Agronomy

Editorial

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6 pages, 233 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Advances in Soilless Culture and Growing Media in Today’s Horticulture—An Editorial

by Nazim S. Gruda

Agronomy 2022, 12(11), 2773; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12112773 - 7 Nov 2022

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 6800

Abstract

The soilless culture system is a promising, intensive, and sustainable approach with various advantages for plant production. The Special Issue “Soilless Culture, Growing Media, and Horticultural Plants” includes 22 original papers and 1 review written by 84 authors from 15 countries. The purpose [...] Read more.

The soilless culture system is a promising, intensive, and sustainable approach with various advantages for plant production. The Special Issue “Soilless Culture, Growing Media, and Horticultural Plants” includes 22 original papers and 1 review written by 84 authors from 15 countries. The purpose of this Special Issue was to publish high-quality research articles that address the recent developments in the cultivation of horticultural plants in soilless culture systems and solid growing media. The published articles investigated new developments in simplified and advanced systems; the interaction between soilless and environmental factors with their effects on plant growth and photosynthesis, and the accumulation of secondary metabolites; the analyses of nutrient solution and hydraulic properties of substrates and mixtures; and the microbe–plant growing media interactions. Climate change and environmental and ecological issues will determine and drive the development of soilless culture systems and the choice of growing media constituents in the near future. Bioresources and renewable raw materials have great potential for use as growing medium constituents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

Research

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14 pages, 7465 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Nutrient Solution Concentration on the Growth of Hydroponic Sweetpotato

by Masaru Sakamoto and Takahiro Suzuki

Agronomy 2020, 10(11), 1708; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10111708 - 4 Nov 2020

Cited by 24 | Viewed by 10359

Abstract

Nutrient solution concentration (NSC) is a critical factor affecting plant growth in hydroponics. Here, we investigated the effects of hydroponic NSC on the growth and yield of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) plants. First, sweetpotato cuttings were cultivated hydroponically in three different [...] Read more.

Nutrient solution concentration (NSC) is a critical factor affecting plant growth in hydroponics. Here, we investigated the effects of hydroponic NSC on the growth and yield of sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam.) plants. First, sweetpotato cuttings were cultivated hydroponically in three different NSCs with low, medium, or high electrical conductivity (EC; 0.8, 1.4, and 2.6 dS m⁻¹, respectively). Shoot growth and storage root yield increased at 143 days after plantation (DAP), depending on the NSC. Next, we examined the effect of NSC changes at half of the cultivation period on the growth and yield, using high and low NSC conditions. In plants transferred from high to low EC (HL plants), the number of attached leaves increased toward the end of the first half of the cultivation period (73 DAP), compared with plants transferred from low to high EC (LH plants). Additionally, the number of attached leaves decreased in HL plants from 73 DAP to the end of the cultivation period (155 DAP), whereas this value increased in LH plants. These changes occurred due to a high leaf abscission ratio in HL plants. The storage root yield showed no significant difference between HL and LH plants. Our results suggest that the regulation of hydroponic NSC during the cultivation period affects the growth characteristics of sweetpotato. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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17 pages, 861 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promising Composts as Growing Media for the Production of Baby Leaf Lettuce in a Floating System

by Almudena Giménez, Juan A. Fernández, José A. Pascual, Margarita Ros, José Saez-Tovar, Encarnación Martinez-Sabater, Nazim S. Gruda and Catalina Egea-Gilabert

Agronomy 2020, 10(10), 1540; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101540 - 10 Oct 2020

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 4885

Abstract

The floating system is a successful strategy for producing baby leaf vegetables. Moreover, compost from agricultural and agri-food industry wastes is an alternative to peat that can be used as a component of growing media in this cultivation system. In this study, we [...] Read more.

The floating system is a successful strategy for producing baby leaf vegetables. Moreover, compost from agricultural and agri-food industry wastes is an alternative to peat that can be used as a component of growing media in this cultivation system. In this study, we experimented with three composts containing tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.), leek (Allium porrum L.), grape (Vitis vinifera L.), and/or olive (Olea europaea L.) mill cake residues, which were used as the main component (75/25 volume/volume) of three growing media (GM1, GM2 and GM3) to evaluate their effect on the growth and quality of red baby leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). We used a commercial peat substrate as a control treatment (100% volume) and in mixtures (25% volume) with the composts. The plants were cultivated over two growing cycles, in spring and summer, and harvested twice in each cycle when the plants had four to five leaves. We found that the percentage of seed germination was significantly higher in plants grown in peat than in those grown in compost growing media. The yield was affected by the growing media in the summer cycle, and we obtained the highest value with GM1. Furthermore, the second cut was more productive than the first one for all the growing media in both cycles. The lettuce quality was also affected by the growing media. In general, the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity in the leaves was higher in plants grown in the compost growing media, particularly in the second cut, but the nitrate content in the leaves was greater in some of the compost treatments compared with the peat treatment. In addition, an in vitro suppressive activity study demonstrated that the interaction between different fungi and bacteria observed through metagenomics analysis could contribute to the effectiveness of the compost in controlling Pythium irregulare. The use of compost as a component of the growing media in the production of baby leaf vegetables in a floating system does not only favor the crop yield and product quality, but also shows suppressive effects against P. irregulare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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23 pages, 1348 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Microbe-Plant Growing Media Interactions Modulate the Effectiveness of Bacterial Amendments on Lettuce Performance Inside a Plant Factory with Artificial Lighting

by Thijs Van Gerrewey, Maarten Vandecruys, Nele Ameloot, Maaike Perneel, Marie-Christine Van Labeke, Nico Boon and Danny Geelen

Agronomy 2020, 10(10), 1456; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10101456 - 23 Sep 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 6651

Abstract

There is a need for plant growing media that can support a beneficial microbial root environment to ensure that optimal plant growth properties can be achieved. We investigated the effect of five rhizosphere bacterial community inocula (BCI S1–5) that were collected at three [...] Read more.

There is a need for plant growing media that can support a beneficial microbial root environment to ensure that optimal plant growth properties can be achieved. We investigated the effect of five rhizosphere bacterial community inocula (BCI S1–5) that were collected at three open field organic farms and two soilless farms on the performance of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). The lettuce plants were grown in ten different plant growing media (M1–10) composed of 60% v/v peat (black peat or white peat), 20% v/v other organics (coir pith or wood fiber), 10% v/v composted materials (composted bark or green waste compost) and 10% v/v inorganic materials (perlite or sand), and one commercial plant growing medium inside a plant factory with artificial lighting. Fractional factorial design of experiments analysis revealed that the bacterial community inoculum, plant growing medium composition, and their interaction determine plant performance. The impact of bacterial amendments on the plant phenotype relied on the bacterial source. For example, S3 treatment significantly increased lettuce shoot fresh weight (+57%), lettuce head area (+29%), root fresh weight (+53%), and NO₃-content (+53%), while S1 treatment significantly increased lettuce shoot dry weight (+15%), total phenolic content (+65%), and decreased NO₃-content (−67%). However, the effectiveness of S3 and S1 treatment depended on plant growing medium composition. Principal component analysis revealed that shoot fresh weight, lettuce head area, root fresh weight, and shoot dry weight were the dominant parameters contributing to the variation in the interactions. The dominant treatments were S3-M8, S1-M7, S2-M4, the commercial plant growing medium, S1-M2, and S3-M10. Proper selection of plant growing medium composition is critical for the efficacy of bacterial amendments and achieving optimal plant performance inside a plant factory with artificial lighting. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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14 pages, 4681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparative Study of Three Low-Tech Soilless Systems for the Cultivation of Geranium (Pelargonium zonale): A Commercial Quality Assessment

by Luca Brentari, Nicola Michelon, Giorgio Gianquinto, Francesco Orsini, Federico Zamboni and Duilio Porro

Agronomy 2020, 10(9), 1430; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10091430 - 20 Sep 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3237

Abstract

The study evaluated the feasibility of simplified hydroponics for the growth of rooted cuttings of geranium (Pelargonium zonale) for commercial purposes in local farms in Northern Italy. Tested systems included a control where soilless system on substrate (peat) (T-1), usually adopted [...] Read more.

The study evaluated the feasibility of simplified hydroponics for the growth of rooted cuttings of geranium (Pelargonium zonale) for commercial purposes in local farms in Northern Italy. Tested systems included a control where soilless system on substrate (peat) (T-1), usually adopted by local farmers, was compared against an open-cycle drip system on substrate (peat) (T-2), and a Nutrient Film Technique system (T-3). For commercial features, assessed parameters included flowering degree (flowering timing, numbers of inflorescences plant⁻¹, and number of flowers inflorescence⁻¹), numbers of leaves plant⁻¹, number of branches plant⁻¹, final height of plant, and the aesthetic-commercial assessment index. Assessed parameters also included fresh and dry weight, SPAD Index, the water consumption, and the water use efficiency (WUE). The soilless systems typology significantly affected rooted cuttings growth, commercial features, and WUE. The adoption of an open-cycle drip system (T-2) resulted in a significant improvement of all the crop commercial characteristics as compared with other treatments, making plants more attractive for the market. The water consumption was higher in T-2 as compared with T-1 and T-3, but it allowed for the highest fresh weight, and therefore also the highest WUE. The results indicate that the typology of soilless system significantly enhances the commercial characteristics of geranium. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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21 pages, 3252 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar Type, Ratio, and Nutrient Levels in Growing Media Affects Seedling Production and Plant Performance

by Antonios Chrysargyris, Munoo Prasad, Anna Kavanagh and Nikos Tzortzakis

Agronomy 2020, 10(9), 1421; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10091421 - 18 Sep 2020

Cited by 35 | Viewed by 6519

Abstract

Biochar can be used as an alternative component in growing media, positively affecting plant growth/yield, but also media properties. In the present study, two commercial grade biochars (BFW-forest wood; and BTS-fresh wood screening), mainly wood-based materials, were used at 7.5% and 15% ( [...] Read more.

Biochar can be used as an alternative component in growing media, positively affecting plant growth/yield, but also media properties. In the present study, two commercial grade biochars (BFW-forest wood; and BTS-fresh wood screening), mainly wood-based materials, were used at 7.5% and 15% (v/v), adding nutrient in two levels (100% and 150% standard fertilizer level-Fert). Biochar affected growing media properties, with increases on pH and changes on the nutrient content levels. Biochar BFW enhanced the emergence of seeds in comparison to the control. Increased fertilizer levels benefited plant yield in BFW and BTS at 7.5%, but not at 15%. Leaf stomatal conductance was reduced at 150% fertilized biochars (BFW + Fert and BTS + Fert) at 7.5%, while total chlorophylls increased at BTS + Fert at 7.5% and 15%. The addition of biochars decreased the antioxidant activity in the plant. Lipid peroxidation in lettuce was increased in most cases with the presence of biochars (BFW, BTS) and 150% fertilization, activating antioxidant (superoxide oxidase and peroxidase) enzymatic metabolisms. The addition of Biochars in the growing media increased the content of nutrients in seedlings, as plants could absorb more available nutrients. Biochar of beech, spruce, and pine species (BFW) at 7.5% was more promising for substituting peat to produce lettuce seedlings. However, examining different species (tomato, leek, impatiens, and geranium) with BFW at 7.5%, the results were not common, and each species needs to be evaluated further. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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18 pages, 3047 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Characterization of Physicochemical and Hydraulic Properties of Organic and Mineral Soilless Culture Substrates and Mixtures

by Mohammad R. Gohardoust, Asher Bar-Tal, Mohaddese Effati and Markus Tuller

Agronomy 2020, 10(9), 1403; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10091403 - 16 Sep 2020

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 4925

Abstract

Many arid and semiarid regions of the world face serious water shortages that are projected to have significant adverse impacts on irrigated agriculture and create unprecedented challenges for providing food and water security for the rapidly growing human population in a changing global [...] Read more.

Many arid and semiarid regions of the world face serious water shortages that are projected to have significant adverse impacts on irrigated agriculture and create unprecedented challenges for providing food and water security for the rapidly growing human population in a changing global climate. Consequently, there is a momentous incentive to shift to more resource-efficient soilless greenhouse production systems. Though there is considerable empirical and theoretical research devoted to specific issues related to control and management of soilless culture systems, a comprehensive approach that quantitatively considers relevant physicochemical processes within containerized soilless growth modules is missing. An important first step towards development of advanced soilless culture management strategies is a comprehensive characterization of hydraulic and physicochemical substrate properties. In this study we applied state-of-the-art measurement techniques to characterize six soilless substrates and substrate mixtures [i.e., coconut coir, perlite, volcanic tuff, perlite/coconut coir (50/50 vol.-%), tuff/coconut coir (70/30 vol.-%), and Growstone^®/coconut coir (50/50 vol.-%)] that are used in commercial production in Israel and the United States. The measured substrate properties include water retention characteristics, saturated hydraulic conductivity, packing and particle densities, as well as phosphorus and ammonium adsorption isotherms. In addition, integral water availability and integral energy parameters were calculated to compare investigated substrates and provide valuable information for irrigation and fertigation management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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11 pages, 2859 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Dewpoint Hygrometry to Measure Low Water Potentials in Soilless Substrate Components and Composites

by Jeb S. Fields, William C. Fonteno, Brian E. Jackson, Joshua L. Heitman and James S. Owen, Jr.

Agronomy 2020, 10(9), 1393; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10091393 - 15 Sep 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3072

Abstract

Plant water availability in soilless substrates is an important management consideration to maximize water efficiency for containerized crops. Changes in the characteristics (i.e., shrink) of these substrates at low water potential (<−1.0 MPa) when using a conventional pressure plate-base can reduce hydraulic connectivity [...] Read more.

Plant water availability in soilless substrates is an important management consideration to maximize water efficiency for containerized crops. Changes in the characteristics (i.e., shrink) of these substrates at low water potential (<−1.0 MPa) when using a conventional pressure plate-base can reduce hydraulic connectivity between the plate and the substrate sample resulting in inaccurate measures of water retention. Soilless substrate components Sphagnum peatmoss, coconut coir, aged pine bark, shredded pine wood, pine wood chips, and two substrate composites were tested to determine the range of volumetric water content (VWC) of surface-bound water at water potentials between −1.0 to −2.0 MPa. Substrate water potentials were measured utilizing dewpoint hygrometry. The VWC for all components or composites was between 5% and 14%. These results were considerably lower compared to previous research (25% to 35% VWC) utilizing conventional pressure plate extraction techniques. This suggests that pressure plate measurements may overestimate this surface-bound water which is generally considered unavailable for plant uptake. This would result in underestimating available water by as much as 50%. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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14 pages, 3681 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comparison of Water Capture Efficiency through Two Irrigation Techniques of Three Common Greenhouse Soilless Substrate Components

by Brian A. Schulker, Brian E. Jackson, William C. Fonteno, Joshua L. Heitman and Joseph P. Albano

Agronomy 2020, 10(9), 1389; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10091389 - 14 Sep 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 3308

Abstract

Substrate wettability is an important factor in determining effective and efficient irrigation techniques for container-grown crops. Reduced substrate wettability can lead to lower substrate water capture, excessive leaching and poor plant growth. This research examined substrate water capture using surface and subirrigation under [...] Read more.

Substrate wettability is an important factor in determining effective and efficient irrigation techniques for container-grown crops. Reduced substrate wettability can lead to lower substrate water capture, excessive leaching and poor plant growth. This research examined substrate water capture using surface and subirrigation under three initial moisture contents (IMC). Sphagnum peat moss, coconut coir, and pine bark were tested at IMCs of 67% 50%, and 33%. Substrate water capture was influenced by both IMC and irrigation technique. Surface irrigation increased the water capture of coir and peat, regardless of IMC, whereas IMC influenced pine bark water capture more than irrigation method. Surface-irrigated coir at or above 50% IMC provided the greatest water capture across all treatments. The first irrigation had the highest capture rate compared to all other events combined. Container capacities of pine bark and coir were unaffected by IMC and irrigation type, but the CC of peat was less by ~ 40% volumetrically under low IMC conditions. Coir, had the greatest ability to capture water, followed by pine bark and peat, respectively. Moisture content, irrigation type and component selection all influence the water capture efficiency of a container substrate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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14 pages, 1387 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Strategies for Improved Yield and Water Use Efficiency of Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) through Simplified Soilless Cultivation under Semi-Arid Climate

by Nicola Michelon, Giuseppina Pennisi, Nang Ohn Myint, Giacomo Dall’Olio, Lucrecia Pacheco Batista, Adeodato Ari Cavalcante Salviano, Nazim S. Gruda, Francesco Orsini and Giorgio Gianquinto

Agronomy 2020, 10(9), 1379; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10091379 - 12 Sep 2020

Cited by 20 | Viewed by 6732

Abstract

Simplified soilless cultivation (SSC) systems have globally spread as growing solutions for low fertility soil regions, low availability of water irrigation, small areas and polluted environments. In the present study, four independent experiments were conducted for assessing the applicability of SSC in the [...] Read more.

Simplified soilless cultivation (SSC) systems have globally spread as growing solutions for low fertility soil regions, low availability of water irrigation, small areas and polluted environments. In the present study, four independent experiments were conducted for assessing the applicability of SSC in the northeast of Brazil (NE-Brazil) and the central dry zone of Myanmar (CDZ-Myanmar). In the first two experiments, the potentiality for lettuce crop production and water use efficiency (WUE) in an SSC system compared to traditional on-soil cultivation was addressed. Then, the definition of how main crop features (cultivar, nutrient solution concentration, system orientation and crop position) within the SSC system affect productivity was evidenced. The adoption of SSC improved yield (+35% and +72%, in NE-Brazil and CDZ-Myanmar) and WUE (7.7 and 2.7 times higher, in NE-Brazil and CDZ-Myanmar) as compared to traditional on-soil cultivation. In NE-Brazil, an eastern orientation of the system enabled achievement of higher yield for some selected lettuce cultivars. Furthermore, in both the considered contexts, a lower concentration of the nutrient solution (1.2 vs. 1.8 dS m⁻¹) and an upper plant position within the SSC system enabled achievement of higher yield and WUE. The experiments validate the applicability of SSC technologies for lettuce cultivation in tropical areas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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10 pages, 608 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Increasing Levels of Supplemental LED Light Enhances the Rate Flower Development of Greenhouse-grown Cut Gerbera but does not Affect Flower Size and Quality

by David Llewellyn, Katherine Schiestel and Youbin Zheng

Agronomy 2020, 10(9), 1332; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10091332 - 4 Sep 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3661

Abstract

To investigate the influence of supplemental lighting intensity on the production (i.e., rate of flower development, flower quality, and yield) of cut gerbera during Canada’s supplemental lighting season (November to March), trials were carried out at a research greenhouse. Five supplemental light emitting [...] Read more.

To investigate the influence of supplemental lighting intensity on the production (i.e., rate of flower development, flower quality, and yield) of cut gerbera during Canada’s supplemental lighting season (November to March), trials were carried out at a research greenhouse. Five supplemental light emitting diode (LED) light intensity (LI) treatments provided canopy-level photosynthetic photon flux densities (PPFD) ranging from 41 to 180 µmol m⁻² s⁻¹. With a 12-h photoperiod, the treatments provided 1.76 to 7.72 mol m⁻² d⁻¹ of supplemental light. Two cultivars of cut gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii H. Bolus ex Hook.f) were used to evaluate vegetative growth and flower production. Plugs of ‘Ultima’ were assessed for vegetative growth and rate of flower development. There were minor LI treatment effects on number of leaves and chlorophyll content index and flowers from plants under the highest versus the lowest LI matured 10% faster. Reproductively mature ‘Panama’ plants were assessed for flower yield and quality. ‘Panama’ flowers from the highest LI treatment had shorter stems than the three lowest LI treatments, and flowers from the middle LI treatment had larger diameter than the other treatments. Flowers from the lowest LI treatment had lower fresh mass than the three highest LI treatments. There were linear relationships between LI and numbers of flowers harvested, with the highest LI treatment producing 10.3 and 7.0 more total and marketable flowers per plant than the lowest LI treatment. In general, increasing levels of supplemental light had only minor effects on vegetative growth (young plants) and size and quality of harvested flowers (mature plants), but flowers from plants grown under higher LIs were more numerous and matured faster. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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18 pages, 1244 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Utilization of Olive Oil Processing Waste Composts in Organic Tomato Seedling Production

by Yüksel Tüzel, Kamil Ekinci, Gölgen Bahar Öztekin, İbrahim Erdal, Nurhan Varol and Özen Merken

Agronomy 2020, 10(6), 797; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10060797 - 4 Jun 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 3496

Abstract

Olive oil byproducts show differences according to the olive oil extraction systems, which are called olive mill solid wastes, olive oil wastewater and olive oil wastewater sludge. Three different kinds of composts, including two-phase and three-phase olive mill solid wastes, and olive oil [...] Read more.

Olive oil byproducts show differences according to the olive oil extraction systems, which are called olive mill solid wastes, olive oil wastewater and olive oil wastewater sludge. Three different kinds of composts, including two-phase and three-phase olive mill solid wastes, and olive oil wastewater sludge were produced with separated dairy manure, poultry manure, and straw. The composts obtained from two-phase and three-phase olive mill solid wastes and olive oil wastewater sludge were named as two-phase, three-phase, and water sludge composts, respectively. They were separately enriched by rock phosphate and potassium salt. These composts were mixed with peat in a ratio of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% (v/v). Tomato seeds were sown in all mixtures on 3 February 2016. All the seeds were sown into 2 trays and each plug included 2 replicates. The trays were left in a germination room for 3 days, then moved to a heated greenhouse which is specialized for growing seedlings, and the seedlings were grown there for 3 weeks. The results showed that increasing compost ratios in the growing medium and also the enrichment of the growing medium increased organic matter content, electrical conductivity, and macro and micro nutrient concentrations. The germination period lasted longer with increasing compost ratios. The shoot length was lower at a compost ratio of over 50% excluding water sludge compost, which reacted to over 75%. The highest plant dry weights were obtained in the plants grown on the media with compost ratios of 50%, 25%, and 25% for water sludge compost, enriched two-phase compost, and enriched three-phase compost, respectively. We concluded that the composts obtained from two-phase and three-phase olive mill solid wastes and olive oil waste water sludge can be used without any need of enrichment and a ratio of 25% was found appropriate in most of the measured properties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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12 pages, 1452 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Biochar and Vermicompost Amendments Affect Substrate Properties and Plant Growth of Basil and Tomato

by Lan Huang, Mengmeng Gu, Ping Yu, Chunling Zhou and Xiuli Liu

Agronomy 2020, 10(2), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10020224 - 4 Feb 2020

Cited by 25 | Viewed by 4971

Abstract

The suitability of biochar (BC) as a container substrate depends on the BC mix ratio and plant species. Mixes with mixed hardwood BC (20%, 40%, 60%, and 80%, by volume) and vermicompost (VC; 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, by volume) were evaluated as [...] Read more.

The suitability of biochar (BC) as a container substrate depends on the BC mix ratio and plant species. Mixes with mixed hardwood BC (20%, 40%, 60%, and 80%, by volume) and vermicompost (VC; 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%, by volume) were evaluated as container substrates on basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) and tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L. ‘Roma’) plants compared to a commercial peat-based substrate (CS). The CS made up the rest of the volume when BC and VC did not add up to 100%. The total porosity of all mixes with BC, VC, and CS (BC:VC:CS mixes) was similar to the control. Mixes with 80% BC had lower container capacity than the control. At 9 weeks after transplanting, the leachate pH of all the BC:VC:CS mixes was higher than that of the control, except for mixes of 20%BC and 5%VC with the rest (75%) being CS (20BC:5VC:75CS) and 20BC:10VC:70CS with tomato plants. The soil plant analysis development (SPAD) readings in BC:VC:CS mixes were similar to or higher than the control except for tomato plants in 80BC:5VC:15CS, 80BC:15VC:5CS, and 80BC:20VC:0CS mixes. Plants in BC:VC:CS mixes had similar growth indexes and total dry weight with respect to those in 100% CS, with the root DW of basil plants in 60BC:15VC:25CS being the highest among all treatments. Therefore, the BC (20%, 40%, 60%, or 80%, by volume) and VC (5%, 10%, 15%, or 20%, by volume) mixes had the potential to replace CS for container-grown plants, with the estimate wholesale price for 80BC:5VC:15CS was only 61.6% that of the control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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12 pages, 3381 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Mixed Hardwood and Sugarcane Biochar as Bark-Based Substrate Substitutes on Container Plants Production and Nutrient Leaching

by Ping Yu, Lan Huang, Qiansheng Li, Isabel M. Lima, Paul M. White and Mengmeng Gu

Agronomy 2020, 10(2), 156; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10020156 - 22 Jan 2020

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 4583

Abstract

Biochar (BC) has the potential to replace bark-based commercial substrates in the production of container plants. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the potential of mixed hardwood biochar (HB) and sugarcane bagasse biochar (SBB) to replace the bark-based commercial substrate. A bark-based [...] Read more.

Biochar (BC) has the potential to replace bark-based commercial substrates in the production of container plants. A greenhouse experiment was conducted to evaluate the potential of mixed hardwood biochar (HB) and sugarcane bagasse biochar (SBB) to replace the bark-based commercial substrate. A bark-based commercial substrate was incorporated with either HB at 50% (vol.) or SBB at 50% and 70% (vol.), with a bark-based commercial substrate being used as the control. The total porosity (TP) and container capacity (CC) of all SBB-incorporated mixes were slightly higher than the recommended value, while, the others were within the recommended range. Both tomato and basil plants grown in the BC-incorporated mixes had a similar or higher growth index (GI), leaf greenness (indicated by soil-plant analyses development), and yield than the control. The leachate of all mixes had the highest NO₃–N concentration in the first week after transplantation (1 WAT). All BC-incorporated mixes grown with both tomato and basil had similar NO₃–N concentration to the control (except 50% SBB at 1 and 5 WAT, and 50% HB at 5 WAT with tomato plants; 50% SBB at 5 WAT with basil plants). In conclusion, HB could replace bark-based substrates at 50% and SBB at 70% for both tomato and basil plant growth, without negative effects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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14 pages, 1782 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of UV Radiation and Salt Stress on the Accumulation of Economically Relevant Secondary Metabolites in Bell Pepper Plants

by Jan Ellenberger, Nils Siefen, Priska Krefting, Jan-Bernd Schulze Lutum, Daniel Pfarr, Maja Remmel, Lukas Schröder and Simone Röhlen-Schmittgen

Agronomy 2020, 10(1), 142; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10010142 - 18 Jan 2020

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 6999

Abstract

The green biomass of horticultural plants contains valuable secondary metabolites (SM), which can potentially be extracted and sold. When exposed to stress, plants accumulate higher amounts of these SMs, making the extraction and commercialization even more attractive. We evaluated the potential for accumulating [...] Read more.

The green biomass of horticultural plants contains valuable secondary metabolites (SM), which can potentially be extracted and sold. When exposed to stress, plants accumulate higher amounts of these SMs, making the extraction and commercialization even more attractive. We evaluated the potential for accumulating the flavones cynaroside and graveobioside A in leaves of two bell pepper cultivars (Mavras and Stayer) when exposed to salt stress (100 mM NaCl), UVA/B excitation (UVA 4–5 W/m²; UVB 10–14 W/m² for 3 h per day), or a combination of both stressors. Plant age during the trials was 32–48 days. HPLC analyses proved the enhanced accumulation of both metabolites under stress conditions. Cynaroside accumulation is effectively triggered by high-UV stress, whereas graveobioside A contents increase under salt stress. Highest contents of secondary metabolites were observed in plants exposed to combined stress. Effects of stress on overall plant performance differed significantly between treatments, with least negative impact on above ground biomass found for high-UV stressed plants. The usage of two non-destructive instruments (Dualex and Multiplex) allowed us to gain insights into the ontogenetical effects at the leaf level and temporal development of SM contents. Indices provided by those devices correlate fairly with amounts detected via HPLC (Cynaroside: r² = 0.46–0.66; Graveobioside A: r² = 0.51–0.71). The concentrations of both metabolites tend to decrease at leaf level during the ontogenetical development even under stress conditions. High-UV stress should be considered as a tool for enriching plant leaves with valuable SM. Effects on the performance of plants throughout a complete production cycle should be evaluated in future trials. All data is available online. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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21 pages, 8869 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Interactive Effects of the CO₂ Enrichment and Nitrogen Supply on the Biomass Accumulation, Gas Exchange Properties, and Mineral Elements Concentrations in Cucumber Plants at Different Growth Stages

by Xun Li, Jinlong Dong, Nazim S. Gruda, Wenying Chu and Zengqiang Duan

Agronomy 2020, 10(1), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10010139 - 17 Jan 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 4949

Abstract

The concentration changes of mineral elements in plants at different CO₂ concentrations ([CO₂]) and nitrogen (N) supplies and the mechanisms which control such changes are not clear. Hydroponic trials on cucumber plants with three [CO₂] (400, 625, and [...] Read more.

The concentration changes of mineral elements in plants at different CO₂ concentrations ([CO₂]) and nitrogen (N) supplies and the mechanisms which control such changes are not clear. Hydroponic trials on cucumber plants with three [CO₂] (400, 625, and 1200 μmol mol⁻¹) and five N supply levels (2, 4, 7, 14, and 21 mmol L⁻¹) were conducted. When plants were in high N supply, the increase in total biomass by elevated [CO₂] was 51.7% and 70.1% at the seedling and initial fruiting stages, respectively. An increase in net photosynthetic rate (Pn) by more than 60%, a decrease in stomatal conductance (Gs) by 21.2–27.7%, and a decrease in transpiration rate (Tr) by 22.9–31.9% under elevated [CO₂] were also observed. High N supplies could further improve the Pn and offset the decrease of Gs and Tr by elevated [CO₂]. According to the mineral concentrations and the correlation results, we concluded the main factors affecting these changes. The dilution effect was the main factor driving the reduction of all mineral elements, whereas Tr also had a great impact on the decrease of [N], [K], [Ca], and [Mg] except [P]. In addition, the demand changes of N, Ca, and Mg influenced the corresponding element concentrations in cucumber plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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17 pages, 2860 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Plant Nutrient Availability and pH of Biochars and Their Fractions, with the Possible Use as a Component in a Growing Media

by Munoo Prasad, Antonios Chrysargyris, Nicola McDaniel, Anna Kavanagh, Nazim S. Gruda and Nikolaos Tzortzakis

Agronomy 2020, 10(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy10010010 - 19 Dec 2019

Cited by 69 | Viewed by 6168

Abstract

Biochar has the potential to be used as a growing media component, and therefore plays a role in reducing peat usage. It has unique properties apart from the ability to sequester carbon. Here we investigated the nutrient contents of four commercial biochars and [...] Read more.

Biochar has the potential to be used as a growing media component, and therefore plays a role in reducing peat usage. It has unique properties apart from the ability to sequester carbon. Here we investigated the nutrient contents of four commercial biochars and their fractions. The biochars’ feedstock was wood waste, except for one with paper fibres and husk. The fine or finer fractions in wood waste biochars contained higher levels of nutrients that were available to plants. The coarse fraction of the biochar derived from husk and paper fibre feedstock had a higher level of total N, P and K in contrast to the other three biochars. The pH of the finer fraction (pH of 9.08) was also higher compared with coarse fraction (pH of 8.71). It is important that when biochar a is used as a component of a peat based growing media, particle size information should be provided, as fractions from the same biochar can have different levels of total extractable nutrients and pH levels. If biochar is used to replace or reduce lime application rates of a peat-biochar mixtures, one must take into account the levels of total and extractable Ca and Mg levels, as these can vary. The variation of these elements was not only between biochars’ feedstocks, even at similar pH-values, but within different fractions in the same biochar. We concluded that biochars should be characterized from the feedstock as well as from the particle size aspect, as it could have a profound effect on nutrient availability of Ca and Mg. This could lead to nutrient imbalances in cultivating plants on substrate mixtures. In addition to nutrient ratios, the suitable pH-level for a given grown species should be adjusted. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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15 pages, 3265 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antioxidant Seasonal Changes in Soilless Greenhouse Sweet Peppers

by Damianos Neocleous and Georgios Nikolaou

Agronomy 2019, 9(11), 730; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9110730 - 8 Nov 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4107

Abstract

This study was commissioned to study the effect of the growing season on the antioxidant components of greenhouse sweet pepper crops, which is of scientific interest because of their possible beneficial health effects. The total antioxidant activity (estimated by ferric reducing antioxidant power-FRAP [...] Read more.

This study was commissioned to study the effect of the growing season on the antioxidant components of greenhouse sweet pepper crops, which is of scientific interest because of their possible beneficial health effects. The total antioxidant activity (estimated by ferric reducing antioxidant power-FRAP assay) major antioxidants (ascorbic acid, phenolics and carotenoids) and taste fruit quality characteristics (soluble solids, titratable acidity, dry matter and sugars) were recorded in soilless-grown sweet pepper cultivars of red, orange, yellow and green color at four harvesting season months, i.e., February (winter), May (spring), July (summer) and October (autumn). The results showed seasonal variations in antioxidant components and activity of pepper fruits. In most cases measured parameters showed higher values in spring (May) and summer (July) compared with winter (February) and autumn (October) growing seasons. This study indicates that during late autumn and winter, lower levels of solar irradiance, ultraviolet radiation and temperature in Mediterranean greenhouses can be insufficient to stimulate phytochemicals production in peppers; thus, plant–light interception must be more actively managed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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20 pages, 2636 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar Type and Ratio as a Peat Additive/Partial Peat Replacement in Growing Media for Cabbage Seedling Production

by Antonios Chrysargyris, Munoo Prasad, Anna Kavanagh and Nikos Tzortzakis

Agronomy 2019, 9(11), 693; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9110693 - 29 Oct 2019

Cited by 42 | Viewed by 5517

Abstract

Biochar has been proposed mainly as a soil amendment, positively affecting plant growth/yield, and to a lesser degree for growing media. In this study, four commercial grade biochars (A-forest wood; B-husks and paper fiber; C-bamboo and D-fresh wood screening), mostly wood-based materials, were [...] Read more.

Biochar has been proposed mainly as a soil amendment, positively affecting plant growth/yield, and to a lesser degree for growing media. In this study, four commercial grade biochars (A-forest wood; B-husks and paper fiber; C-bamboo and D-fresh wood screening), mostly wood-based materials, were selected. Initial mixtures of peat (P) with different Biochar type and ratios (0-5-10-15-20%) were selected for cabbage seedling production. Biochar material had high K content and pH ≥ 8.64 which resulted in increased pH of the growing media. Biochar A and C at 20% reduced cabbage seed emergence. Biochar A, B and D maintained or improved plant growth at low ratio (i.e., 5–10%) while all Biochars increased N, K and P content in leaves. Biochars A and D were further examined at 7.5% and 15% with the addition of two doses of minerals (1-fold and 1.5-fold). Biochar A and D, initially stimulated seed emergence when compared to the control. High dose of fertilizer favored plant growth in Biochar A at 7.5% and Biochar D at 15%. Leaf stomatal conductance was decreased at Biochar A+Fert at 7.5% and Chlorophyll b content was decreased at Biochar A+Fert at 15%. The presence of Biochar A increased the antioxidant activity (as assayed by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl-DPPH). Lipid peroxidation was higher in plants grown with fertilized peat and Biochar A at 15%, activating antioxidant enzymatic metabolisms. Potassium, phosphorous and copper accumulation and magnesium deficiency in cabbage leaves were related to the Biochar presence. Wooden biochar of beech, spruce and pine species (Biochar A) at 7.5% and fertilized biochar of fruit trees and hedges (Biochar D) were more promising for peat replacement for cabbage seedling production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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12 pages, 2300 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Substrate Volumetric Water Content Controls Growth and Development of Containerized Culinary Herbs

by Christopher J. Currey, Nicholas J. Flax, Alexander G. Litvin and Vincent C. Metz

Agronomy 2019, 9(11), 667; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9110667 - 23 Oct 2019

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 4154

Abstract

There are no chemical plant growth retardants that may be used on containerized culinary herbs intended for consumption. Our objective was to quantify the effect of substrate moisture content on the growth of four commonly produced culinary annual herbs grown in containers in [...] Read more.

There are no chemical plant growth retardants that may be used on containerized culinary herbs intended for consumption. Our objective was to quantify the effect of substrate moisture content on the growth of four commonly produced culinary annual herbs grown in containers in the greenhouse. Seedlings of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.), dill (Anethum graveolens L.), parsley (Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss), and sage (Salvia officinalis L.) were transplanted into 11.4 cm diameter containers filled with commercial soilless substrate comprising (by vol.) 75% sphagnum peat moss and 25% coarse perlite and amended with 3.0 kg·m⁻³ of controlled-release fertilizer. After the containers were thoroughly irrigated to container capacity, plants were placed into a sensor-controlled irrigation system, which maintained substrate volumetric water content (VWC) at 0.15, 0.28, 0.30, 0.38, or 0.45 m³·m⁻³. Chlorophyll fluorescence, photosynthesis, stomatal conductance, and transpiration were measured 27 d after initiating treatments, and the results showed that chlorophyll fluorescence of parsley and photosynthesis of basil increased as substrate VWC increased from 0.15 to 0.45 m³·m⁻³; the remaining parameters for basil, parsley, and sage were unaffected. Additionally, height, width, leaf area, and shoot dry mass of basil, dill, parsley, and sage increased as substrate volumetric water content increased from 0.15 to 0.45 m³·m⁻³. Our results show that growth of basil, dill, parsley, and sage can be promoted or inhibited by providing or withholding water, respectively, with no signs of stress or visual damage resulting from reduced substrate volumetric water content. Therefore, restricting irrigation and substrate volumetric water content is an effective nonchemical growth control method for containerized culinary herbs grown in peat-based substrate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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16 pages, 2899 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical and Experimental Analysis of Nutrient Variations in Electrical Conductivity-Based Closed-Loop Soilless Culture Systems by Nutrient Replenishment Method

by Tae In Ahn and Jung Eek Son

Agronomy 2019, 9(10), 649; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9100649 - 17 Oct 2019

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 4882

Abstract

In closed-loop soilless culture systems, variation in nutrients can lead to instability in the nutrient management and forced discharge of nutrients and water. Total nutrients absorbed by plants are replenished in an electrical conductivity-based closed-loop system, and fluctuation in electrical conductivity within a [...] Read more.

In closed-loop soilless culture systems, variation in nutrients can lead to instability in the nutrient management and forced discharge of nutrients and water. Total nutrients absorbed by plants are replenished in an electrical conductivity-based closed-loop system, and fluctuation in electrical conductivity within a certain range around the initial value can be expected. However, this is not always observed in systems using conventional nutrient-replenishment methods. The objectives of this study were to analyze nutrient variation in a closed-loop soilless culture system based on a theoretical model and derive an alternative nutrient-replenishment method. The performance of the derived alternative method was compared with a conventional nutrient-replenishment method through simulation analysis. A demonstration experiment using sweet peppers was then conducted to confirm whether the theoretical analysis results can be reproduced through actual cultivation. The average amounts of injected nutrients during the experimental period of four months in the conventional and alternative methods were 2257 and 1054 g, respectively. There was no significant difference in the yield of sweet peppers between the two methods. The substrate electrical conductivity in the alternative method was maintained at 2.7 dS⋅m⁻¹ ± 0.5 within the target electrical conductivity value, while that in the conventional method gradually increased to 5.0 dS⋅m⁻¹ ± 1.2. In a simulation study, results similar to the demonstration experiment were predicted. Total nutrient concentrations in the alternative method showed fluctuations around the target value but did not continuously deviate from the target value, while those in the conventional method showed a tendency to increase. As a whole, these characteristics of the alternative method can help in minimizing nutrients and water emissions from the cultivation system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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19 pages, 2301 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Pre-Harvest UV-B Radiation and Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density Interactively Affect Plant Photosynthesis, Growth, and Secondary Metabolites Accumulation in Basil (Ocimum basilicum) Plants

by Haijie Dou, Genhua Niu and Mengmeng Gu

Agronomy 2019, 9(8), 434; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9080434 - 7 Aug 2019

Cited by 79 | Viewed by 8918

Abstract

Phenolic compounds in basil (Ocimum basilicum) plants grown under a controlled environment are reduced due to the absence of ultraviolet (UV) radiation and low photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). To characterize the optimal UV-B radiation dose and PPFD for enhancing the [...] Read more.

Phenolic compounds in basil (Ocimum basilicum) plants grown under a controlled environment are reduced due to the absence of ultraviolet (UV) radiation and low photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD). To characterize the optimal UV-B radiation dose and PPFD for enhancing the synthesis of phenolic compounds in basil plants without yield reduction, green and purple basil plants grown at two PPFDs, 160 and 224 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹, were treated with five UV-B radiation doses including control, 1 h·d⁻¹ for 2 days, 2 h·d⁻¹ for 2 days, 1 h·d⁻¹ for 5 days, and 2 h·d⁻¹ for 5 days. Supplemental UV-B radiation suppressed plant growth and resulted in reduced plant yield, while high PPFD increased plant yield. Shoot fresh weight in green and purple basil plants was 12%–51% and 6%–44% lower, respectively, after UV-B treatments compared to control. Concentrations of anthocyanin, phenolics, and flavonoids in green basil leaves increased under all UV-B treatments by 9%–18%, 28%–126%, and 80%–169%, respectively, and the increase was greater under low PPFD compared to high PPFD. In purple basil plants, concentrations of phenolics and flavonoids increased after 2 h·d⁻¹ UV-B treatments. Among all treatments, 1 h·d⁻¹ for 2 days UV-B radiation under PPFD of 224 μmol·m⁻²·s⁻¹ was the optimal condition for green basil production under a controlled environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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11 pages, 891 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Selection of Fertilizer and Cultivar of Sweet Pepper and Eggplant for Hydroponic Production

by Hardeep Singh, Bruce L. Dunn, Mark Payton and Lynn Brandenberger

Agronomy 2019, 9(8), 433; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9080433 - 7 Aug 2019

Cited by 14 | Viewed by 8734

Abstract

Dutch bucket hydroponic trials were conducted with the aim to evaluate the effects of different hydroponic fertilizers (5N-4.8P-21.6K, 5N-5.2P-21.6K, and 7N-3.9P-4.1K) on growth, fruit production, and the fruit quality (fruit shape index) parameters of two cultivars of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) [...] Read more.

Dutch bucket hydroponic trials were conducted with the aim to evaluate the effects of different hydroponic fertilizers (5N-4.8P-21.6K, 5N-5.2P-21.6K, and 7N-3.9P-4.1K) on growth, fruit production, and the fruit quality (fruit shape index) parameters of two cultivars of sweet pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) and on two cultivars of eggplant (Solanum melongena L.). For sweet pepper yield, the 5N-4.8P-21.6K fertilizer was responsible for the greatest yield for both cultivars. For sweet pepper fresh and dry shoot weight interaction, the ‘Orangella’ cultivar had greater growth in 5N-4.8P-21.6K and 5N-5.2P-21.6K fertilizers, whereas there was no difference among cultivars in 7N-3.9P-4.1K. Shape index was not affected by fertilizers or cultivars. For the eggplant yield, there was no main effect nor interaction between fertilizers and cultivars for fruit yield, while the interaction between fertilizers and cultivars was significant for shoot fresh weight production. Shoot fresh weight was greater for ‘Angela’ than ‘Jaylo’ in 5N-4.8P-21.6K and 7N-3.9P-4.1K. Furthermore, both eggplant cultivars were affected with yellowing of fruits in all fertilizer treatments after 2 months, which was probably due to the accumulation of nutrients in the closed hydroponic system. Therefore, hydroponic producers could select 5N-4.8P-21.6K and 5N-5.2P-21.6K fertilizers for the cultivation of the ‘Orangella’ cultivar of sweet pepper based on yield. It is important to evaluate more fertilizers and cultivars for eggplant hydroponic cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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Review

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24 pages, 1569 KiB

Open AccessReview

Increasing Sustainability of Growing Media Constituents and Stand-Alone Substrates in Soilless Culture Systems

by Nazim S. Gruda

Agronomy 2019, 9(6), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9060298 - 9 Jun 2019

Cited by 296 | Viewed by 28249

Abstract

Decreasing arable land, rising urbanization, water scarcity, and climate change exert pressure on agricultural producers. Moving from soil to soilless culture systems can improve water use efficiency, especially in closed-loop systems with a recirculating water/nutrient solution that recaptures the drain water for reuse. [...] Read more.

Decreasing arable land, rising urbanization, water scarcity, and climate change exert pressure on agricultural producers. Moving from soil to soilless culture systems can improve water use efficiency, especially in closed-loop systems with a recirculating water/nutrient solution that recaptures the drain water for reuse. However, the question of alternative materials to peat and rockwool, as horticultural substrates, has become increasingly important, due to the despoiling of ecologically important peat bog areas and a pervasive waste problem. In this paper, we provide a comprehensive critical review of current developments in soilless culture, growing media, and future options of using different materials other than peat and rockwool. Apart from growing media properties and their performance from the point of view of plant production, economic and environmental factors are also important. Climate change, CO₂ emissions, and other ecological issues will determine and drive the development of soilless culture systems and the choice of growing media in the near future. Bioresources, e.g., treated and untreated waste, as well as renewable raw materials, have great potential to be used as growing media constituents and stand-alone substrates. A waste management strategy aimed at reducing, reusing, and recycling should be further and stronger applied in soilless culture systems. We concluded that the growing media of the future must be available, affordable, and sustainable and meet both quality and environmental requirements from growers and society, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Soilless Culture, Growing Media and Horticultural Plants)

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