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C — Journal of Carbon Research

C — Journal of Carbon Research is an international, scientific, peer-reviewed, open access journal on carbon research, published quarterly online by MDPI. The Spanish Carbon Group (GEC) is affiliated with C — Journal of Carbon Research and its members receive discounts on article processing charges.

Open Access— free for readers, with article processing charges (APC) paid by authors or their institutions.
High Visibility: indexed within ESCI (Web of Science), Scopus, CAPlus / SciFinder, and other databases.
Journal Rank: CiteScore - Q2 (Environmental Science (miscellaneous))
Rapid Publication: manuscripts are peer-reviewed and a first decision is provided to authors approximately 24.3 days after submission; acceptance to publication is undertaken in 3.9 days (median values for papers published in this journal in the first half of 2025).
Recognition of Reviewers: reviewers who provide timely, thorough peer-review reports receive vouchers entitling them to a discount on the APC of their next publication in any MDPI journal, in appreciation of the work done.

Impact Factor: 2.9 (2024); 5-Year Impact Factor: 4.0 (2024)

Imprint Information Journal Flyer Open Access ISSN: 2311-5629

Latest Articles

28 pages, 4534 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanistic Evaluation of Pb(II) Adsorption on Magnetic Activated Carbon/Fe₃O₄ Composites: Influence of Hydrothermal and Ultrasonic Synthesis Routes

by Gaukhar Smagulova, Aigerim Imash, Akniyet Baltabay, Aruzhan Keneshbekova, Alisher Abdisattar, Ramazan Kazhdanbekov, Aidos Lesbayev and Zulkhair Mansurov

C 2025, 11(4), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040083 - 4 Nov 2025

This study presents a comparative analysis of two synthesis approaches for fabricating magnetic sorbents based on activated carbon (AC) incorporated with magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles: hydrothermal synthesis and ultrasonic treatment. The results demonstrate that ultrasonic-assisted synthesis yields a magnetically responsive [...] Read more.

This study presents a comparative analysis of two synthesis approaches for fabricating magnetic sorbents based on activated carbon (AC) incorporated with magnetite (Fe₃O₄) nanoparticles: hydrothermal synthesis and ultrasonic treatment. The results demonstrate that ultrasonic-assisted synthesis yields a magnetically responsive composite, us-AC/Fe₃O₄, exhibiting a Pb²⁺ removal efficiency of 92.84%, which is comparable to that of pristine activated carbon (99.0%). A key advantage of the synthesized composite lies in its facile recovery via magnetic separation following adsorption, rendering it a promising candidate for the remediation of heavy metal-contaminated water. Kinetic modeling suggests a dual adsorption mechanism: initial stages are governed by physisorption, while chemisorption dominates in the later phases. Adsorption isotherm modeling demonstrated that the Langmuir model provided the best description of Pb²⁺ adsorption on AC and us-AC/Fe₃O₄, with the highest sorption capacities observed for pristine activated carbon, followed by the ultrasonically modified composite, and comparatively lower values for the hydrothermally treated material. These findings underscore the potential of ultrasonic processing as an effective route for developing magnetically separable sorbents with high performance in aqueous heavy metal removal. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbons for Health and Environmental Protection (2nd Edition))

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12 pages, 2259 KB

Open AccessArticle

Bituminous Coal-Derived Carbon Anode: Molten Salt-Assisted Synthesis and Enhanced Performance in Sodium-Ion Battery

by Yuxuan Du, Jian Wang, Peihua Li, Yalong Wang, Yibo Zhao and Shuwei Chen

C 2025, 11(4), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040082 - 27 Oct 2025

The high-efficiency and clean utilization of coal resources is a key strategy for new energy development, and converting coal into carbon materials offers a promising route to valorize bituminous coal. However, fabricating high-performance bituminous coal-derived carbon for sodium ion (Na⁺) insertion/extraction [...] Read more.

The high-efficiency and clean utilization of coal resources is a key strategy for new energy development, and converting coal into carbon materials offers a promising route to valorize bituminous coal. However, fabricating high-performance bituminous coal-derived carbon for sodium ion (Na⁺) insertion/extraction remains a major challenge, as it is difficult to regulate the carbon’s microstructural properties to match Na⁺ storage demands. Herein, we propose a molten salt-assisted carbonization strategy to prepare bituminous coal-derived hard carbon (HC) for use as a sodium-ion battery (SIB) anode material, and we focus on regulating the structure of carbon. The results show that as-prepared HC exhibits significantly enhanced electrochemical performance for Na⁺ storage when the molar ratio of NaCl to KCl is 1:1. The optimized material achieves a reversible capacity of 366.7 mAh g⁻¹ at the current density of 100 mA g⁻¹ after 60 cycles and retains 99% of its initial capacity after 500 cycles at a current density of 1 A g⁻¹. The main finding is that the lattice spacing can be regulated by tuning the composition of the molten salt, and anode performance is enhanced remarkably by changes in the HC structure. This work provides a feasible strategy for designing and preparing a bituminous coal-derived carbon anode material for use in the energy storage field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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13 pages, 1919 KB

Open AccessCommunication

An Innovative Solution Method for the Evaluation of CO₂ Disposal in the Seafloor Environment

by Boyun Guo, Muhammad Towhidul Islam and Vincent Nana Boah Amponsah

C 2025, 11(4), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040081 - 27 Oct 2025

Injecting carbon dioxide (CO₂) into underground geo-structures, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, reduces man-made CO₂ emissions into the atmosphere or removes what is already there. Studies have identified the risks of CO₂ leaks from these underground geo-structures [...] Read more.

Injecting carbon dioxide (CO₂) into underground geo-structures, such as depleted oil and gas reservoirs, reduces man-made CO₂ emissions into the atmosphere or removes what is already there. Studies have identified the risks of CO₂ leaks from these underground geo-structures through wellbores back into the atmosphere due to the high mobility of CO₂ in gaseous and supercritical states. This work aims at proposing a novel method of CO₂ storage using the Joule–Thomson cooling effect to effectively produce CO₂ hydrates on seafloors, with an objective to avoid the leakage risks of storage in depleted oil and gas reservoirs. Through the combination of thermodynamic data, analysis of hydrate stability, and engineering design with established working parameters, this study proposes an innovative concept and an enabling process for CO₂ placement onto seafloors for safe storage. The results of case analysis of typical seawater conditions reveal that the appropriate seafloor depth ranges for different applications (>1900 m for liquid CO₂ and 700–1900 m for CO₂ hydrate). An engineering design procedure for real applications is outlined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Cycle, Capture and Storage)

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12 pages, 1658 KB

Open AccessArticle

Supercapacitor Using Polypyrrole and Carbon Nanotube Composite as Electrodes

by Arturo Tepale-Cortés, Hilda Moreno-Saavedra, Marquidia J. Pacheco, Joel O. Pacheco, Celso Hernández-Tenorio and Ricardo Valdivia

C 2025, 11(4), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040080 - 24 Oct 2025

Electrodes and electrolytes are critical components for the performance of supercapacitors. In this study, supercapacitors with different interfaces were assembled using polypyrrole (PPy) or a polypyrrole–carbon nanotube (PPy-CNT) composite as active materials, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and sodium chloride (NaCl) were used as [...] Read more.

Electrodes and electrolytes are critical components for the performance of supercapacitors. In this study, supercapacitors with different interfaces were assembled using polypyrrole (PPy) or a polypyrrole–carbon nanotube (PPy-CNT) composite as active materials, and dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and sodium chloride (NaCl) were used as electrolytes. Electrochemical measurements were obtained by cyclic voltammetry (CV) at a scan rate of 20 mV/s and galvanostatic charge–discharge (GCD) measurements at a scan rate of 50 µA/s. The results suggest that the supercapacitor with a PPy-CNT composite and NaCl electrolyte has promising electrochemical characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon and Related Composites for Sensors and Energy Storage: Synthesis, Properties, and Application (2nd Edition))

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21 pages, 677 KB

Open AccessReview

Carbon Black Nanoparticles in Non-Instrumental Immunoassays Development for Diagnostic Applications

by Maria Nikitina, Stepan Devyatov and Mikhail Rayev

C 2025, 11(4), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040079 - 14 Oct 2025

Due to their unique physicochemical properties, carbon black nanoparticles represent a promising alternative for solving analytical problems. However, diagnostic reagents based on carbon black nanoparticles have not yet found widespread practical application. This review examines the development and application of carbon black nanoparticle [...] Read more.

Due to their unique physicochemical properties, carbon black nanoparticles represent a promising alternative for solving analytical problems. However, diagnostic reagents based on carbon black nanoparticles have not yet found widespread practical application. This review examines the development and application of carbon black nanoparticle conjugates with recognition molecules as diagnostic reagents in test systems that enable non-instrumental interpretation of results. The review critically evaluates the methods for synthesis and characterization of carbon black-based diagnostic reagents. Furthermore, the review summarizes and discusses existing studies comparing the effectiveness of carbon black nanoparticle-based bioconjugates with traditional colorimetric labels. The scientific articles included in the review were carefully analyzed for the presence of an assessment of the reproducibility of methods for obtaining diagnostic reagents based on carbon black nanoparticles and their long-term storage. The main challenges and future prospects of using carbon black nanoparticles in immunoassays are discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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14 pages, 8360 KB

Open AccessReview

Structural Models of Non-Graphitising Carbon: A Brief History

by Peter J. F. Harris

C 2025, 11(4), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040078 - 14 Oct 2025

Non-graphitising carbons are an important class of solid carbon materials which cannot be transformed into graphite by heat treatment, even at 3000 °C. Also known as hard carbons, they are of growing importance as anode materials for lithium-ion or sodium-ion batteries. When activated [...] Read more.

Non-graphitising carbons are an important class of solid carbon materials which cannot be transformed into graphite by heat treatment, even at 3000 °C. Also known as hard carbons, they are of growing importance as anode materials for lithium-ion or sodium-ion batteries. When activated they are widely used in the purification of air and water supplies. However, despite decades of research, the detailed atomic structures of these materials has still not been fully established. Many structural models have been put forward, beginning with the classic work of Rosalind Franklin, but none have gained universal acceptance. This review gives a historical survey of models for the structure of non-graphitising carbons and summarizes the latest thinking on the subject, which is based on the idea that the structure contains non-hexagonal rings, as in the fullerenes and fullerene-related structures. Studies using aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy have provided important support for this idea. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of C — Journal of Carbon Research)

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15 pages, 3266 KB

Open AccessArticle

Nano-Functionalized Magnetic Carbon Composite for Purification of Man-Made Polluted Waters

by Tetyana I. Melnychenko, Vadim M. Kadoshnikov, Oksana M. Arkhipenko, Tetiana I. Nosenko, Iryna V. Mashkina, Lyudmila A. Odukalets, Sergey V. Mikhalovsky and Yuriy L. Zabulonov

C 2025, 11(4), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040077 - 13 Oct 2025

Among the main man-made water pollutants that pose a danger to the environment are oil products, heavy metals, and radionuclides, as well as micro- and nanoplastics. To purify such waters, it is necessary to use advanced methods, with sorption being one of them. [...] Read more.

Among the main man-made water pollutants that pose a danger to the environment are oil products, heavy metals, and radionuclides, as well as micro- and nanoplastics. To purify such waters, it is necessary to use advanced methods, with sorption being one of them. The aim of this work is to develop a nano-functionalized composite, comprising magnetically responsive, thermally expanded graphite (TEG) and the natural clay bentonite, and to assess its ability to purify man-made contaminated waters. Throughout the course of the research, the methods of scanning electron microscopy, optical microscopy, dynamic light scattering, radiometry, and atomic absorption spectrophotometry were used. The use of the TEG–bentonite composite for the purification of the model water, simulating radioactively contaminated nuclear power plant (NPP) effluent, reduced the content of organic substances by 10–15 times, and the degree of extraction of cesium, strontium, cobalt, and manganese was between 81.4% and 98.8%. The use of the TEG–bentonite composite for the purification of real radioactively contaminated water obtained from the object “Shelter” (“Ukryttya” in Ukrainian), in the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone, Ukraine, with high activity, containing organic substances, including micro- and nanoplastics, reduced the radioactivity by three orders of magnitude. The use of cesium-selective sorbents for additional purification of the filtrate allowed for further decontamination of radioactively contaminated water with an efficiency of 99.99%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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33 pages, 5484 KB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Study of Graphite Exfoliation Techniques Using Nafion as a Surfactant

by Anna O. Krasnova, Nadezhda V. Glebova, Andrey A. Nechitailov, Angelina G. Kastsova, Anna O. Pelageikina, Demid A. Kirilenko, Alexander V. Shvidchenko, Mikhail S. Shestakov, Aleksandra V. Koroleva and Ekaterina K. Khrapova

C 2025, 11(4), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040076 - 9 Oct 2025

This work presents a comparative study of graphene exfoliation technologies from various graphite precursors—spectral graphite and thermally expanded graphite (Graflex)—using ultrasonic treatment and electrochemical methods in the presence of the ionic surfactant Nafion. The influence of exfoliation parameters, the nature of the starting [...] Read more.

This work presents a comparative study of graphene exfoliation technologies from various graphite precursors—spectral graphite and thermally expanded graphite (Graflex)—using ultrasonic treatment and electrochemical methods in the presence of the ionic surfactant Nafion. The influence of exfoliation parameters, the nature of the starting material, and the presence of surfactant additives on the morphology, dispersibility, stability, and structural characteristics of the resulting graphene-containing dispersions was investigated. Particular attention is paid to a two-step technology combining pulsed electrochemical exfoliation with subsequent mild ultrasonic treatment. Comprehensive characterization of the samples was carried out using UV–Vis spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), electron microscopy, electron diffraction (ED), dynamic light scattering (DLS), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). It was found that the use of Nafion significantly enhances exfoliation efficiency and contributes to the stabilization of the dispersions. Graphene sheets obtained from Graflex exhibit significantly larger lateral dimensions (up to 1 μm or more) compared to those exfoliated from spectral graphite (100–300 nm). The approach combining the use of Graflex and pulsed electrochemical exfoliation in the presence of Nafion with subsequent low-power ultrasonic treatment enables the production of few-layer graphene (1–3 layers) with high stability. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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18 pages, 3642 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Removal of Photosensitive Antibiotics in Water Using CO₂: A Beneficial Exploration of CO₂ Resource Utilization

by Miaomiao Ye, Jingqiu Wu, Qiuyuan Weng, Tengchao Bi and Xiaowei Liu

C 2025, 11(4), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040075 - 9 Oct 2025

The utilization of carbon dioxide (CO₂) offers an effective approach for alleviating the carbon-reduction pressures associated with fossil energy consumption. However, studies on the use of CO₂ as an auxiliary agent in water treatment to enhance the removal of emerging [...] Read more.

The utilization of carbon dioxide (CO₂) offers an effective approach for alleviating the carbon-reduction pressures associated with fossil energy consumption. However, studies on the use of CO₂ as an auxiliary agent in water treatment to enhance the removal of emerging contaminants are limited. In this study, the photodegradation of ciprofloxacin (CIP) was investigated using ultraviolet (UV) irradiation combined with CO₂ dosing (UV/CO₂). The results demonstrated that the UV/CO₂ system effectively degraded CIP, with CO₂ concentration and solution pH exerting a critical influence. Inorganic anions and metal cations had negligible effects on CIP degradation efficiency, whereas natural organic matter (NOM) had a pronounced inhibitory effect. Mechanistic analysis revealed that superoxide radicals (

\cdot O_{2}^{-}

) and carbonate radicals (

{CO}_{3}^{• -}

) were the primary oxidizing species, whereas the excited triplet state of CIP (³CIP*) and singlet oxygen played crucial roles in initiating radical generation. LC–MS analysis and density functional theory calculations indicated that the main degradation routes involved defluorination, decarboxylation, and epoxidation of the piperazine ring. Toxicity assessment indicated that the transformation products generated by UV/CO₂ were less toxic than the parent compound. Furthermore, the UV/CO₂ process demonstrated high energy efficiency, with a low electrical energy per order (EEO) value of 0.4193 kWh·m⁻³·order⁻¹. These findings suggest that the UV/CO₂ system is a promising alternative for the treatment of photosensitive organic pollutants and provides a beneficial pathway for CO₂ utilization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section CO₂ Utilization and Conversion)

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15 pages, 5399 KB

Open AccessArticle

Spatially Controlled Plasma Jet Synthesis of Carbyne Encapsulated in Carbon Nanotubes

by Oleg A. Streletskiy, Ilya A. Zavidovskiy, Vladimir A. Baidak, Anatoly S. Pashchina, Abdusame A. Khaidarov and Vladimir L. Bychkov

C 2025, 11(4), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040074 - 9 Oct 2025

Carbyne, a linear chain of carbon atoms, possesses extraordinary properties but has remained elusive due to its extreme instability. While encapsulation within carbon nanotubes stabilizes carbyne, a lack of synthetic control over its location has prevented practical use. Here, we introduce a spatially [...] Read more.

Carbyne, a linear chain of carbon atoms, possesses extraordinary properties but has remained elusive due to its extreme instability. While encapsulation within carbon nanotubes stabilizes carbyne, a lack of synthetic control over its location has prevented practical use. Here, we introduce a spatially localized plasma jet technique that enables the guided spatially selective self-assembly of carbyne encapsulated within multiwalled carbon nanotube (carbyne@MWCNT) hybrids on graphite surfaces. This method uses intense, localized plasma energy to simultaneously grow nanotubes and synthesize carbyne within them, where the nanotube structure and carbyne encapsulation are governed by the localized heat flux distribution. Beyond confirming carbyne formation via its characteristic Raman mode, we discover its second-order vibrational spectrum, confirming anharmonic interactions between the chain and its nanotube container. This spatial control can be used to architect functional carbyne@MWCNT arrays, whose potential applications are discussed in detail. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro/Nanofabrication of Carbon-Based Devices and Their Applications)

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11 pages, 1486 KB

Open AccessArticle

Study of the Iodine Fixation over High Surface Area Graphite (HSAG-100) Under Mild Conditions

by Angel Maroto-Valiente, Carla A. Blanco-Camus, Ana I. Mártir Bueno, Elena M. Mesa-Bribián and Jesús Alvarez-Rodríguez

C 2025, 11(4), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11040073 - 30 Sep 2025

The controlled incorporation of halogens into carbon materials remains a challenge, particularly under mild and scalable conditions. In this work, we investigate the fixation of iodine on high-surface-area graphite (HSAG-100) using green solvents and moderate temperatures. Commercial HSAG was treated with iodine in [...] Read more.

The controlled incorporation of halogens into carbon materials remains a challenge, particularly under mild and scalable conditions. In this work, we investigate the fixation of iodine on high-surface-area graphite (HSAG-100) using green solvents and moderate temperatures. Commercial HSAG was treated with iodine in aqueous and in organic media, with and without promoters, and characterized by XPS, LEIS, N₂ physisorption, TGA/TPD, and XRD. The results reveal that iodine contents up to ~0.6 at% can be achieved, with incorporation strongly influenced by solvent and reaction time. XPS and LEIS confirmed the presence of C–I bonds, while BET analysis showed only moderate decreases in surface area and unchanged mesopore size distribution. Thermogravimetric and TPD analyses demonstrated the high thermal stability of C–I species, and XRD patterns ruled out intercalation between graphene layers. Collectively, these findings demonstrate that iodine can be covalently anchored to HSAG under mild conditions, preserving the graphitic structure and generating stable edge functionalities, thus opening a route for the design of halogen-doped carbons for catalytic and electrochemical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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20 pages, 21513 KB

Open AccessArticle

Tribological Properties and Wear Mechanisms of Carbide-Bonded Graphene Coating on Silicon Substrate

by Xiaomeng Zhu, Xiaojun Liu, Lihua Li, Kun Liu and Jian Zhou

C 2025, 11(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030072 - 15 Sep 2025

Carbide-bonded graphene (CBG) coating, with its unique 3D cross-linked network structure, shows significant potential for protecting silicon substrates. However, a comprehensive understanding of its macroscale tribological properties remains lacking. This study investigated the macroscale friction and wear behaviors of CBG-coated silicon wafers using [...] Read more.

Carbide-bonded graphene (CBG) coating, with its unique 3D cross-linked network structure, shows significant potential for protecting silicon substrates. However, a comprehensive understanding of its macroscale tribological properties remains lacking. This study investigated the macroscale friction and wear behaviors of CBG-coated silicon wafers using reciprocating sliding tests against steel balls under various loads and sliding cycles. The CBG coating exhibited excellent friction-reduction and anti-wear performance, reducing the steady friction coefficient from 0.80 to 0.17 and wear rate by an order of magnitude compared to those of bare silicon. Higher loads slightly decreased both friction coefficients and wear rates, primarily due to the formation of denser tribofilms and transfer layers. Re-running experiments revealed three distinct wear stages—adhesive, abrasive, and accelerated substrate wear—driven by the evolution of tribofilms, transfer layers, and unabraded flat areas. Furthermore, comparative experiments confirmed that these “unabraded flat areas” on the wear track play a critical role in sustaining low friction and prolonging coating life. The findings identify CBG as a robust solid lubricant for high-contact-pressure applications and emphasize the influence of tribo-layer dynamics and wear debris behavior on coating performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Application of Graphene-Based Materials, 2nd Edition)

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12 pages, 5425 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Carbon Fixation Time on the Properties of Gangue–Fly Ash Composite Filling Materials: Carbon Fixation Amount and Rheological Properties

by Haiquan Liu, Qiang Guo, Yong Chen, Yifan Zhang, Binbin Huo and Meng Li

C 2025, 11(3), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030071 - 8 Sep 2025

Coal-based solid wastes are used for carbon fixation, which can achieve the dual purpose of resource utilization of coal-based solid wastes and CO₂ storage, but carbon fixation has a negative impact on the rheological properties of filling slurry. This paper explores the [...] Read more.

Coal-based solid wastes are used for carbon fixation, which can achieve the dual purpose of resource utilization of coal-based solid wastes and CO₂ storage, but carbon fixation has a negative impact on the rheological properties of filling slurry. This paper explores the effect of carbon fixation time on the carbon fixation performance and rheological properties of coal gangue (CG)–fly ash (FA) composite filling materials (CFS) through rheometer, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and other testing methods. The results show that, with an increase in the carbon fixation time, the carbon fixation amount of the CFS shows a trend of increasing first and then stabilizing. Considering the carbon fixation amount and rheological properties of the CFS together, the optimal carbon fixation time is 2 h. At this time, the carbon fixation amount of the CFS is 1.18%, and the yield stress and plastic viscosity are 155.93 Pa and 0.17 Pa·s, respectively. However, with a further increase in the carbon fixation time, the carbon fixation amount basically tends to be stable, mainly because the calcium ions in the CFS are gradually consumed by the reaction as the carbon fixation time increases. The research results are of great significance for improving the utilization of coal-based solid waste and CO₂ storage. Full article

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15 pages, 3020 KB

Open AccessArticle

Enhanced Electrocatalytic Activity for ORR Based on Synergistic Effect of Hierarchical Porosity and Co-N_x Sites in ZIF-Derived Heteroatom-Doped Carbon Materials

by Yan Yang, A-Min Tan, Qiu-Xuan Ren and Gai Zhang

C 2025, 11(3), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030070 - 8 Sep 2025

The hierarchical porosity and active sites of porous carbon materials have significant impacts on the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) process. The heteroatom-doped porous carbon materials (Z67-900, Z8-900, Z11-900, Z12-900) were synthesized by pyrolysis of ZIFs to reveal the synergistic effect of hierarchical porosity [...] Read more.

The hierarchical porosity and active sites of porous carbon materials have significant impacts on the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) process. The heteroatom-doped porous carbon materials (Z67-900, Z8-900, Z11-900, Z12-900) were synthesized by pyrolysis of ZIFs to reveal the synergistic effect of hierarchical porosity and Co-N_x sites. The structures of prepared materials were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), Raman spectra, and nitrogen adsorption. The results of electrocatalytic performance show that Z67-900 has the best performance among the four materials prepared. The onset potential (E₀) of Z67-900 is close to commercial Pt/C (20%), and the half-wave potential (E_1/2) of Z67-900 is 80 mV positive than that of Pt/C in an O₂-saturated 0.1 M KOH solution (1600 rpm) with sweep rate of 5 mV·s⁻¹. Moreover, Z67-900 has better methanol resistance. The hierarchical pore structure of Z67-900 facilitates mass transfer, while the Co-N_x sites provide active catalytic centers. This study provides a solid foundation for the rational design of highly efficient ZIF-derived heteroatom-doped catalysts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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18 pages, 1709 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formation of Improved Metallurgical Properties and Carbon Structure of Coke by Optimizing the Composition of Petrographically Heterogeneous Interbasin Coal Batches

by Denis Miroshnichenko, Kateryna Shmeltser, Maryna Kormer, Leonid Bannikov, Serhii Nedbailo, Mykhailo Miroshnychenko, Natalya Mukina and Mariia Shved

C 2025, 11(3), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030069 - 4 Sep 2025

Given the multi-basin raw material base for coking that has been formed at most industry enterprises, there is an urgent need to optimize the component composition and improve the basic technological methods of coal raw material preparation, taking into account the petrographic characteristics [...] Read more.

Given the multi-basin raw material base for coking that has been formed at most industry enterprises, there is an urgent need to optimize the component composition and improve the basic technological methods of coal raw material preparation, taking into account the petrographic characteristics of coal batches. A comprehensive study of the components included in a coke chemical enterprise’s coking raw material base was carried out. The work used standardized methods for studying coal and coal batches’ technological and plastic–viscous properties. The qualitative characteristics of coke were determined using physical–mechanical and thermochemical methods of studying standardized indicators: crushability (M₂₅), abrasion (M₁₀), reactivity (CRI), post-reaction strength (CSR), and specific electrical resistance (ρ). The results were analyzed using the licensed Microsoft Excel computer program. Based on the results of proximate, plastometric, and petrographic analyses of the studied coal samples and data from experimental industrial coking, proposals were made to optimize the component composition, properties of the coal batch, and technology for its preparation for coking. The established inverse dependence of Gibbs free energy (ΔG_f,total) on the reaction capacity of coke CRI and its direct reliance on its post-reaction strength CSR confirmed the feasibility of using ΔG_f,total as a thermodynamic predictive parameter for optimizing and compiling coal batches that produce less reactive, stronger coke. This made it possible to improve the quality indicators of metallurgical coke. Thus, according to the M₂₅ crushability index, the mechanical strength increased by 0.6%, and the M₁₀ abrasion decreased by 0.4%. Significant improvements in thermochemical properties and an increase in the orderliness of the carbon structure were recorded: the CRI reactivity decreased by 3.1%, the CSR post-reaction strength increased by 8.3%, and the specific resistance decreased by 8.4%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Advances in Carbon-Based Materials)

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13 pages, 3960 KB

Open AccessArticle

NaOH-Modified Activated Carbon Materials for Hydrogen Sulfide Removal

by Meriem Abid, Manuel Martínez-Escandell and Joaquín Silvestre-Albero

C 2025, 11(3), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030068 - 3 Sep 2025

A high-surface-area activated carbon material (RG) is used as a platform to create highly concentrated NaOH composites. These materials are tested for the removal of H₂S under industrially relevant conditions (800 ppm H₂S in CO₂-, H₂ [...] Read more.

A high-surface-area activated carbon material (RG) is used as a platform to create highly concentrated NaOH composites. These materials are tested for the removal of H₂S under industrially relevant conditions (800 ppm H₂S in CO₂-, H₂O- and O₂-containing streams). The experimental results show that the breakthrough performance highly depends on the amount of NaOH incorporated and the experimental conditions used (e.g., relative humidity). The most promising material (RG-NaOH-30) reaches a saturation uptake of up to 800 mgH₂S/g at 25 °C and atmospheric pressure. This value is among the most promising results reported in the literature for H₂S removal, and it is well above traditional commercial samples. Breakthrough column tests confirm the promoting role of humidity in the reaction mechanism. Analysis of the adsorbents after H₂S confirms the formation of well-defined sulfur (S_n) microcrystals as the main reaction product. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbons for Health and Environmental Protection (2nd Edition))

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15 pages, 4854 KB

Open AccessArticle

Atomic-Scale Mechanisms of Catalytic Recombination and Ablation in Knitted Graphene Under Hyperthermal Atomic Oxygen Exposure

by Yating Pan, Yunpeng Zhu, Donghui Zhang and Ning Wei

C 2025, 11(3), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030067 - 2 Sep 2025

Effective ablative thermal protection systems are essential for ensuring the structural integrity of hypersonic vehicles subjected to extreme aerothermal loads. However, the microscopic reaction mechanisms at the gas–solid interface, particularly under non-equilibrium high-enthalpy conditions, remain poorly understood. This study employs reactive molecular dynamics [...] Read more.

Effective ablative thermal protection systems are essential for ensuring the structural integrity of hypersonic vehicles subjected to extreme aerothermal loads. However, the microscopic reaction mechanisms at the gas–solid interface, particularly under non-equilibrium high-enthalpy conditions, remain poorly understood. This study employs reactive molecular dynamics (RMD) simulations with the ReaxFF-C/H/O force field to investigate the atomic-scale ablation behavior of a graphene-based knitted graphene structure impacted by atomic oxygen (AO). By systematically varying the AO incident kinetic energy (from 0.1 to 8.0 eV) and incidence angle (from 15° to 90°), we reveal the competing interplay between catalytic recombination and ablation processes. The results show that the catalytic recombination coefficient of oxygen molecules reaches a maximum at 5.0 eV, where surface-mediated O₂ formation is most favorable. At higher energies, the reaction pathway shifts toward enhanced CO and CO₂ production due to increased carbon atom ejection and surface degradation. Furthermore, as the AO incidence angle increases, the recombination efficiency decreases linearly, while C-C bond breakage intensifies due to stronger vertical energy components. These findings offer new insights into the anisotropic surface response of knitted graphene structures under hyperthermal oxygen exposure and provide valuable guidance for the design and optimization of next-generation thermal protection materials for hypersonic flight. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of C — Journal of Carbon Research)

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3 pages, 200 KB

Open AccessEditorial

Editorial for Special Issue “Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment”

by Athanasia K. Tolkou

C 2025, 11(3), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030066 - 2 Sep 2025

In the past decade, carbon nanostructures have emerged as one of the most rapidly advancing areas of research [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials Applied in Water and Wastewater Treatment)

14 pages, 2007 KB

Open AccessArticle

Graphene Oxide Promoted Light Activation of Peroxymonosulfate for Highly Efficient Triphenyl Phosphate Degradation

by Yilong Li, Yi Xie, Xuqian Wang and Yabo Wang

C 2025, 11(3), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030065 - 21 Aug 2025

The treatment of organic phosphate ester (OPE) pollutants in water is a challenging but highly necessary task. In this study, an advanced oxidation process through light activation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) involving graphene oxide (GO) as a promoter was developed to degrade OPE in [...] Read more.

The treatment of organic phosphate ester (OPE) pollutants in water is a challenging but highly necessary task. In this study, an advanced oxidation process through light activation of peroxymonosulfate (PMS) involving graphene oxide (GO) as a promoter was developed to degrade OPE in water, taking triphenyl phosphate (TPhP) as an example. The developed “Light+PMS+GO” system demonstrated good convenience, high TPhP degradation efficiency, tolerance in a near-neutral pH, satisfactory re-usability, and a low toxicity risk of degradation products. Under the investigated reaction conditions, viz., the full spectrum of a 300 W Xe lamp, PMS of 200 mg L⁻¹, GO of 4 mg L⁻¹, and TPhP of 10 μmol L⁻¹, the “Light+PMS+GO” system achieved nearly 100% TPhP degradation efficiency during a 15 min reaction duration with a 5.81-fold enhancement in the reaction rate constant, compared with the control group without GO. Through quenching experiments and electron paramagnetic resonance studies, singlet oxygen was identified as the main reactive species for TPhP degradation. Further studies implied that GO could accumulate both oxidants and pollutants on the surface, providing additional reaction sites for PMS activation and accelerating electron transfer, which all contributed to the enhancement of TPhP degradation. Finally, the TPhP degradation pathway was proposed and a preliminary toxicity evaluation of degradation intermediates was conducted. The convenience, high removal efficiency, and good re-usability indicates that the developed “Light+PMS+GO” reaction system has great potential for future applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue 10th Anniversary of C — Journal of Carbon Research)

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15 pages, 5132 KB

Open AccessArticle

Characterisation of a Biodegradable Electrode Substrate Based on Psyllium Husk–Carbon Nanoparticle Composites

by Cliodhna McCann, Victoria Gilpin, Regan McMath, Chris I. R. Gill, Karl McCreadie, James Uhomoibhi, Pagona Papakonstantinou and James Davis

C 2025, 11(3), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/c11030064 - 17 Aug 2025

Unrefined psyllium husk derived from Plantago ovata constitutes a complex mixture of water-soluble and insoluble polymeric chains that form an interpenetrating network capable of entrapping carbon nanoparticles. While the resulting composite was found to swell in aqueous electrolyte, it exhibited hydrogel-like properties where [...] Read more.

Unrefined psyllium husk derived from Plantago ovata constitutes a complex mixture of water-soluble and insoluble polymeric chains that form an interpenetrating network capable of entrapping carbon nanoparticles. While the resulting composite was found to swell in aqueous electrolyte, it exhibited hydrogel-like properties where the electrochemical activity was retained and found to be stable upon repetitive voltammetric cycling. Planar film systems were characterized by electron microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, tensile testing, gravimetric analysis, contact angle and cyclic voltammetry. A key advantage of the composite lies in its ability to be cast in 3D geometric forms such as pyramidal microneedle arrays (700 μm high × 200 μm base × 500 μm pitch) that could serve as viable electrode sensors. In contrast to conventional composite electrode materials that rely on non-aqueous solvents, the psyllium mixture is processed entirely from an aqueous solution. This, along with its plant-based origins and simple processing requirements, provides a versatile matrix for the design of biodegradable electrode structures that can be manufactured from more sustainable sources. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Carbon Materials and Carbon Allotropes)

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