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16 pages, 3472 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Incorporating Evidence-Based Gamification and Machine Learning to Assess Preschool Executive Function: A Feasibility Study

by Cassondra M. Eng, Aria Tsegai-Moore and Anna V. Fisher

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(5), 451; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14050451 - 30 Apr 2024

Viewed by 1348

Abstract

Computerized assessments and digital games have become more prevalent in childhood, necessitating a systematic investigation of the effects of gamified executive function assessments on performance and engagement. This study examined the feasibility of incorporating gamification and a machine learning algorithm that adapts task [...] Read more.

Computerized assessments and digital games have become more prevalent in childhood, necessitating a systematic investigation of the effects of gamified executive function assessments on performance and engagement. This study examined the feasibility of incorporating gamification and a machine learning algorithm that adapts task difficulty to individual children’s performance into a traditional executive function task (i.e., Flanker Task) with children ages 3–5. The results demonstrated that performance on a gamified version of the Flanker Task was associated with performance on the traditional version of the task and standardized academic achievement outcomes. Furthermore, gamification grounded in learning science and developmental psychology theories applied to a traditional executive function measure increased children’s task enjoyment while preserving psychometric properties of the Flanker Task. Overall, this feasibility study indicates that gamification and adaptive machine learning algorithms can be successfully incorporated into executive function assessments with young children to increase enjoyment and reduce data loss with developmentally appropriate and intentional practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Executive Functioning Development—Measurements and Promotion in Naturalistic Setups)

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21 pages, 342 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Associations between Gross and Fine Motor Skills, Physical Activity, Executive Function, and Academic Achievement: Longitudinal Findings from the UK Millennium Cohort Study

by Yuxi Zhou and Andrew Tolmie

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(2), 121; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14020121 - 24 Jan 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4686

Abstract

Accumulating evidence from behavioral studies and neuroscience suggests that motor and cognitive development are intrinsically intertwined. To explore the underlying mechanisms of this motor–cognition link, our study examined the longitudinal relationship of early motor skills and physical activity with later cognitive skills. The [...] Read more.

Accumulating evidence from behavioral studies and neuroscience suggests that motor and cognitive development are intrinsically intertwined. To explore the underlying mechanisms of this motor–cognition link, our study examined the longitudinal relationship of early motor skills and physical activity with later cognitive skills. The sample was 3188 children from the United Kingdom Millennium Cohort Study, followed at 9 months and 5, 7, and 11 years. Early motor skills were examined at 9 months. Children’s daily physical activity level was measured using accelerometers at 7 years and a questionnaire was conducted at 11 years. Cognitive skills, including executive function and academic achievement, were measured at age 11. The results suggest that gross motor skills were positively associated with spatial working memory, whereas fine motor skills were predictive of good English and science outcomes. Moderate-to-vigorous activity was found to be negatively associated with English performance, although self-reported activity frequency was positively linked to math. Our results highlight the significant role of both gross and fine motor skills in cognitive development. This study also elucidates the limitations of using activity intensity to assess the impact of motor activity on children’s cognitive development, suggesting that attention to the effects of specific types of physical activity would better elucidate the motor/cognition link. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Executive Functioning Development—Measurements and Promotion in Naturalistic Setups)

15 pages, 3109 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Exploring the Interplay of Working Memory, Apathy, and Mood/Emotional Factors

by Elisa Thellung di Courtelary, Gabriele Scozia, Stefano Lasaponara, Giorgia Aguzzetti, Fabrizio Doricchi and David Conversi

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(1), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14010078 - 12 Jan 2024

Viewed by 1946

Abstract

Background: Previous investigations on healthy humans showed conflicting evidence regarding the impact of mood on working memory performance. A systematic investigation of how mood affects apathy levels in healthy participants is currently missing. Methods: We administered a visuospatial (VS) and a numerical (N) [...] Read more.

Background: Previous investigations on healthy humans showed conflicting evidence regarding the impact of mood on working memory performance. A systematic investigation of how mood affects apathy levels in healthy participants is currently missing. Methods: We administered a visuospatial (VS) and a numerical (N) n-back task to a sample of 120 healthy individuals. In these participants, using a series of questionnaires, we also evaluated apathy, mood, working memory, perceived stress, PTSD symptoms caused by the COVID-19 pandemic outbreak, and general psychiatric symptoms. Successively, we investigated their performance in the n-back task as a function of scores to these questionnaires. Results: Participants performed better in the N block than in the VS one. Their accuracy decreased as a function of the n-back difficulty. We reported no differences in working memory performance or apathy as a function of mood, stress, or PTSD symptoms. We found that phobic anxiety negatively predicted accuracy to the numerical n-back task and that subjects with greater anxiety and difficulty in regulating emotions also showed higher levels of withdrawal from the task. Conclusion: The study’s results suggest that while mood did not significantly affect working memory performance, strong associations were found between WMQ scores and working memory capabilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Executive Functioning Development—Measurements and Promotion in Naturalistic Setups)

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19 pages, 2303 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Naturalistic Intervention to Promote Executive Functions in Primary School Children: A Pilot Study

by Jonatas B. Souza, Bruna T. Trevisan, Liana G. Nunes, Wagner L. Machado and Alessandra G. Seabra

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(1), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14010070 - 10 Jan 2024

Viewed by 2021

Abstract

Executive functions are related to the control of cognition, emotion, and behavior. They are essential to lifelong outcomes, including school performance. Naturalistic interventions embedded in children’s daily activities and environments have greater effects. Therefore, this pilot study aimed to develop a naturalistic program [...] Read more.

Executive functions are related to the control of cognition, emotion, and behavior. They are essential to lifelong outcomes, including school performance. Naturalistic interventions embedded in children’s daily activities and environments have greater effects. Therefore, this pilot study aimed to develop a naturalistic program suitable for schools, based on Goal Management Training (GMT), and to analyze its effects on executive functions and behavior. The participants consisted of 35 students from 2nd to 5th grade with executive dysfunction complaints. They underwent neuropsychological assessments of working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and intellectual capacity. Teachers and parents answered questionnaires on executive functions and behavior. Students were randomly assigned to an active control group, who participated in sessions on citizenship, and an experimental group (EG), stimulated through the executive function program, both with 16 sessions conducted by psychologists. After the intervention, all participants were reevaluated. The two-way Wald-type statistic (WTS) revealed greater improvement in executive functions for the EG, including working memory and inhibition. Additionally, parents and teachers, blind to the experimental conditions, reported improvements in some measures of executive functions and behavior. The results are encouraging, but further studies should test the intervention when implemented with larger samples and by teachers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Executive Functioning Development—Measurements and Promotion in Naturalistic Setups)

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17 pages, 3666 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Upregulation of a Small-World Brain Network Improves Inhibitory Control: An fNIRS Neurofeedback Training Study

by Lingwei Zeng, Chunchen Wang, Kewei Sun, Yue Pu, Yuntao Gao, Hui Wang, Xufeng Liu and Zhihong Wen

Brain Sci. 2023, 13(11), 1516; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13111516 - 26 Oct 2023

Viewed by 1482

Abstract

The aim of this study was to investigate the inner link between the small-world brain network and inhibitory control. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to construct a neurofeedback (NF) training system and regulate the frontal small-world brain network. The small-world network downregulation [...] Read more.

The aim of this study was to investigate the inner link between the small-world brain network and inhibitory control. Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to construct a neurofeedback (NF) training system and regulate the frontal small-world brain network. The small-world network downregulation group (DOWN, n = 17) and the small-world network upregulation group (UP, n = 17) received five days of fNIRS-NF training and performed the color–word Stroop task before and after training. The behavioral and functional brain network topology results of both groups were analyzed by a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA), which showed that the upregulation training helped to improve inhibitory control. The upregulated small-world brain network exhibits an increase in the brain network regularization, links widely dispersed brain resources, and reduces the lateralization of brain functional networks between hemispheres. This suggests an inherent correlation between small-world functional brain networks and inhibitory control; moreover, dynamic optimization under cost efficiency trade-offs provides a neural basis for inhibitory control. Inhibitory control is not a simple function of a single brain region or connectivity but rather an emergent property of a broader network. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Executive Functioning Development—Measurements and Promotion in Naturalistic Setups)

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9 pages, 644 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Walking Ability Associated with Executive Dysfunction in Patients with Stroke: A Cross-Sectional Study

by Katsuya Sakai, Yuichiro Hosoi and Yusuke Harada

Brain Sci. 2023, 13(4), 627; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13040627 - 6 Apr 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1553

Abstract

Previous studies have shown an association between executive dysfunction and walking ability. However, it remains unclear whether the degree of executive dysfunction is associated with differences in walking ability in patients with stroke. The aim of this study was to investigate whether there [...] Read more.

Previous studies have shown an association between executive dysfunction and walking ability. However, it remains unclear whether the degree of executive dysfunction is associated with differences in walking ability in patients with stroke. The aim of this study was to investigate whether there are differences in walking ability according to executive dysfunction in patients with stroke. A total of 51 patients with stroke were enrolled in this study. Executive function was measured using the Trail Making Test (TMT) Part B, and walking ability was assessed using the 10 m walk test and the Timed Up and Go Test (TUGT). Cluster analysis was performed using the TMT Part B and compared within each cluster. TMT Part B was categorized into three groups (cluster 1: n = 20, cluster 2: n = 24, and cluster 3: n = 7). Cluster 1 was significantly better than clusters 2 and 3, and cluster 2 was significantly better than cluster 3. The 10 m walk time and TUGT of cluster 1 were significantly better than those of cluster 3. However, the 10 m walk time and TUGT of clusters 1 and 2 did not differ significantly. In conclusion, these findings may indicate differences in walking ability according to executive dysfunction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Executive Functioning Development—Measurements and Promotion in Naturalistic Setups)

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19 pages, 3158 KiB

Open AccessArticle

EEG Dynamics of Error Processing and Associated Behavioral Adjustments in Preschool Children

by Marcos Luis Pietto, Federico Giovannetti, María Soledad Segretin, Sebastián Javier Lipina and Juan Esteban Kamienkowski

Brain Sci. 2023, 13(4), 575; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci13040575 - 29 Mar 2023

Viewed by 1791

Abstract

Preschool children show neural responses and make behavioral adjustments immediately following an error. However, there is a lack of evidence regarding how neural responses to error predict subsequent behavioral adjustments during childhood. The aim of our study was to explore the neural dynamics [...] Read more.

Preschool children show neural responses and make behavioral adjustments immediately following an error. However, there is a lack of evidence regarding how neural responses to error predict subsequent behavioral adjustments during childhood. The aim of our study was to explore the neural dynamics of error processing and associated behavioral adjustments in preschool children from unsatisfied basic needs (UBN) homes. Using EEG recordings during a go/no-go task, we examined within-subject associations between the error-related negativity (ERN), frontal theta power, post-error slowing, and post-error accuracy. Post-error accuracy increased linearly with post-error slowing, and there was no association between the neural activity of error processing and post-error accuracy. However, during successful error recovery, the frontal theta power, but not the ERN amplitude, was associated positively with post-error slowing. These findings indicated that preschool children from UBN homes adjusted their behavior following an error in an adaptive form and that the error-related theta activity may be associated with the adaptive forms of post-error behavior. Furthermore, our data support the adaptive theory of post-error slowing and point to some degree of separation between the neural mechanisms represented by the ERN and theta. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Executive Functioning Development—Measurements and Promotion in Naturalistic Setups)

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Review

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21 pages, 324 KiB

Open AccessReview

Principles for Adapting Assessments of Executive Function across Cultural Contexts

by Matthew C. H. Jukes, Ishita Ahmed, Sara Baker, Catherine E. Draper, Steven J. Howard, Dana Charles McCoy, Jelena Obradović and Sharon Wolf

Brain Sci. 2024, 14(4), 318; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci14040318 - 27 Mar 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2240

Abstract

Direct assessments of executive functions (EFs) are increasingly used in research and clinical settings, with a central assumption that they assess “universal” underlying skills. Their use is spreading globally, raising questions about the cultural appropriateness of assessments devised in Western industrialized countries. We [...] Read more.

Direct assessments of executive functions (EFs) are increasingly used in research and clinical settings, with a central assumption that they assess “universal” underlying skills. Their use is spreading globally, raising questions about the cultural appropriateness of assessments devised in Western industrialized countries. We selectively reviewed multidisciplinary evidence and theory to identify sets of cultural preferences that may be at odds with the implicit assumptions of EF assessments. These preferences relate to motivation and compliance; cultural expectations for interpersonal engagement; contextualized vs. academic thinking; cultural notions of speed and time; the willingness to be silly, be incorrect, or do the opposite; and subject-matter familiarity. In each case, we discuss how the cultural preference may be incompatible with the assumptions of assessments, and how future research and practice can address the issue. Many of the cultural preferences discussed differ between interdependent and independent cultures and between schooled and unschooled populations. Adapting testing protocols to these cultural preferences in different contexts will be important for expanding our scientific understanding of EF from the narrow slice of the human population that has participated in the research to date. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Executive Functioning Development—Measurements and Promotion in Naturalistic Setups)

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