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Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications

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A special issue of Antibiotics (ISSN 2079-6382). This special issue belongs to the section "Plant-Derived Antibiotics".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 March 2025) | Viewed by 34254

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Dr. Luis Alberto Ortega-Ramirez

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Instituto Tecnológico del Valle del Yaqui, Bácum, Sonora, México
Interests: food safety; essential oils; bioactive compounds; terpenes; antibacterial and antibiofilm agents
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Jesus Fernando Ayala-Zavala

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Emerging Technologies Laboratory, Food and Development Research Center (CIAD), Sonora, Mexico
Interests: bioactive compounds; food safety; food composition; food preservation technologies; food security
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Antibiotics are about to launch a Special Issue dedicated to research related to the potential use of essential oils or their major components obtained from plants, highlighting their chemical composition, antimicrobial activity, and biological applications. Essential oils are oily aromatic liquids obtained from different parts of plants (flowers, seeds, leaves, bark, shoots, herbs, fruits, and roots), a large part of them are made up of a variable mixture of terpenoids, derived from their secondary metabolism. In traditional medicine, they have been used as stomachic, antispasmodic, carminative, antiparasitic, antimicrobial, and antihypertensive agents, even as insecticides, among other traditional applications. In this Special Issue, we are interested in research that highlights the variety of compounds present in essential oils and demonstrates their biological activities through in vivo and in vitro studies using innovative methods and technologies.

Dr. Luis Alberto Ortega-Ramirez
Dr. Jesus Fernando Ayala-Zavala
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Antibiotics is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

natural compounds
antimicrobials
antibiofilms
antioxidants
antivirulence factors
mode of action
antiproliferative
citotoxicty

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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26 pages, 1732 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Exploring the Antibacterial Potency of Cymbopogon Essential Oils: Liposome Encapsulation and Phytochemical Insights

by Abdirahman Elmi, Fatouma M. Abdoul-Latif, Andréea Pasc, Arnaud Risler, Stéphanie Philippot, Ricardo Gil-Ortiz, Dominique Laurain-Mattar and Rosella Spina

Antibiotics 2025, 14(5), 510; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14050510 - 15 May 2025

Viewed by 163

Abstract

Background: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) represents a critical global health challenge, requiring innovative strategies to combat resistant bacterial strains. Cymbopogon essential oils (EOs) are promising natural antimicrobial agents. Methods: The EO of Cymbopogon commutatus was extracted by hydrodistillation from fresh aerial parts and compared to commercial EOs from C. citratus, C. nardus, and C. winterianus. Antibacterial activity was evaluated against seven bacterial strains (two Gram-positive and five Gram-negative). Both water-soluble fractions and liposome-encapsulated formulations were tested. Liposomes were prepared using soybean lecithin, and their stability was assessed by dynamic light scattering (DLS). The chemical composition of the pure EOs, water-soluble fractions and non-water-soluble fractions was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Results: Liposome encapsulation improved EO solubility in aqueous media and significantly enhanced antibacterial efficacy, reducing minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values compared to the water-soluble fractions (MICs ≥ 25%). Among the tested formulations, the liposome containing C. citratus EO exhibited the strongest inhibitory effect against Staphylococcus aureus (MIC: 0.04%) followed by liposomes with C. nardus and C. commutatus (MIC: 0.08%). Against Enterococcus faecalis, the most effective formulation was the liposome containing C. winterianus EO (MIC: 0.02%), followed by C. citratus (MIC: 0.08%). The liposome formulated with C. winterianus maintained its particle size over 72 h without phase separation. GC-MS analysis revealed distinct phytochemical profiles: C. commutatus EO was rich in piperitone (73.9%) and C. citratus was rich in (Z)-(3,3-Dimethyl)-cyclohexylideneacetaldehyde (39.9%) and citral (32.5%), while C. nardus and C. winterianus were dominated by geraniol (21.5%) and citronellal (30.8%), respectively. Notably, piperitone, the major compound in C. commutatus EO, exhibited strong antibacterial activity against S. aureus (MIC of <0.04%). Conclusions: These findings support the potential of liposome-encapsulated Cymbopogon EOs as an effective and sustainable strategy to address AMR. This study provides a foundation for the development of plant-based antimicrobial formulations with improved efficacy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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19 pages, 3904 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Solid- and Vapor-Phase Antibacterial Activities and Mechanisms of Essential Oils Against Fish Spoilage Bacteria

by Hsuan-Ju Lin, Pang-Hung Hsu, Tze-Chia Lin, Wen-Jung Lu and Hong-Ting Victor Lin

Antibiotics 2024, 13(12), 1137; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13121137 - 26 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1019

Abstract

Essential oils (EOs), regarded as secondary metabolites from plants, possess effective antibacterial properties. This study investigates the antibacterial efficacy of seven citrus EOs against six spoilage bacteria: Vibrio parahaemolyticus, V. harveyi, Photobacterium damselae, Shewanella putrefaciens, Carnobacterium divergens, and Lactobacillus pentosus. The antibacterial activity of these EOs was evaluated using solid- and vapor-phase applications. All tested EOs demonstrated effective antibacterial activity at a concentration of 294 μL/L against Gram-negative bacteria. Notably, lemon and orange EOs exhibited dose-dependent inhibition in both solid- and vapor-phase applications, with minimum effective concentrations ranging from 29.4 to 58.8 μL/L. Following treatment with lemon and orange EOs for 6 h at 1/4 minimum inhibitory concentration, leakage of intracellular DNA and proteins was observed, indicating damage to the cell membrane/wall. Proteomic analysis revealed distinct mechanisms: lemon EO impaired bacterial antioxidant defenses, while orange EO disrupted cell division, leading to reduced bacterial viability. These findings provide valuable insights into the potential of different EO application forms in controlling spoilage bacteria. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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15 pages, 5510 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Chitosan-Integrated Curcumin–Graphene Oxide/Copper Oxide Hybrid Nanocomposites for Antibacterial and Cytotoxicity Applications

by Anandhavelu Sanmugam, Logesh Kumar Sellappan, Abbishek Sridharan, Swathy Manoharan, Ananda Babu Sairam, Abdulrahman I. Almansour, Subha Veerasundaram, Hyun-Seok Kim and Dhanasekaran Vikraman

Antibiotics 2024, 13(7), 620; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13070620 - 3 Jul 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1690

Abstract

This study deals with the facile synthesis of a single-pot chemical technique for chitosan–curcumin (CUR)-based hybrid nanocomposites with nanostructured graphene oxide (GO) and copper oxide (CuO) as the antibacterial and cytotoxic drugs. The physicochemical properties of synthesized hybrid nanocomposites such as CS-GO, CS-CuO, CS-CUR-GO, and CS-CUR-GO/CuO were confirmed with various advanced tools. Moreover, the in vitro drug release profile of the CS-CUR-GO/CuO nanocomposite exhibited sustained and controlled release during different time intervals. Also, the antibacterial activity of the CS-CUR-GO/CuO hybrid nanocomposite presented the maximum bactericidal effect against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli pathogens. The hybrid nanocomposites revealed improved cytotoxicity behaviour against cultured mouse fibroblast cells (L929) via cell adhesion, DNA damage, and proliferation. Thus, the chitosan-based hybrid nanocomposites offer rich surface area, biocompatibility, high oxidative stress, and bacterial cell disruption functionalities as a potential candidate for antibacterial and cytotoxicity applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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19 pages, 3991 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lippia graveolens Essential Oil to Enhance the Effect of Imipenem against Axenic and Co-Cultures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii

by Jorge O. Fimbres-García, Marcela Flores-Sauceda, Elsa Daniela Othón-Díaz, Alfonso García-Galaz, Melvin R. Tapia-Rodriguez, Brenda A. Silva-Espinoza, Andres Alvarez-Armenta and J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala

Antibiotics 2024, 13(5), 444; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13050444 - 14 May 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1565

Abstract

This research focuses on assessing the synergistic effects of Mexican oregano (Lippia graveolens) essential oil or carvacrol when combined with the antibiotic imipenem, aiming to reduce the pathogenic viability and virulence of Acinetobacter baumannii and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The study highlighted the synergistic effect of combining L. graveolens essential oil or carvacrol with imipenem, significantly reducing the required doses for inhibiting bacterial growth. The combination treatments drastically lowered the necessary imipenem doses, highlighting a potent enhancement in efficacy against A. baumannii and P. aeruginosa. For example, the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) for the essential oil/imipenem combinations were notably low, at 0.03/0.000023 mg/mL for A. baumannii and 0.0073/0.000023 mg/mL for P. aeruginosa. Similarly, the combinations significantly inhibited biofilm formation at lower concentrations than when the components were used individually, demonstrating the strategic advantage of this approach in combating antibiotic resistance. For OXA-51, imipenem showed a relatively stable interaction during 30 ns of dynamic simulation of their interaction, indicating changes (<2 nm) in ligand positioning during this period. Carvacrol exhibited similar fluctuations to imipenem, suggesting its potential inhibition efficacy, while thymol showed significant variability, particularly at >10 ns, suggesting potential instability. With IMP-1, imipenem also displayed very stable interactions during 38 ns and demonstrated notable movement and positioning changes within the active site, indicating a more dynamic interaction. In contrast, carvacrol and thymol maintained their position within the active site only ~20 and ~15 ns, respectively. These results highlight the effectiveness of combining L. graveolens essential oil and carvacrol with imipenem in tackling the difficult-to-treat pathogens A. baumannii and P. aeruginosa. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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15 pages, 975 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial Activity of Oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) Essential Oil Vapors against Microbial Contaminants of Food-Contact Surfaces

by Loris Pinto, Salvatore Cervellieri, Thomas Netti, Vincenzo Lippolis and Federico Baruzzi

Antibiotics 2024, 13(4), 371; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13040371 - 18 Apr 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 10097

Abstract

The antimicrobial effect of eight essential oils’ vapors against pathogens and spoilage bacteria was assayed. Oreganum vulgare L. essential oil (OVO) showed a broad antibacterial effect, with Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) values ranging from 94 to 754 µg cm⁻³ air, depending on the bacterial species. Then, gaseous OVO was used for the treatment of stainless steel, polypropylene, and glass surfaces contaminated with four bacterial pathogens at 6–7 log cfu coupon⁻¹. No viable cells were found after OVO treatment on all food-contact surfaces contaminated with all pathogens, with the exception of Sta. aureus DSM 799 on the glass surface. The antimicrobial activity of OVO after the addition of beef extract as a soiling agent reduced the Sta. aureus DSM 799 viable cell count by more than 5 log cfu coupon⁻¹ on polypropylene and glass, while no viable cells were found in the case of stainless steel. HS-GC-MS analysis of the headspace of the boxes used for the antibacterial assay revealed 14 different volatile compounds with α-Pinene (62–63%), and p-Cymene (21%) as the main terpenes. In conclusion, gaseous OVO could be used for the microbial decontamination of food-contact surfaces, although its efficacy needs to be evaluated since it depends on several parameters such as target microorganisms, food-contact material, temperature, time of contact, and relative humidity. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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15 pages, 3290 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antifungal Activity of Thirty Essential Oils to Control Pathogenic Fungi of Postharvest Decay

by Mohamed Bechir Allagui, Marwa Moumni and Gianfranco Romanazzi

Antibiotics 2024, 13(1), 28; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics13010028 - 28 Dec 2023

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 5030

Abstract

Essential oils (EOs) extracted from aromatic or medicinal plants are biodegradable, safe, and regarded as alternatives to chemical pesticides to reduce fungal species attacking different crops. In this study, thirty EOs at 0.5 mg/mL were evaluated for in vitro growth inhibition of the main postharvest fungi, which are Alternaria alternata, Botrytis cinerea, and Penicillium italicum. Cinnamomum verrum EO completely inhibited the mycelial growth of A. alternata and B. cinerea, and Syzygium aromaticum EO completely inhibited the mycelia of A. alternata. B. cinerea mycelial growth was completely inhibited by Gautheria fragrantissima, Cymbopogon nardus, Pelargonium asperum, and Cupressus sempervirens EOs. G. fragrantissima EO inhibited the mycelia growth of P. italicum by 98%. Overall, B. cinerea displayed the highest sensitivity to EOs than P. italicum and A. alternata. G. fragrantissima, C. sempervirens, C. nardus, P. asperum, Mentha piperita, Foeniculum vulgare, C. verrum, and S. aromaticum EOs showed the highest inhibition for these three pathogens. Minimum inhibitory concentrations were lower for C. verrum and S. aromaticum EOs, ranging between 0.31 and 0.45 mg/mL and 0.37 to 0.57 mg/mL, respectively, against the three pathogens. The tested EOs inhibited the in vitro growth of three of the main postharvest fungal pathogens. Further studies are needed to confirm these activities in vivo. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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20 pages, 10519 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Untargeted Metabolomics for Unraveling the Metabolic Changes in Planktonic and Sessile Cells of Salmonella Enteritidis ATCC 13076 after Treatment with Lippia origanoides Essential Oil

by Yuliany Guillín, Marlon Cáceres, Elena E. Stashenko, William Hidalgo and Claudia Ortiz

Antibiotics 2023, 12(5), 899; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12050899 - 12 May 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2841

Abstract

Nontyphoidal Salmonella species are one of the main bacterial causes of foodborne diseases, causing a public health problem. In addition, the ability to form biofilms, multiresistance to traditional drugs, and the absence of effective therapies against these microorganisms are some of the principal reasons for the increase in bacterial diseases. In this study, the anti-biofilm activity of twenty essential oils (EOs) on Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis ATCC 13076 was evaluated, as well as the metabolic changes caused by Lippia origanoides thymol chemotype EO (LOT-II) on planktonic and sessile cells. The anti-biofilm effect was evaluated by the crystal violet staining method, and cell viability was evaluated through the XTT method. The effect of EOs was observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. Untargeted metabolomics analyses were conducted to determine the effect of LOT-II EO on the cellular metabolome. LOT-II EO inhibited S. Enteritidis biofilm formation by more than 60%, without decreasing metabolic activity. Metabolic profile analysis identified changes in the modulation of metabolites in planktonic and sessile cells after LOT-II EO treatment. These changes showed alterations in different metabolic pathways, mainly in central carbon metabolism and nucleotide and amino acid metabolism. Finally, the possible mechanism of action of L. origanoides EO is proposed based on a metabolomics approach. Further studies are required to advance at the molecular level on the cellular targets affected by EOs, which are promising natural products for developing new therapeutic agents against Salmonella sp. strains. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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21 pages, 1885 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Metabolomic Analysis of the Effect of Lippia origanoides Essential Oil on the Inhibition of Quorum Sensing in Chromobacterium violaceum

by Marlon Cáceres, William Hidalgo, Elena E. Stashenko, Rodrigo Torres and Claudia Ortiz

Antibiotics 2023, 12(5), 814; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12050814 - 26 Apr 2023

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2815

Abstract

Bacteria can communicate through quorum sensing, allowing them to develop different survival or virulence traits that lead to increased bacterial resistance against conventional antibiotic therapy. Here, fifteen essential oils (EOs) were investigated for their antimicrobial and anti-quorum-sensing activities using Chromobacterium violaceum CV026 as a model. All EOs were isolated from plant material via hydrodistillation and analyzed using GC/MS. In vitro antimicrobial activity was determined using the microdilution technique. Subinhibitory concentrations were used to determine anti-quorum-sensing activity by inhibition of violacein production. Finally, a possible mechanism of action for most bioactive EOs was determined using a metabolomic approach. Among the EOs evaluated, the EO from Lippia origanoides exhibited antimicrobial and anti-quorum activities at 0.37 and 0.15 mg/mL, respectively. Based on the experimental results, the antibiofilm activity of EO can be attributed to the blockage of tryptophan metabolism in the metabolic pathway of violacein synthesis. The metabolomic analyses made it possible to see effects mainly at the levels of tryptophan metabolism, nucleotide biosynthesis, arginine metabolism and vitamin biosynthesis. This allows us to highlight the EO of L. origanoides as a promising candidate for further studies in the design of antimicrobial compounds against bacterial resistance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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Review

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34 pages, 708 KiB

Open AccessReview

Essential Oils for Biofilm Control: Mechanisms, Synergies, and Translational Challenges in the Era of Antimicrobial Resistance

by Abdelaziz Touati, Assia Mairi, Nasir Adam Ibrahim and Takfarinas Idres

Antibiotics 2025, 14(5), 503; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics14050503 - 13 May 2025

Viewed by 554

Abstract

Biofilms, structured microbial consortia embedded in self-produced extracellular matrices, pose significant challenges across the medical, industrial, and environmental sectors due to their resistance to antimicrobial therapies and ability to evade the immune system. Their resilience is driven by multifaceted mechanisms, including matrix-mediated drug sequestration, metabolic dormancy, and quorum sensing (QS)-regulated virulence, which collectively sustain persistent infections and contribute to the amplification of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). This review critically examines the potential of plant-derived essential oils (EOs) as innovative agents for biofilm control. EOs exhibit broad-spectrum antibiofilm activity through multi-target mechanisms, including disrupting initial microbial adhesion, degrading extracellular polymeric substances (EPSs), suppressing QS pathways, and compromising membrane integrity. Their ability to act synergistically with conventional antimicrobials at sub-inhibitory concentrations enhances therapeutic efficacy while reducing the selection pressure for resistance. Despite their potential, EO applications face technical challenges, such as compositional variability due to botanical sources, formulation stability issues, and difficulties in standardization for large-scale production. Clinical translation is further complicated by biofilm stage- and strain-dependent efficacy, insufficient in vivo validation of therapeutic outcomes, and potential cytotoxicity at higher doses. These limitations underscore the need for optimized delivery systems, such as nanoencapsulation, to enhance bioavailability and mitigate adverse effects. Future strategies should include combinatorial approaches with antibiotics or EPS-degrading enzymes, advanced formulation technologies, and standardized protocols to bridge laboratory findings to clinical practice. By addressing these challenges, EOs hold transformative potential to mitigate biofilm-associated AMR, offering sustainable, multi-target alternatives for infection management and biofilm prevention in diverse contexts. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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31 pages, 2538 KiB

Open AccessReview

Mechanisms and Applications of Citral’s Antimicrobial Properties in Food Preservation and Pharmaceuticals Formulations

by María Melissa Gutiérrez-Pacheco, Heriberto Torres-Moreno, María Liliana Flores-Lopez, Norma Velázquez Guadarrama, J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala, Luis Alberto Ortega-Ramírez and Julio César López-Romero

Antibiotics 2023, 12(11), 1608; https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics12111608 - 9 Nov 2023

Cited by 23 | Viewed by 6843

Abstract

Citral is a monoterpene constituted by two isomers known as neral and geranial. It is present in different plant sources and recognized as safe (GRAS) by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In recent years, investigations have demonstrated that this compound exhibited several biological activities, such as antibacterial, antifungal, antibiofilm, antiparasitic, antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties, by in vitro and in vivo assays. Additionally, when incorporated into different food matrices, citral can reduce the microbial load of pathogenic microorganisms and extend the shelf life. This compound has acceptable drug-likeness properties and does not present any violations of Lipinski’s rules, which could be used for drug development. The above shows that citral could be a compound of interest for developing food additives to extend the shelf life of animal and vegetable origin foods and develop pharmaceutical products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Essential Oil of the Plants: Chemical Composition, Antimicrobial Activity, and Biological Applications)

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