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C — Journal of Carbon Research

C — Journal of Carbon Research is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal on carbon research, published quarterly online by MDPI. The Spanish Carbon Group (GEC) is affiliated with C — Journal of Carbon Research and its members receive discounts on article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within ESCI (Web of Science), Scopus, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Environmental Science (miscellaneous))
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 22.5 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 2.8 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the second half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 2.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.0 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2311-5629

Latest Articles

2 pages, 168 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for C—Journal of Carbon Research: 10th Anniversary Special Issue

by Craig E. Banks

C 2026, 12(2), 43; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020043 - 15 May 2026

The 10th Anniversary Issue of C—Journal of Carbon Research has concluded with the publication of 21 high-quality papers [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of C — Journal of Carbon Research)

28 pages, 9073 KB

Open AccessReview

Remediation of Heavy Metals and Organic Pollutants in Soil by Biochar: A Comprehensive Review

by Weijian Zhang, Zaiwang Zhang and Zenghui Diao

C 2026, 12(2), 42; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020042 - 12 May 2026

In recent years, soil contamination by heavy metals and organic pollutants has become a serious environmental problem. Biochar is a highly carbonaceous, water-insoluble porous material made from biomass feedstock through a thermochemical conversion process, and it has been widely used in the remediation [...] Read more.

In recent years, soil contamination by heavy metals and organic pollutants has become a serious environmental problem. Biochar is a highly carbonaceous, water-insoluble porous material made from biomass feedstock through a thermochemical conversion process, and it has been widely used in the remediation of various soil pollutants. However, previous reviews on the modification of biochar and the remediation reaction mechanism of heavy metals and organic pollutants by biochar in soil were still not sufficiently comprehensive. Based on the current research status of the remediation of heavy metals and organic pollutants by biochar in soil, this review systematically summarized biomass feedstock types, pyrolysis methods and their applicable scenarios, as well as the modification strategies of biochar, including pore structure modification, surface functional group modification, surface charge modification, and magnetic modification. It also comparatively discussed the adsorption of heavy metals by biochar mainly through electrostatic attraction, ion exchange, complexation/precipitation, cation−π interaction, and redox transformation, while the adsorption of organic pollutants via π−π/EDA interactions, electrostatic attraction, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic partitioning, and pore filling were outlined. The review also discussed competitive effects among pollutants during biochar adsorption under co-contamination scenarios, as well as the synergistic interactions between biochar and soil microorganisms or plants. In addition, the review addressed recent progress in field-scale applications of biochar, as well as the current state of research on aging effects, ecological risks, and economic feasibility. Finally, it identifies key research directions that warrant further attention. This review highlighted the mechanistic differences between heavy metal stabilization and organic pollutant removal in soil by biochar, and provided mechanistic insight and guidance for biochar-based soil remediation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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45 pages, 3980 KB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Recent Advancements in the Application of Monoethanolamine for CO₂ Capture

by Rahul R. Bhosale

C 2026, 12(2), 41; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020041 - 11 May 2026

Monoethanolamine (MEA) remains the predominant solvent for carbon dioxide (CO₂) capture due to its rapid reaction kinetics, substantial absorption capacity, and demonstrated industrial effectiveness. Despite its established status, MEA-based systems are undergoing continuous development to lower energy requirements, enhance solvent stability, [...] Read more.

Monoethanolamine (MEA) remains the predominant solvent for carbon dioxide (CO₂) capture due to its rapid reaction kinetics, substantial absorption capacity, and demonstrated industrial effectiveness. Despite its established status, MEA-based systems are undergoing continuous development to lower energy requirements, enhance solvent stability, and expand operational adaptability. This review provides a critical assessment of recent progress in MEA-based CO₂ capture, encompassing molecular-level understanding, advancements in reactor and process design, solvent modification strategies, and system-wide optimization. Recent theoretical and experimental research has improved the understanding of CO₂ absorption mechanisms in MEA, highlighting the effects of reaction-product buildup, interfacial phenomena, and free amine availability on mass-transfer efficiency. Reboiler duty and comparable work have significantly decreased as a result of advances in process intensification, improved regeneration systems, and energy-integration techniques. New hybrid strategies that partially decouple capture from thermal regeneration, such as combined absorption–mineralization pathways, show promise for long-term CO₂ sequestration. To address regeneration energy, corrosion, degradation, and cyclic stability, this review examines advances in MEA-based solvents, including aqueous blends, non-aqueous and biphasic systems, ionic liquids, and deep eutectic solvent hybrids. It also critically assesses the trade-offs of developments in intensified contactors, surfactants, nanomaterials, and catalysts. The growing role of digital optimization, machine learning, and computational modeling in MEA process design and control is highlighted. Overall, this analysis underscores MEA’s continued importance as a versatile platform for next-generation carbon capture, utilization, and storage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Cycle, Capture and Storage)

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17 pages, 633 KB

Open AccessReview

Rational Functional Design of Carbon Quantum Dots for Food Safety and Preservation: A Critical Review

by Ziting Zhang and Juan Du

C 2026, 12(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020040 - 11 May 2026

Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) have attracted considerable attention as versatile fluorescent nanomaterials in the domains of food safety and preservation, primarily due to their tunable photoluminescence, high aqueous dispersibility, and favorable biocompatibility. Although numerous reviews have documented the synthesis and extensive applications of [...] Read more.

Carbon quantum dots (CQDs) have attracted considerable attention as versatile fluorescent nanomaterials in the domains of food safety and preservation, primarily due to their tunable photoluminescence, high aqueous dispersibility, and favorable biocompatibility. Although numerous reviews have documented the synthesis and extensive applications of CQDs, a focused critical assessment specifically addressing how rational surface functionalization and heteroatom doping impact their performance within complex food matrices remains absent. This review provides a targeted analysis of the interplay between the functional design of CQDs, including both surface group engineering and elemental doping, and their practical efficacy in food-related applications. Initially, a concise overview of the fundamental aspects of CQDs relevant to their functionality is presented, emphasizing the origin and role of surface chemical groups and pivotal photophysical sensing mechanisms. Subsequently, the core of the review critically evaluates recent advancements (particularly those from 2022 onward) in the use of functionalized CQDs for detecting food contaminants (such as heavy metals, pesticide residues, antibiotic residues, pathogens, and additives) and in food preservation techniques, including active packaging, antioxidative and antimicrobial coatings, and photodynamic inactivation. Through a systematic comparison of analytical figures of merit and the effects of various matrices across different design approaches, we delineate both the established capabilities and the current limitations of CQD-based technologies in realistic food systems. The review concludes by identifying ongoing challenges, specifically, batch-to-batch consistency, the long-term safety profile of CQDs in food-contact applications, and the translation gap from laboratory innovation to industrial practice, and outlines prospective research directions. The overarching aim of this work is to provide a structured framework for understanding how deliberate functional design can lead to improved performance, thereby guiding the rational development of next-generation CQD-based materials for ensuring food quality and public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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22 pages, 3567 KB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate Sonochemical Byproducts on the Gel-Based Purification of Single-Walled Carbon Nanotubes

by Laurique N. Hughes, Natasha Mastalka-Tatro and Kevin Tvrdy

C 2026, 12(2), 39; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020039 - 6 May 2026

The chirality-specific study of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) necessitates their solution-phase processing with tip-horn sonication in the presence of a stabilizing surfactant such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), a process that has been shown to introduce sonochemical side-products such as dodecanol, dodecanal, and [...] Read more.

The chirality-specific study of single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs) necessitates their solution-phase processing with tip-horn sonication in the presence of a stabilizing surfactant such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), a process that has been shown to introduce sonochemical side-products such as dodecanol, dodecanal, and dodecene. This work employs single-column interactions within the overloading regime to quantitatively assess the impacts of dodecanol, dodecanal, and dodecene on the ability to purify SWCNTs using Sephacryl S-200 hydrogel. Increasing concentrations of each additive caused a corresponding decrease in the number of SWCNTs adsorbed to the gel, with a 50% reduction in SWCNT uptake realized at 0.75–1.00 mM for all three additives. Per-chirality adsorption selectivity was unaffected by relatively low additive concentration, but it was significantly hindered nearer the solubility limit of each additive. Elution efficiency from each gel was independent of additives, additive concentration, and SWCNT chirality. Mechanistically, these findings suggest the integration of each additive within the micelle structure of SDS. While the concentration of each additive introduced during tip-horn sonication is insufficient to impact gel-based SWCNT purification, the presence of dodecanol impurities within as-purchased SDS have the potential to significantly impact the purification outcome, suggesting that future studies of gel-based SWCNT purification should be carried out with SDS purified by recrystallization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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16 pages, 1800 KB

Open AccessArticle

Palm Leaf-Derived Activated Carbon as a Dual Adsorbent–Catalyst for Methyl Orange Removal: Catalytic Oxidation and Kinetic Insights

by Samah Daffalla

C 2026, 12(2), 38; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020038 - 30 Apr 2026

A mesostructured activated carbon (PL–AAC) was engineered from palm leaf biomass via a specific chemical activation protocol and systematically evaluated as a bifunctional adsorbent–catalyst for the advanced oxidative removal of methyl orange (MO) from aqueous media. Physicochemical characterization confirmed the successful transformation of [...] Read more.

A mesostructured activated carbon (PL–AAC) was engineered from palm leaf biomass via a specific chemical activation protocol and systematically evaluated as a bifunctional adsorbent–catalyst for the advanced oxidative removal of methyl orange (MO) from aqueous media. Physicochemical characterization confirmed the successful transformation of the lignocellulosic precursor into a hierarchically porous carbon framework, exhibiting enhanced surface area (2 → 56 m²/g), increased pore volume (0.0106 → 0.0227 cm³/g), and a dominant mesopore distribution (~3–5 nm). FTIR analysis revealed the presence of oxygen-containing functional groups (hydroxyl, carbonyl, and carboxyl), while SEM images demonstrated the formation of interconnected pore channels. Nitrogen adsorption–desorption isotherms showed Type IV behavior with H4 hysteresis, confirming the presence of narrow slit-shaped mesopores and micropores. This study introduces the novel application of palm leaf-derived activated carbon as a dual-function material that integrates adsorption and catalytic oxidation within a single system. Under acidic conditions (pH 2–3), PL–AAC in the presence of H₂O₂ achieved near-complete MO removal (≈98–100%), driven by the synergistic interaction between adsorption and in situ generation of reactive hydroxyl radicals. Kinetic analysis revealed that the degradation follows a pseudo-second-order model (R² = 0.916), indicating that surface-mediated interactions govern the process. Furthermore, PL–AAC maintained high catalytic efficiency over four regeneration cycles with negligible performance loss, demonstrating excellent stability and reusability. These findings highlight the effective valorization of palm leaf waste into a sustainable, low-cost, and high-performance material for advanced wastewater treatment applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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37 pages, 10800 KB

Open AccessReview

Review of the Studies on Chemical Kinetics of C1–C4 Alkanes Combustion in O₂/CO₂ Environment Based on Laminar Burning Velocity, Ignition Delay Times and Species Concentration Measurements

by Sergey Osipov, Vadim Yakovlev, Polina Golosova, Dmitry Pisarev and Andrey Rogalev

C 2026, 12(2), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020037 - 26 Apr 2026

Direct-fired supercritical CO₂ cycles are considered a promising way to reduce CO₂ emissions in the energy sector. One of the key elements of such cycles is a combustor, in which natural gas is burned at supercritical pressures up to 300 atm [...] Read more.

Direct-fired supercritical CO₂ cycles are considered a promising way to reduce CO₂ emissions in the energy sector. One of the key elements of such cycles is a combustor, in which natural gas is burned at supercritical pressures up to 300 atm in an O₂/CO₂ environment. Understanding the chemical combustion kinetics of C1–C4 alkanes, the main components of natural gas, in a supercritical CO₂-diluted medium is important for designing such combustors. This article provides an overview of studies on the chemical kinetics of C1–C4 alkanes combustion in CO₂ at ultra-high pressures. It has been established that with increasing pressure, regardless of the diluent, CH₃O₂ and HO₂ chemistries start to significantly influence the combustion of alkanes, but at the moment this influence is not sufficiently understood. Influence of CO₂ dilution on kinetics is mainly thermal, but the chemical effect is also significant. At the same time, the direct chemical effect of CO₂ is more important for the laminar burning velocity, while the indirect third-body effect is more important for the ignition delay time. However, the available literature lacks experimental measurements of the laminar burning velocity in a CO₂ environment at pressures above 70 atm, which limits the current understanding of chemical kinetics at supercritical pressures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogen Energy and Carbon Capture, Utilization and Storage (CCUS))

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23 pages, 3425 KB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Ordered Mesoporous Carbon as a Robust and Efficient Adsorbent for the Removal of Metanil Yellow from Aqueous Solutions

by Bharti Gaur, Jyoti Mittal, Hadi Hassan, Alok Mittal and Richard Thornton Baker

C 2026, 12(2), 36; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020036 - 24 Apr 2026

Metanil Yellow (MY), a highly toxic azo dye used in food products, was removed from aqueous solution using a metal- and halide-free ordered mesoporous carbon (OMC) adsorbent. MY exhibited a strong affinity towards OMC in batch as well as column operations, and OMC [...] Read more.

Metanil Yellow (MY), a highly toxic azo dye used in food products, was removed from aqueous solution using a metal- and halide-free ordered mesoporous carbon (OMC) adsorbent. MY exhibited a strong affinity towards OMC in batch as well as column operations, and OMC performed much better than previously reported adsorbents. The pH, dye concentration, adsorbent dosage, and contact time were optimised, and detailed adsorption experiments were performed under these conditions. Several isotherm models were fitted to the adsorption data, showing that the Langmuir and the Freundlich adsorption models were followed. Adsorption was spontaneous and endothermic at all measurement temperatures. On the basis of pH studies, enthalpy data, and adsorption isotherm analysis, adsorption was determined to be by physisorption. In kinetics studies, the adsorption process was found to be pseudo-second order with interparticle diffusion as the rate-limiting step. Column experiments using a fixed bed of OMC resulted in almost 100% column efficiency and a fractional column capacity of 0.999. During adsorption/desorption cycles of the exhausted column, 99.71% of the dye was recovered after the first cycle and 97.66% after the eleventh. These findings indicate that OMC is a promising and efficient material for the adsorptive removal of toxic MY dye. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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29 pages, 4706 KB

Open AccessReview

From Production to Market: Challenges and Opportunities of Graphene-Related Materials

by Gimhani Danushika, Pei Lay Yap, Siavash Aghili, Gurleen Singh Sandhu and Dusan Losic

C 2026, 12(2), 35; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020035 - 22 Apr 2026

Graphene-related materials (GRMs) possess exceptional electrical, mechanical, thermal, and surface properties, offering significant potential across broad sectors and applications in electronics, energy storage, composites, and environmental technologies. Despite extensive investment in academic research and translation, large-scale industrial adoption of GRMs remains slower than [...] Read more.

Graphene-related materials (GRMs) possess exceptional electrical, mechanical, thermal, and surface properties, offering significant potential across broad sectors and applications in electronics, energy storage, composites, and environmental technologies. Despite extensive investment in academic research and translation, large-scale industrial adoption of GRMs remains slower than projected. This review systematically analyzes the global graphene manufacturing landscape using available data from 100 commercial producers, with a focused evaluation of manufacturing technology, types and forms of produced GRMs, raw material sources, product forms, industrial quality control and characterization practices. Graphite-based production routes, particularly graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene oxide (rGO), dominate in the market due to their scalability and cost advantages. However, substantial inconsistencies in the quality of produced GRMs, characterization and standardization depth, analytical evidence, and technical data sheets (TDSs) remain widespread. A SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analysis of emerging graphene in the industry highlights technological maturity and expanding market demand but reveals critical weaknesses and challenges in quality, standardization and cost–performance alignment. Overall, quality of manufactured materials, quality control transparency, and standardization rather than material manufacturing limitations emerge as the primary barriers to the widespread commercial realization of graphene. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of C — Journal of Carbon Research)

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23 pages, 1630 KB

Open AccessReview

Impact of Microplastics in Biosolids on Carbon Cycling and Food Systems

by Sung Hee Joo

C 2026, 12(2), 34; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020034 - 21 Apr 2026

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as persistent, carbon-based contaminants in biosolids produced during wastewater treatment. As biosolids are widely applied to land or disposed of via landfilling and incineration, the incorporation of microplastic-derived carbon into managed and natural ecosystems raises important questions regarding [...] Read more.

Microplastics (MPs) are increasingly recognized as persistent, carbon-based contaminants in biosolids produced during wastewater treatment. As biosolids are widely applied to land or disposed of via landfilling and incineration, the incorporation of microplastic-derived carbon into managed and natural ecosystems raises important questions regarding carbon cycling, organic carbon stability, and long-term environmental implications. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the occurrence, characteristics, and fate of microplastics in biosolids, with particular emphasis on their interactions with native organic matter and their influence on carbon-related processes. This work critically assesses how MPs in biosolids influence carbon dynamics, including their role as a persistent carbon pool, interactions with soil organic matter, effects on microbial activity and decomposition, and implications for carbon sequestration and turnover after land application. The review also considers indirect consequences for food systems and human exposure through carbon-associated pathways. Significant knowledge gaps remain regarding the quantification of microplastic-associated carbon stocks and fluxes, transformation processes during biosolid treatment and soil incorporation, and the long-term persistence of this carbon fraction. Methodological challenges in measuring and reporting MPC are briefly highlighted, alongside their implications for understanding MPs as an emerging component of the terrestrial carbon cycle and for sustainable biosolid management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Cycle, Capture and Storage)

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29 pages, 3827 KB

Open AccessArticle

Fe/N/C Catalyst Production by Collinear CO₂ Laser Pyrolysis: Toward a Specific Mass-Weighted Energy-Deposited (J.g⁻¹) Parameter Opening Discussion on FeN_x Site Formation

by Henri Perez, Claire Dazon, Pierre Lonchambon, Suzy Surblé, Emeline Charon, Mathieu Frégnaux, Arnaud Etcheberry, Charles Rivron and Olivier Sublemontier

C 2026, 12(2), 33; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020033 - 15 Apr 2026

We report the synthesis of Fe/N/C ORR electrocatalysts by an original collinear CO₂ laser pyrolysis of liquid aerosol droplets in various configurations and compared them to a catalyst synthesized in the classical perpendicular one. While the precursors were always injected at the [...] Read more.

We report the synthesis of Fe/N/C ORR electrocatalysts by an original collinear CO₂ laser pyrolysis of liquid aerosol droplets in various configurations and compared them to a catalyst synthesized in the classical perpendicular one. While the precursors were always injected at the bottom side of the reactor, two collinear configurations of the laser entry into the reactor are considered: by the Top Side (T.S.) or by the Bottom Side (B.S.). The two corresponding catalysts sets show significant different ORR performances. An in-depth XPS analysis and fitting of the N1s spectra allowed for drawing the ORR performance as a function of FeN_x sites components. An original approach considering the energy delivered to a quantity of precursors in J.g⁻¹, linked to the flame temperature feature, evidenced very different conditions for perpendicular CO₂ laser pyrolysis and each of the two collinear configurations. This mass-weighted energy delivered in the classical perpendicular configuration is too low to allow for the formation of FeN_x sites and the resulting ORR performance is extremely poor, suggesting a marginal role of nitrogen species without interaction with iron atoms. In contrast, the delivered mass-weighted energies are sufficient in both collinear configurations to produce FeN_x sites. The ORR performance for catalysts produced in these both configurations is positively correlated with the amount of energy deposited on the precursors. The ORR performance in the T.S. laser configuration is positively correlated to the amount of FeN_x sites. The best performing catalysts obtained in the B.S. configuration show an opposite variation. These trends, and the ORR performance degradation of B.S. catalysts under prolonged chronoamperometry are discussed in light of the effect of temperature on the formation of the various kind of FeN_x sites. A tentative explanation is given, considering that N1s XPS fitting with a single FeN_x component may hinder the fact that Pyridinic sites components may contain a part of FeN_x sites, as suggested by theoretical calculation from the literature. The best catalysts obtained in this work by collinear configuration show similar performances to those obtained by double stage perpendicular pyrolysis previously reported with an ORR onset potential of ~860 mV. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of C — Journal of Carbon Research)

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33 pages, 4051 KB

Open AccessArticle

Carbons from Pistachio Nutshells Activated with Phosphoric Acid and Microwave Treatments: Towards Sustainable Sorbents for Treating Water

by Magdalena Sobiesiak, Monika Parcheta and Rosa Busquets

C 2026, 12(2), 32; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020032 - 10 Apr 2026

Activated carbons are usually prepared from natural precursors (e.g., fruit stones or nutshells) by carbonization and activation processes carried out at 400–1000 °C. They exhibit well-developed porosity, and chemical activation introduces hydrophilic functional groups on their surface, providing excellent sorption properties. However, the [...] Read more.

Activated carbons are usually prepared from natural precursors (e.g., fruit stones or nutshells) by carbonization and activation processes carried out at 400–1000 °C. They exhibit well-developed porosity, and chemical activation introduces hydrophilic functional groups on their surface, providing excellent sorption properties. However, the high temperatures required during thermal treatment increase production costs. In this work, cost-reducing methods for preparing carbon sorbents are proposed. Carbonization of H₃PO₄ activated waste pistachio nutshells was performed using classical pyrolysis (500 or 550 °C, 30 min, N₂ atmosphere) and microwave treatment (power 1000 W, 20 min). The properties of the synthesized carbons were characterized using thermogravimetry and spectroscopic techniques including infrared (ATR), Raman, photoelectron (XPS) spectroscopies, and scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS). Porous structure parameters were determined using nitrogen adsorption experiments. The efficiency of Pb²⁺ removal from spiked ultrapure, tap and river water was evaluated by batch sorption experiments and inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry. The most porous carbons were those prepared at 500 and 550 °C, with specific surface areas of 910 and 256 m²/g, respectively. Surface phosphates increased the Pb²⁺ sorption efficiency to 99% from ultrapure water, at an initial concentration of 300 µg Pb²⁺/L. The material obtained with the microwave method was not fully carbonized and remained nonporous, but it also exhibited 99% Pb²⁺ uptake from ultrapure water due to the presence of oxygen-containing surface groups. The Pb²⁺ removal from spiked tap and river water reached up to 84% and 94%, respectively, at the spiking level of 300 µg Pb²⁺/L. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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30 pages, 1363 KB

Open AccessReview

Engineered Biochar for the Sequestration of Textile Fibrous Microplastics: From Mechanistic Insights to Rational Functional Design

by Kiara Cruz and Simeng Li

C 2026, 12(2), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020031 - 7 Apr 2026

Microplastic pollution has emerged as a major environmental concern due to its persistence, widespread distribution and potential risks to ecosystems and human health. Among the various types of microplastics, fibrous microplastics (FMPs) account for 60% to 90% of all detected microplastic particles in [...] Read more.

Microplastic pollution has emerged as a major environmental concern due to its persistence, widespread distribution and potential risks to ecosystems and human health. Among the various types of microplastics, fibrous microplastics (FMPs) account for 60% to 90% of all detected microplastic particles in surface waters, primarily originating from synthetic textile production, laundering, and wastewater discharge. Their elongated morphology, high aspect ratio, and complex surface chemistry differentiate them significantly from microplastic fragments or beads, creating unique challenges for effective removal in water treatment systems. In recent years, engineered biochar has attracted increasing attention as a promising and sustainable material for microplastic removal due to tunable pore structure, surface chemistry, and adsorption capacity. However, existing reviews largely discuss microplastic removal in general terms, with limited attention to the distinctive properties of textile FMPs and their implications for biochar design and performance. This review provides a comprehensive and focused analysis of the functional characteristics of biochar that enable the effective removal of textile FMPs in water systems. First, the environmental significance and physicochemical characteristics of textile-derived FMPs are summarized. Next, the major mechanisms governing biochar–microplastic interactions, including physical interception, adsorption, and aggregation processes, are discussed. The review then examines key functional characteristics of engineered biochar, such as pore structure, surface functional groups, hydrophobicity, and composite modifications, that enhance the sequestration of FMPs. Finally, current technological challenges, research gaps, and future directions for developing scalable biochar-based solutions for textile microplastic mitigation are discussed. By linking the unique properties of textile FMPs with the functional design of biochar, this review provides a framework to guide the development of more effective and sustainable treatment strategies for reducing microplastic contamination in aquatic environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Converting and Recycling of Waste Materials)

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21 pages, 9064 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mathematical Modeling of Soot Formation and Fragmentation of Carbon Particles During Their Pyrolysis Under Conditions of Removal from the Front of a Forest Fire

by Nikolay Viktorovich Baranovskiy and Viktoriya Andreevna Vyatkina

C 2026, 12(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12020030 - 1 Apr 2026

The object of the study is a single heated carbonaceous particle of relatively small size, 0.003 to 0.01 m. Main hypothesis: The formation of soot particles and black carbon particles is caused by the thermochemical destruction of dry organic matter of forest fuel [...] Read more.

The object of the study is a single heated carbonaceous particle of relatively small size, 0.003 to 0.01 m. Main hypothesis: The formation of soot particles and black carbon particles is caused by the thermochemical destruction of dry organic matter of forest fuel and the mechanical fragmentation of coke residue. The aim of the study is to conduct numerical simulations of heat and mass transfer in a single heated carbonaceous particle, taking into account the soot formation process and assessing its fragmentation with regard to heat exchange with the external environment in a 2D setting. As part of this study, a new model of heat and mass transfer in a pyrolyzed carbonaceous particle was developed, taking into account its step-by-step fragmentation (fragmentation tree model with four secondary particle formations from the initial particle). The calculations resulted in the distributions of temperature and volume fractions of phases in the carbonaceous particle across various scenarios. Scenarios of surface fires (initial temperatures of 900 K and 1000 K), crown fires (1100 K), and a firestorm (1200 K) for typical vegetation (pine, spruce, birch) are considered. Cubic carbonaceous particles are considered in the approximation of a 2D mathematical model. To describe heat and mass transfer in the structure of the carbonaceous particle, a differential equation of thermal conductivity with corresponding initial and boundary conditions of the third type is used, taking into account the gross reaction in the kinetic scheme of pyrolysis and soot formation. Differential analogues of partial differential equations are solved using the finite difference method of second-order approximation. Options for using the developed mathematical model and probabilistic fragmentation criterion for assessing aerosol emissions are proposed. Recommendations: The suggested mathematical model must be incorporated with mathematical models of forest fire plume and aerosol transport in the upper layers of the atmosphere. Moreover, probabilistic criteria for health assessment must be developed for the practical use of the suggested mathematical model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Environmental Pollutant Management and Control)

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15 pages, 2653 KB

Open AccessArticle

Activation Temperature-Dependent Dynamic Water Vapor Sorption in Chestnut Shell-Derived Carbons

by Mohammed Mohammed, Katelyn Hamilton, Mia Dial and Venkateswara R. Kode

C 2026, 12(1), 29; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12010029 - 22 Mar 2026

Water vapor sorption in porous activated carbons (PACs) is governed by a complex interplay of pore architecture and surface functionality and often exhibits pronounced adsorption–desorption hysteresis. In this work, chestnut-shell-derived carbons were synthesized via a two-step thermal route—pyrolysis at 550 °C for 120 [...] Read more.

Water vapor sorption in porous activated carbons (PACs) is governed by a complex interplay of pore architecture and surface functionality and often exhibits pronounced adsorption–desorption hysteresis. In this work, chestnut-shell-derived carbons were synthesized via a two-step thermal route—pyrolysis at 550 °C for 120 min followed by KOH activation at either 600 °C or 800 °C for 240 min—and evaluated using a dynamic vapor sorption analyzer to quantify water uptake, hysteresis, and temperature-dependent energetics. Both materials exhibit sigmoidal Type V isotherms, characteristic of cooperative water clustering on hydrophobic carbon surfaces with localized polar sites. At 25 °C, The PAC sample prepared at 800 °C shows a sharper uptake transition and higher total capacity (~0.45 g/g at 90% RH), compared to the broader, more gradual isotherm of the 600 °C sample (~0.17 g/g). Temperature-dependent isotherms collected between 25 °C and 45 °C were fit using the Dubinin–Serpinsky (DS-4) model, yielding good agreement (R² ≈ 0.997) and enabling mechanistic interpretation of primary site adsorption and cooperative cluster growth. Clausius–Clapeyron analysis of ln P versus 1/T at fixed loadings yielded isosteric heats of adsorption (ΔH) decreasing from approximately 45.4 kJ mol⁻¹ at low uptake (0.02 g g⁻¹) to ~43.8 kJ mol⁻¹ at intermediate loading, followed by a slight increase to ~44.2 kJ mol⁻¹ at higher coverage (0.35 g g⁻¹). This trend reflects the transition from strong adsorption at high-energy surface sites to cooperative water clustering and confinement effects within the pore network. These findings highlight the role of activation temperature in modulating sorption mechanisms and energetics, offering practical guidance for tuning biomass-derived carbons for atmospheric water harvesting applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbons for Health and Environmental Protection (2nd Edition))

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21 pages, 2132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Experimental Evaluation of CO₂ Absorption and Thermophysical Properties of TBAB-Based Deep Eutectic Solvents with Amine and Acid Donors

by Siddharth Atal, Sonam Sharma, Amit Kumar Gomey, Syed Saim Ali, Rakesh Kumar, Deepak Dwivedi and Bhupendra Pratap Singh

C 2026, 12(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12010028 - 20 Mar 2026

Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel burning remains a severe environmental challenge that needs to be addressed. Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional alkanolamines for CO₂ capture applications due to their lower volatility and reduced corrosion potential. [...] Read more.

Carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel burning remains a severe environmental challenge that needs to be addressed. Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) have emerged as promising alternatives to conventional alkanolamines for CO₂ capture applications due to their lower volatility and reduced corrosion potential. In this work, two tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB)-based systems were synthesized using different hydrogen bond donors: 2-amino-2-methyl-1-propanol (AMP) at a 1:1 molar ratio and p-toluenesulfonic acid (PTSA) at a 1:2 molar ratio. FTIR spectroscopic analysis confirmed that TBAB-AMP (1:1) forms a true DES through hydrogen bonding interactions, whereas TBAB-PTSA (1:2) undergoes proton transfer to form an ionic salt. CO₂ solubility measurements were conducted using the pressure drop method up to 15 bar at 30 °C. The TBAB-AMP system exhibited a CO₂ uptake of 0.194 mol CO₂/mol DES at 14.7 bar, approximately 2.5-fold higher than the TBAB-PTSA system, which achieved 0.079 mol/mol at 14.5 bar. Critical and thermophysical properties were estimated using the modified Lydersen–Joback–Reid, Lee–Kesler, and Haghbakhsh group-contribution methods. Viscosity measurements conducted from 30 to 50 °C revealed that TBAB-AMP exhibited significantly lower viscosity, ranging from 163 to 46 mPa·s, compared to TBAB-PTSA, which showed viscosity values between 536 and 155 mPa·s. The superior CO₂ capture performance of the amine-functionalized DES was attributed to favorable hydrogen-bonding interactions, lower viscosity, which enabled better mass transfer, and enhanced chemical affinity toward CO₂ through carbamate formation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Cycle, Capture and Storage)

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15 pages, 1844 KB

Open AccessReview

Transverse Mechanical Response of Carbon Nanotube Yarns: An Experimental Study Using Atomic Force Microscopy and Raman Spectroscopy

by Iriana Garcia Guerra, Deissy. J. Feria, Gustavo M. A. Alves, Jandro L. Abot, Inés Pereyra and Marcelo N. P. Carreño

C 2026, 12(1), 27; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12010027 - 20 Mar 2026

Carbon nanotube yarns (CNTYs) have received more consideration recently due to their excellent specific mechanical, electrical and thermal properties, making them promising materials for different applications. Until now, the axial properties of the yarn have been thoroughly investigated; however, the transverse or radial [...] Read more.

Carbon nanotube yarns (CNTYs) have received more consideration recently due to their excellent specific mechanical, electrical and thermal properties, making them promising materials for different applications. Until now, the axial properties of the yarn have been thoroughly investigated; however, the transverse or radial properties, orthogonal to the fiber axis, remain relatively unknown due to the challenges associated with their measurement. In this study, the transverse or radial response of the CNTY including its elastic modulus was determined using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) and Raman Spectroscopy. Determining transverse properties in fibrous materials presents challenges owing to their geometry, inherent anisotropy, whereby mechanical characteristics exhibit directional disparities; i.e., the properties in the transverse direction may be several orders of magnitude smaller than those in the axial direction. To overcome these difficulties, AFM was utilized to perform nanoindentation experiments, where a tipless flexible cantilever probe was used to apply a controlled force to the CNTY surface. The resulting indentation depth was then analyzed to determine the transversal elastic modulus. Preliminary findings indicate that the transverse elastic modulus of the CNTYs ranges from 10–54 kPa for strain levels below 3%. Complementary Raman spectroscopy provided insight into the bulk-scale mechanical behavior of CNTYs. Incremental compressive loading between microscope slides induced nonlinear upshifts in the 2D Raman band (from ~2686.6 to 2691.4 cm⁻¹), indicating nanoscale tube realignment, inter-tube densification, and compaction. From lateral diameter measurements under load, a stress–strain curve was constructed, revealing three distinct regimes: one with an initial elastic modulus of 3.12 MPa (0.3–11.2% strain), another one with an elastic modulus increasing to 8.46 MPa (11.2–14.4%), and finally one with an elastic modulus peaking at 16.86 MPa beyond 14.4% strain. Together, these methods delineate the hierarchical and anisotropic nature of CNTYs, validating the importance of multiscale mechanical characterization for their deployment in piezoresistive sensors and multifunctional composites. This study establishes a robust framework for quantifying the transverse mechanical response of CNTYs. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Novel Applications of Carbon Nanotube-Based Materials)

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22 pages, 5690 KB

Open AccessArticle

Testing and Modeling of a CFRP Composite Subjected to Simple and Compound Loads

by Ionuț Mititelu, Viorel Goanță, Paul Doru Bârsănescu and Ciprian Ionuț Morăraș

C 2026, 12(1), 26; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12010026 - 20 Mar 2026

Most components fail under complex states of stress and for this reason the study of materials failure under these conditions is an important topic. The article presents the experimental study of the failure of a CFRP material, with a 0/90° cross-ply configuration, subjected [...] Read more.

Most components fail under complex states of stress and for this reason the study of materials failure under these conditions is an important topic. The article presents the experimental study of the failure of a CFRP material, with a 0/90° cross-ply configuration, subjected to both simple loading conditions (tension, compression, and shear) and combined loading (tension–shear), using a modified Arcan testing method. The Arcan device and specimen geometry were redesigned to reduce experimental errors and the dispersion of results. It was found that there are significant differences between the strength values obtained for simple loads performed by the standardized methods and by the Arcan method, respectively. For this reason, it is recommended to use the Arcan method only for mixed loading modes. Specimens with steel tabs were used to reduce both hole ovality during testing and the number of clamping screws to only four. It was found that the experimental results under complex stress states are well described by the Tsai–Hill failure criterion and the failure envelope for the material studied was plotted. Recommendations are provided regarding the appropriate use of the Arcan method in order to obtain precise results for CFRP composites under multiaxial loading. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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21 pages, 1834 KB

Open AccessReview

Porous Carbon Materials for Organophosphate Removal—Implications for Long-Term Neurotoxicity Exposure

by Tamara Lazarević-Pašti, Vedran Milanković, Nevena Radivojević and Tamara Terzić

C 2026, 12(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12010025 - 18 Mar 2026

Organophosphate pesticides (OPs) are widespread contaminants in agricultural and aquatic environments. Growing evidence indicates that even low-level, chronic exposure to OPs is associated with neurotoxic effects and long-term neurological risks. Over the past decade, substantial progress has been made in developing porous carbon [...] Read more.

Organophosphate pesticides (OPs) are widespread contaminants in agricultural and aquatic environments. Growing evidence indicates that even low-level, chronic exposure to OPs is associated with neurotoxic effects and long-term neurological risks. Over the past decade, substantial progress has been made in developing porous carbon materials capable of efficiently removing OPs from water, food systems, and other environmental matrices. However, adsorption studies have largely focused on equilibrium performance metrics rather than on conditions relevant to real exposure scenarios. This review introduces an exposure-oriented perspective for evaluating porous carbon materials for OP mitigation by linking adsorption science with exposure-driven neurotoxicity considerations. By analysing recent studies on OP adsorption, we demonstrate that equilibrium adsorption capacity alone is often a poor predictor of real-world exposure mitigation. Instead, adsorption kinetics at low concentrations, pore accessibility, and surface chemical heterogeneity emerge as key factors governing sustained OP sequestration. The review further highlights how hierarchical pore architectures and balanced surface functionalization can enhance adsorption efficiency under environmentally realistic conditions. By integrating environmental carbon research with exposure-relevant considerations, this work outlines design principles for carbon adsorbents to reduce long-term OP exposure and associated neurological risks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of C — Journal of Carbon Research)

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48 pages, 7674 KB

Open AccessReview

Textile Microplastics in Wastewater: A Critical Review of Removal and Carbonization Technologies

by Azam Ali and Muhammad Zaman Khan

C 2026, 12(1), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/c12010024 - 9 Mar 2026

The rapid growth of synthetic textile production has intensified the release of micro- and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) into aquatic environments, primarily through industrial effluents and domestic laundering. Textile-derived microplastics, especially polyester fibers and polymeric coating fragments, constitute a significant fraction of plastic contamination in [...] Read more.

The rapid growth of synthetic textile production has intensified the release of micro- and nanoplastics (MPs/NPs) into aquatic environments, primarily through industrial effluents and domestic laundering. Textile-derived microplastics, especially polyester fibers and polymeric coating fragments, constitute a significant fraction of plastic contamination in wastewater systems. Although wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) can remove a large proportion of MPs, substantial quantities accumulate in sewage sludge, raising concerns about long-term environmental persistence and secondary release pathways. This review critically examines the sources, classification, and release mechanisms of textile-based micro- and nanoplastics, including fibrous debris and coating-derived fragments. Then it focuses on current identification and removal technologies, such as sedimentation, coagulation/flocculation, electrocoagulation, flotation, membrane filtration, adsorption, and biodegradation, and on the emerging strategy of converting recovered microplastics into value-added porous carbon materials via hydrothermal treatment and pyrolysis. Carbonized microplastics exhibit high surface area and adsorption capacity for dyes, heavy metals, and organic pollutants, offering a circular approach that simultaneously mitigates plastic pollution and enhances wastewater treatment efficiency. By integrating source control, optimized removal technologies, and carbonization-based valorization, this review proposes a dual-benefit framework that transforms textile-derived microplastic waste from an environmental liability into a functional resource for sustainable water purification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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