC levels. Full article

Maintaining teat-end integrity in dairy cows is essential to preventing intramammary infections (IMIs) in dairy cows, yet the relationship between hyperkeratosis, teat conformation, and mammary health remais underexplored. This study evaluated the relationship between teat-end hyperkeratosis, teat conformation traits, microbial colonization, and somatic cell count (SCC) in milk from 170 cows on ten commercial dairy farms in Santa Catarina, Brazil. During two farm visits, milk and teat-end swab samples from paired teats (one with hyperkeratosis, one without) were analyzed for microbial growth and SCC. SCC data were transformed into somatic cell scores (SCS). Results showed no significant association between hyperkeratosis and mastitis microorganisms, although environmental microorganisms tended to be more frequent in hyperkeratotic teats (p = 0.0778). Major microorganisms in milk were significantly associated with higher SCC (p = 0.0132). No relationship was observed between teat conformation traits and hyperkeratosis. These findings suggest that hyperkeratosis may subtly influence the teat canal to environmental bacterial colonization, underscoring the need for improved milking management practices to minimize hyperkeratosis and associated mastitis risks. Full article

The diet of dairy calves can be contaminated with mycotoxins, posing a potential risk to animal health. This case study report aimed to make the first assessment of the presence of multiple mycotoxins in concentrates fed to dairy calves in Brazil. A total of 19 concentrate samples intended for dairy calves were analyzed using liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry. Aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, and T-2 toxin were not detected in any samples, whereas fumonisins B₁ (FB₁) and B₂ (FB₂) were present in 100% of the samples, with mean concentrations of 2750.1 μg/kg and 834.9 μg/kg, respectively. Zearalenone (ZEN) was detected in 36.8% of samples, with a mean concentration of 929.9 μg/kg. Significant correlations were observed between FB₁ and FB₂ (ρ = 0.978; p < 0.001) and between FB₂ and ZEN (ρ = 0.735; p = 0.05). While the physical form of the concentrate did not influence (p > 0.05) mycotoxin concentrations, a trend was observed for FB₁ (ρ = −0.417; p = 0.07) and FB2 (ρ = −0.395; p = 0.09). These findings highlight the frequent occurrence of Fusarium mycotoxins, likely due to pre-harvest contamination, emphasizing the potential risk of additive or synergistic effects in dairy calves. Full article

Consumer interest in vegetarian, ethical, and clean-label foods is reviving the use of plant-derived milk coagulants. Cardosins from Cynara cardunculus (“thistle”) are aspartic proteases with strong clotting activity, yet their technological impact in cheese remains under-explored. This study compared a commercial thistle extract (PC) with traditional bovine rennet rich in chymosin (AC) during manufacture and 60-day ripening of Caciotta cheese. Classical compositional assays (ripening index, texture profile, color, solubility) were integrated with scanning electron microscopy, three-dimensional surface reconstruction, and descriptive sensory analysis. AC cheeses displayed slower but sustained proteolysis, yielding a higher and more linear ripening index, softer body, greater solubility, and brighter, more yellow appearance. Imaging revealed a continuous protein matrix with uniformly distributed, larger pores, consistent with a dairy-like sensory profile dominated by milky and umami notes. Conversely, PC cheeses underwent rapid early proteolysis that plateaued, producing firmer, chewier curds with lower solubility and darker color. Micrographs showed a fragmented matrix with smaller, heterogeneous pores; sensory evaluation highlighted vegetal, bitter, and astringent attributes. The data demonstrate that thistle coagulant can successfully replace animal rennet but generates cheeses with distinct structural and sensory fingerprints. The optimization of process parameters is therefore required when targeting specific product styles. Full article