Behavioral Sciences

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16 pages, 269 KB

Open AccessArticle

From Collaboration to Identity: The Role of Social Norms and Interdependence in Medical Students

by Elvira Rodriguez-Flores, Maria Valentina Toral-Murillo, Fernanda Medina-Vinelli, Karime Nereida Valdez-Toral, Karla Vanessa Gonzalez-Contreras, Yussef Esparza-Guerrero, Yasaman Gomez-Mazinani, Maricela Casas-Castañeda and Eli Efrain Gomez-Ramirez

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(8), 1320; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16081320 - 3 Aug 2026

Viewed by 182

Abstract

Social Interdependence Theory posits that cooperative behavior emerges when individuals perceive that their outcomes depend on the actions of others, a dynamic that is central to collaborative learning in medical education. Professional identity formation is recognized as a key developmental process during early [...] Read more.

Social Interdependence Theory posits that cooperative behavior emerges when individuals perceive that their outcomes depend on the actions of others, a dynamic that is central to collaborative learning in medical education. Professional identity formation is recognized as a key developmental process during early medical training; however, quantitative evidence examining its association with collaborative interdependence in preclinical cohorts remains limited. This cross-sectional, correlational, non-experimental study examined the associations between perceived social interdependence and professional identity among 108 fourth-semester medical students enrolled in a Musculoskeletal and Integumentary System course. Professional identity was assessed using the Professional Identity Questionnaire, and social interdependence was measured using the Social Interdependence in Collaborative Learning Scale. To explore the relationship between these constructs, we conducted a series of descriptive and inferential statistical analyses. The results indicated generally high levels of professional attachment and a strong sense of belonging to the medical profession. Dimensions of social interdependence, particularly boundary interdependence and collaborative work, showed strong positive associations, while professional identity was also positively related to attachment. Regression analyses further suggested that collaborative work remained independently associated with professional identity after accounting for relevant sociodemographic and vocational factors. These findings indicate that positive interdependence—particularly group cohesion and shared boundaries—is associated with higher levels of professional identity. Strengthening collaborative learning structures in early medical education may support students’ sense of belonging, norm internalization, and commitment to the medical profession. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

15 pages, 1002 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Group Competence on Individual Willingness to Join

by Xiangwei Kong, Bin Zuo, Yatian Lei and Fangfang Wen

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 821; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050821 - 19 May 2026

Viewed by 376

Abstract

In everyday life, individuals frequently encounter situations in which they may join new groups; however, previous research has primarily focused on issues that arise after group formation, leaving insufficient attention to the processes preceding spontaneous group affiliation. This study investigates how different levels [...] Read more.

In everyday life, individuals frequently encounter situations in which they may join new groups; however, previous research has primarily focused on issues that arise after group formation, leaving insufficient attention to the processes preceding spontaneous group affiliation. This study investigates how different levels of group competence influence individuals’ willingness to join, using Optimal Distinctiveness Theory as its theoretical framework. Through two experiments, it systematically examines participants’ willingness to join groups of varying competence levels and how this willingness is moderated by participants’ own competence. The results indicate that high-competence groups demonstrate stronger member attractiveness and effectively promote individuals’ willingness to join. Crucially, the group’s attraction to individuals is moderated by individuals’ own competence. When group competence is lower than one’s own competence level, willingness to join increases as group competence rises toward one’s own level. Strikingly, when group competence exceeds one’s own, willingness to join remains uniformly high and stable, rather than decreasing as Optimal Distinctiveness Theory would predict. These findings suggest that individuals engage in a psychological trade-off based on competence alignment when autonomously choosing whether to join social or professional groups. We interpret this pattern as evidence for a “downward aversion, upward assimilation” heuristic in group affiliation decisions. The present research also has implications for understanding how groups can strategically manage their reputation to attract prospective members, as well as how individuals make group-joining decisions at different stages of career development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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24 pages, 1219 KB

Open AccessArticle

Differentiating Social and Moral Norms in Perceived Internalization

by Paul Deutchman and Fiona Y. Yang

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 774; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050774 - 14 May 2026

Viewed by 442

Abstract

Why are some behaviors perceived as moral norms while others are perceived as social norms? In a preregistered study (N = 535), we examined how people perceive different types of moral behaviors and whether those perceptions help distinguish between moral and social norms. [...] Read more.

Why are some behaviors perceived as moral norms while others are perceived as social norms? In a preregistered study (N = 535), we examined how people perceive different types of moral behaviors and whether those perceptions help distinguish between moral and social norms. To test this, we assigned participants to one of five types of commonly studied norms—conventional, fairness, harm, generosity, and purity—and presented them with eight behaviors, four prescriptive and four proscriptive. To capture differences in belief internalization, participants answered a series of measures assessing their intrinsic motivation to follow the behaviors, beliefs about the importance of adhering to (or avoiding) the behaviors, and sensitivity to reputational concerns in their intentions to engage in them. We had two main findings: First, our measures of internalization varied across behavioral domains, such that harm behaviors were generally perceived as the most internalized and conventional behaviors as the least. Second, harm perceptions partially mediated differences in intrinsic motivation between harm and several other behavioral domains, suggesting that harm perceptions may underlie differences in internalization between social and moral norms. Together, our results reveal important differences in how people perceive social and moral norms, informing our understanding of norm cognition and internalization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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22 pages, 1181 KB

Open AccessArticle

What’s Yours Is Mine: Spontaneous Representation and Memorization of Co-Actor’s Goals

by Zhen Li, Jingyin Zhu, Xutao Zheng, Mengting Xu, Jifan Zhou and Mowei Shen

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(5), 690; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16050690 - 30 Apr 2026

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Abstract

Joint action involves more than coordinated activity; it is cooperation grounded in shared intentionality, whereby partners represent an activity as something “we” are doing together. This “we-mode” stance should shape attention and memory, making partner-relevant information psychologically significant because it supports a collective [...] Read more.

Joint action involves more than coordinated activity; it is cooperation grounded in shared intentionality, whereby partners represent an activity as something “we” are doing together. This “we-mode” stance should shape attention and memory, making partner-relevant information psychologically significant because it supports a collective goal. Using a joint-search paradigm, we tested whether people automatically attend to and remember partner goals. Pairs of participants searched for targets from different item categories, and trials were successful only when both responded correctly. A surprise recognition test followed the joint-search task assessing memory for the items. Across Experiments 1 (animate stimuli) and 2 (inanimate stimuli), participants showed better recognition of partner-goal items compared to distractors. Participants also showed enhanced attention to partner-goal items in Experiment 2. In Experiment 3, participants completed the same task, and returned three days later for a recognition test first followed by a second joint-search task with switched targets. Participants continued to show superior recognition for partner-goal items, and search efficiency improved after targets switched, indicating that partner-goal was retained over time and supported later cooperation. Together, these findings demonstrate that human cognition supports joint actions over time by organizing attention and memory around what “we” are doing together. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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17 pages, 1005 KB

Open AccessArticle

“No Fair!”: Children’s Perceptions of Fairness in Merit-Based Distributions

by Meltem Yucel, Madeline Brence and Amrisha Vaish

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(4), 617; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16040617 - 21 Apr 2026

Viewed by 673

Abstract

Recent research by Yucel and colleagues suggests that children perceive equality-based fairness violations (resources being distributed unequally) as less serious than prototypical moral harms, but that making the harmful consequences of unfairness salient shifts these judgments toward the moral domain. We examined whether [...] Read more.

Recent research by Yucel and colleagues suggests that children perceive equality-based fairness violations (resources being distributed unequally) as less serious than prototypical moral harms, but that making the harmful consequences of unfairness salient shifts these judgments toward the moral domain. We examined whether merit-based fairness violations (someone receiving less than they earned) would similarly shift judgments toward the moral domain by making the injustice more salient. Replicating prior work, 4-year-old children (N = 62) rated prototypical moral violations as significantly more severe than equality-based fairness violations, which were rated as similar in severity to conventional violations. Contrary to predictions, merit-based fairness violations also showed this pattern: They were judged as less severe than prototypical moral violations and similarly severe as both equality-based fairness violations and conventional violations. Children also did not consistently group either type of fairness violation with moral or conventional violations. These findings contribute to a growing body of evidence that children’s (and adults’) perceptions of fairness—whether equality-based or merit-based—are more nuanced than previously thought and that unfairness may not spontaneously be treated like other, more prototypical moral norm violations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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26 pages, 1454 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Influence of Social Relationships on Third-Party Punishment: The Roles of Relationship Type Congruence and Threat Perception

by Zhijie Xiang, Yichen Zhu, Qinhan Zhang, Ersheng Chen and Xiaolu Wu

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(4), 482; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16040482 - 24 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 576

Abstract

Third-party punishment involves bystanders voluntarily incurring costs to punish norm violators, thereby maintaining social norms and cooperation. While prior research shows reduced punishment when the bystander and violator are friends, less is known about how the violator–victim relationship affects such punishment. Based on [...] Read more.

Third-party punishment involves bystanders voluntarily incurring costs to punish norm violators, thereby maintaining social norms and cooperation. While prior research shows reduced punishment when the bystander and violator are friends, less is known about how the violator–victim relationship affects such punishment. Based on deterrence theory, punishment serves both to sanction violations and deter future threats. Accordingly, using the Dictator Game–third-party punishment paradigm across five experiments with a primary adult sample, this study investigated the impact of social relationships on third-party punishment, examined the mediating role of threat perception, and validated the applicability of deterrence theory within the context of third-party punishment. A pilot experiment confirmed that bystanders punish friends less than strangers. Experiment 1 showed that when the bystander and violator were friends, punishment was stronger if the violator and victim were also friends. Experiment 2 showed that congruent social relationships (e.g., all parties are friends) elicit greater punishment than incongruent ones. Experiment 3 demonstrated that threat perception mediates this effect: consistency increases threat perception, which in turn heightens punishment. In summary, consistency of social relationships increases third-party punishment, mediated by elevated threat perception. These findings support the use of deterrence theory in third-party punishment contexts and deepen our understanding of how social relationships shape punitive behavior. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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14 pages, 2524 KB

Open AccessArticle

Peer Action Coordination in Middle Childhood: A Replication Null Finding on Emotion Understanding and Inhibitory Control

by Giulia Barresi, Karine Maria Porpino Viana, Tone Kristine Hermansen, Beatrice Ragaglia and Daniela Bulgarelli

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(3), 364; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16030364 - 4 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Peer action coordination in middle childhood is thought to benefit from socio-cognitive abilities such as emotion understanding and inhibitory control, but empirical evidence for their role is limited. This study replicates and extends a previous study by examining whether emotion understanding and inhibitory [...] Read more.

Peer action coordination in middle childhood is thought to benefit from socio-cognitive abilities such as emotion understanding and inhibitory control, but empirical evidence for their role is limited. This study replicates and extends a previous study by examining whether emotion understanding and inhibitory control correlate with children’s peer action coordination in a cooperative sensorimotor problem-solving task. To test this hypothesis, 6- to 10-year-old children (N = 108, M = 8 years, 8 months, 46.3% girls, 53.7% boys) completed the Test of Emotion Comprehension and the Attention Network Task. To assess children’s performance in coordinating their actions with a peer, they were asked to complete the Labyrinth Ball Game—a sensorimotor task that they first performed individually and then together with a peer. Contrary to expectations, there was no direct association between emotion understanding or inhibitory control and children’s peer action coordination after controlling for age, gender, and individual sensorimotor skills. However, a significant interaction between age and gender revealed that older boys showed greater cooperative action coordination performance than younger boys, whereas girls’ performance remained stable across age. These findings challenge the view that individual socio-cognitive abilities straightforwardly support cooperative success, suggesting that peer action coordination in middle childhood may rely on more complex mechanisms, such as gender-specific communicative strategies or social play, rather than on emotion understanding and inhibitory control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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17 pages, 1002 KB

Open AccessArticle

Redefining Loyalty: How Political Deviants Maintain Positive Self-Views Amid Ingroup Rejection

by Trystan Loustau and Liane Young

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(1), 126; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16010126 - 16 Jan 2026

Viewed by 949

Abstract

Deviance poses a fundamental challenge for groups: while it can threaten cohesion and invite moral condemnation, it can also express deep commitment to shared principles. The present research examines how loyalty shapes perceptions of constructive deviance through the case of Republicans for Harris [...] Read more.

Deviance poses a fundamental challenge for groups: while it can threaten cohesion and invite moral condemnation, it can also express deep commitment to shared principles. The present research examines how loyalty shapes perceptions of constructive deviance through the case of Republicans for Harris (RHs) during the 2024 U.S. presidential election. Across three time points, we compared how deviants (RHs, N = 89) perceived themselves to how they were viewed by mainstream ingroup members (Republicans for Trump; RTs, N = 340) and outgroup members (Democrats; N = 294). Results revealed marked asymmetries: RTs viewed RHs as less loyal, less prototypical, and more likely to defect than RHs saw themselves. All groups, including mainstream ingroup members, outgroup members, and deviants themselves, felt warmer toward deviants they perceived as more loyal and prototypical. These findings suggest that constructive deviants maintain positive self-views by construing their actions as expressions of fidelity to, rather than rejection of, the group. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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22 pages, 2460 KB

Open AccessArticle

Warmth Centrality in Social Cognitive Networks of Fairness Reputation Across Players in the Ultimatum and Dictator Games

by Yi Zhao, Yangfan Liu, Ting Xu, Baoming Li and Zhong Yang

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1537; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15111537 - 11 Nov 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 926

Abstract

Fairness reputation refers to the perception of others’ adherence to fair norms based on their behaviors. However, previous studies often rely on simple correlation and regression analyses without comparing cognition across roles in the ultimatum game (UG) and the dictator game (DG). Our [...] Read more.

Fairness reputation refers to the perception of others’ adherence to fair norms based on their behaviors. However, previous studies often rely on simple correlation and regression analyses without comparing cognition across roles in the ultimatum game (UG) and the dictator game (DG). Our study measured the categorical and two-dimensional cognitions (warmth-competence) of participants with different social value orientations toward proposers, responders, and dictators with varying fairness reputations. We found that proposers and dictators with fairness reputations were perceived more positively, and individualists could better distinguish between them. Regarding responders with fairness reputations, they were perceived as more fair, trustworthy, and competent, but less altruistic, cooperative, and warm. The social cognitive network of responders differed from those of proposers and dictators, with warmth cognition being central to three roles, supporting the warmth–competence model. This study highlighted the differential impact of fairness reputation in shaping social cognitions, providing insights into understanding social interactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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23 pages, 471 KB

Open AccessArticle

Moralizing Consent: Three Field Studies Testing a Student-Led Intervention at University Parties

by Ana P. Gantman, Ajua Duker, Jordan G. Starck, Alex Sanchez and Elizabeth Levy Paluck

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(8), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15081025 - 29 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2076

Abstract

Moralization is the process by which preferences become moral values. We investigated a practice that is changing its moral status on college campuses in the United States: affirmative consent to sexual activity. We tested whether messages given to students just before they entered [...] Read more.

Moralization is the process by which preferences become moral values. We investigated a practice that is changing its moral status on college campuses in the United States: affirmative consent to sexual activity. We tested whether messages given to students just before they entered a party impacted their thinking about consent in moral terms—i.e., as a clear issue, with broad consensus, and an imperative to action. At two social clubs on a college campus in 2017, we randomly assigned moralistic vs. informational messages about consent, delivered at the party’s door. At the club that had pre-existing messaging about consent, the moralistic (vs. informational) message increased students’ thinking about consent in moral terms. By contrast, in the club without prior consent messaging, the informational (vs. moralistic) pledge increased students’ thinking about consent in moral terms. We then investigated and found weak evidence for a small reduction in administrative-level student conduct complaints compared to prior and subsequent years as a result of a one-night consent message treatment unique to each of the 12 clubs hosting a party. Theoretically, our findings make progress toward understanding processes of moralization. Pragmatically, they suggest the importance of locally tailored messages that reflect and shape the values of social groups. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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15 pages, 837 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Resource Inequality on Cooperative Behavior in Social Dilemmas

by Jieyu Lv, Huan Wang, Wei Cai, Danli Yang and Yonghong Yu

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(4), 519; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15040519 - 13 Apr 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1712

Abstract

Previous research has not yet identified the psychological mechanisms underlying the impact of resource inequality on cooperative behavior. To further explore this issue, this study used two single-factor experiments to investigate the influence of resource inequality on cooperative behavior in social dilemmas, focusing [...] Read more.

Previous research has not yet identified the psychological mechanisms underlying the impact of resource inequality on cooperative behavior. To further explore this issue, this study used two single-factor experiments to investigate the influence of resource inequality on cooperative behavior in social dilemmas, focusing on the mediating role of fairness perception and group identity. The results showed that behavioral heterogeneity was higher under unequal conditions than that under equal conditions. In addition, in unequal groups, high-endowment players exhibited lower cooperation levels than low-endowment players. However, the mediating roles of fairness perception and group identity were not confirmed. This study highlights the complexity of resource inequality’s influence on group cooperation and offers new directions for future research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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Review

Jump to: Research, Other

21 pages, 694 KB

Open AccessReview

Attitudinal and Behavioral Inference in Social Influence: A Process Model of Direct and Indirect Judgments and Decisions

by Yubo Zhou and Dolores Albarracín

Behav. Sci. 2026, 16(7), 1188; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs16071188 - 14 Jul 2026

Viewed by 412

Abstract

Psychologists and other behavioral and social scientists have long examined how others’ attitudes and behaviors influence a person’s decisions, attempting to establish the relative impact of attitudinal and behavioral information in persuasion and social influence. However, these comparisons have not always considered how [...] Read more.

Psychologists and other behavioral and social scientists have long examined how others’ attitudes and behaviors influence a person’s decisions, attempting to establish the relative impact of attitudinal and behavioral information in persuasion and social influence. However, these comparisons have not always considered how recipients process attitudinal or behavioral information, leading to inconsistent findings. Both attitudinal and behavioral information can inform direct judgments and prompt recipients to draw inferences that influence judgments and decisions. These processes are governed by the processing goals and ability of information recipients and the characteristics of the information. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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Other

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24 pages, 444 KB

Open AccessSystematic Review

Entertainment Media and Gender Norm Transformation Interventions for Young Women and Girls in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review

by William Douglas Evans, Elizabeth A. Larson, Courtney J. McLarnon, Michael Hauer, Marian Marian, Sohail Agha, Rajiv Rimal, Beniamino Cislaghi, Elizabeth Costenbader, Amy Henderson Riley, Helen Wang, Sushmita Mukherjee, Sarah Smith, Claire Hunter Davis and Rebecka Lundgren

Behav. Sci. 2025, 15(11), 1596; https://doi.org/10.3390/bs15111596 - 20 Nov 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1956

Abstract

Adolescent girls and young women are particularly vulnerable to the influence of social and gender norms. This systematic review builds on a broader review of social and gender norms interventions, with the overall aim of identifying and mapping empirical evidence on efforts to [...] Read more.

Adolescent girls and young women are particularly vulnerable to the influence of social and gender norms. This systematic review builds on a broader review of social and gender norms interventions, with the overall aim of identifying and mapping empirical evidence on efforts to improve health and livelihood outcomes of adolescent girls and young women in sub-Saharan Africa. The review examines the strategies, methods, mechanisms of change, and research on the effectiveness of the interventions in the field. We conducted a systematic search of peer-reviewed literature using established PRISMA methods. The sample included 35 articles, which represented 24 distinct interventions—the unit of analysis for this systematic review—that spanned 15 countries across sub-Saharan Africa, with eleven in East Africa, six in West Africa, two in South Africa, and one in the Northern and Central regions. Interventions covered a wide range of outcomes, including sexual and reproductive health, gender-based violence, child early marriage, and other areas. The interventions generally served adolescents and young adults up to age 24. Evaluations included observational, quasi-experimental, and randomized controlled designs. Some interventions included social norms measures, and there was varying evidence of effectiveness (from emerging evidence to demonstrated effectiveness). This review suggests that entertainment media is an effective approach for shifting gender norms, attitudes, and behaviors among adolescent girls and young women. More rigorous intervention research is needed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Social Cognition and Cooperative Behavior)

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