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Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Issue 2 (June 2025) – 45 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): My article in Encyclopedia contains two components: (1) a review of historical use of phages for basic science and medicine, and (2) the projected future use of phages in biomedicine. My own research began in the field of basic science. I then transitioned to major areas of biomedicine, that I perceived to require fundamental advances. In both my historical review and my projections, I focused on retaining the following features: directness, simplicity, molecular orientation, and data comprehensiveness. An example of this is my selective literature review of Alzheimer’s disease, including our own experimental work. The result was the disease model illustrated in the attached Graphical Abstract. Additional examples are in text on the phage-derived therapy of both bacterial disease and metastatic cancer. View this paper
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15 pages, 1268 KiB  
Entry
Education and Employment
by Georgios Giotis, Themistoklis Gogas and Konstantina Gouda
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020085 - 19 Jun 2025
Viewed by 294
Definition
This entry provides a detailed examination of the relationship between education and employment outcomes. It presents the conceptual framework which connects them and discusses the theories on their nexus, and is the first study to attempt this endeavor. Moreover, it analyzes the factors [...] Read more.
This entry provides a detailed examination of the relationship between education and employment outcomes. It presents the conceptual framework which connects them and discusses the theories on their nexus, and is the first study to attempt this endeavor. Moreover, it analyzes the factors which influence the education–employment relationship, which the existing literature has not comprehensively addressed. In addition, this entry employs data from Eurostat which points to a beneficial role of education on employment, especially of tertiary education. The entry also highlights the role of factors such as the quality and relevance of education, the development of employability skills, the selection and matching processes in the labor market, and the broader economic and social contexts. Within this framework, policymakers should prioritize investments in education and training programs that align with labor market needs, promote both general and vocational skills development, and foster closer collaboration between educational institutions and employers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
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17 pages, 284 KiB  
Entry
The Health Impact of Fast Fashion: Exploring Toxic Chemicals in Clothing and Textiles
by Vivian Christine Dourado Pinto and Meital Peleg Mizrachi
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 84; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020084 - 18 Jun 2025
Viewed by 825
Definition
The fashion industry is widely recognized for its environmental challenges, but the health impacts related to textile toxicity remain significantly underexplored. Beyond the well-known issues of pollution and resource depletion, modern clothing often harbors a hidden threat: hazardous chemicals embedded within fabrics. These [...] Read more.
The fashion industry is widely recognized for its environmental challenges, but the health impacts related to textile toxicity remain significantly underexplored. Beyond the well-known issues of pollution and resource depletion, modern clothing often harbors a hidden threat: hazardous chemicals embedded within fabrics. These include dyes containing heavy metals, antimicrobial agents that foster bacterial resistance, and synthetic fibers that release microplastics. Unlike environmental discussions, the dialogue around the direct and long-term health effects of these substances is still limited. This entry addresses critical yet often-overlooked concerns, such as how chemicals in textiles contribute to chronic skin conditions, hormonal disruptions, and even carcinogenic risks. It also examines the proliferation of bacteria in synthetic garments, leading to dermatological infections and rapid fabric degradation. Furthermore, the globalized nature of production masks the contamination risks transferred from producer to consumer countries. Through an interdisciplinary approach, this entry highlights the urgent need for integrating scientific innovation, stringent regulation, and consumer awareness to mitigate health hazards in fashion. It calls for the adoption of safer textile technologies, sustainable materials, and transparent production practices, paving the way for a fashion future that prioritizes human health as much as environmental sustainability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemistry)
14 pages, 222 KiB  
Review
Mining Waste Materials in Road Construction
by Nuha Mashaan and Bina Yogi
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 83; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020083 - 16 Jun 2025
Viewed by 383
Abstract
Resource depletion and environmental degradation have resulted from the substantial increase in the use of natural aggregates and construction materials brought on by the growing demand for infrastructure development. Road building using mining waste has become a viable substitute that reduces the buildup [...] Read more.
Resource depletion and environmental degradation have resulted from the substantial increase in the use of natural aggregates and construction materials brought on by the growing demand for infrastructure development. Road building using mining waste has become a viable substitute that reduces the buildup of industrial waste while providing ecological and economic advantages. In order to assess the appropriateness of several mining waste materials for use in road building, this study investigates their engineering characteristics. These materials include slag, fly ash, tailings, waste rock, and overburden. To ensure long-term performance in pavement applications, this study evaluates their tensile and compressive strength, resistance to abrasion, durability under freeze–thaw cycles, and chemical stability. This review highlights the potential of mining waste materials as sustainable alternatives in road construction. Waste rock and slag exhibit excellent mechanical strength and durability, making them suitable for high-traffic pavements. Although fly ash and tailings require stabilization, their pozzolanic properties enhance subgrade reinforcement and soil stabilization. Properly processed overburden materials are viable for subbase and embankment applications. By promoting the reuse of mining waste, this study supports landfill reduction, carbon emission mitigation, and circular economy principles. Overall, mining byproducts present a cost-effective and environmentally responsible alternative to conventional construction materials. To support broader implementation, further efforts are needed to improve stabilization techniques, monitor long-term field performance, and establish effective policy frameworks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Engineering)
19 pages, 893 KiB  
Entry
Heritage-Based Urban Development
by Matthias Ripp and Jonquille Clifford
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 82; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020082 - 13 Jun 2025
Viewed by 393
Definition
The purpose of this entry is to introduce the concept of Heritage-based Urban Development and explain its evolution and implications for historic urban landscapes. The term Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) refers to an integrated understanding of historic cities that goes beyond individual monuments [...] Read more.
The purpose of this entry is to introduce the concept of Heritage-based Urban Development and explain its evolution and implications for historic urban landscapes. The term Historic Urban Landscape (HUL) refers to an integrated understanding of historic cities that goes beyond individual monuments or architectural ensembles to encompass the broader spatial, cultural, and functional relationships within the urban fabric. It reflects a shift toward viewing historic areas as dynamic systems with a role in sustainable development. Heritage-based urban development refers to development approaches that take urban heritage—typically within historic urban landscapes—as the starting point, valuing these landscapes in all their specificities, processes, and cultural meanings as resources to be embraced rather than obstacles to be overcome. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Urban Planning)
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12 pages, 308 KiB  
Entry
Special Educational Needs Prevalence in Irish-Immersion Schools
by Sinéad Nic Aindriú
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020081 - 13 Jun 2025
Viewed by 201
Definition
For the purposes of this entry, special educational needs (SEN) refers to a condition where a student requires additional support to access education due to a disability, learning difficulty, or other developmental challenges. In this entry, an overview is provided of the prevalence [...] Read more.
For the purposes of this entry, special educational needs (SEN) refers to a condition where a student requires additional support to access education due to a disability, learning difficulty, or other developmental challenges. In this entry, an overview is provided of the prevalence of and categories of SEN in Irish-immersion primary and post-primary schools across the island of Ireland. This entry examines the prevalence and categories of SEN in Irish-immersion (IM) primary and post-primary schools across the island of Ireland. With immersion education playing a significant role in fostering bilingual proficiency, understanding SEN prevalence within these settings is critical for ensuring inclusive educational practices. The entry analyses trends over the past two decades in SEN prevalence, highlighting an increase in SEN identification, particularly in IM post-primary schools. It also explores regional disparities, comparing Gaeltacht and IM schools outside of the Gaeltacht, as well as differences between IM and English-medium education sectors. Factors such as socio-economic disadvantage, diagnostic advancements, and policy developments are considered when interpreting SEN trends. The findings contribute to the limited international research on SEN prevalence in immersion education and offer insights into recommendations in the areas of policy and practice to further support students with diverse learning needs in bilingual settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)
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20 pages, 2558 KiB  
Systematic Review
Exploring Innovation of Internationalisation Effectiveness in the Higher Education Sector: A Systematic Review
by Emmanuel Udekwe, Olusegun Samson Obadire and Chux Gervase Iwu
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 80; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020080 - 10 Jun 2025
Viewed by 661
Abstract
The government, business, and higher education sectors benefit from internationalisation. This viewpoint is articulated considering the improved academic quality and international recognition derived from faculty/student exchange programs and research partnerships, which elevate academic standards and the institution’s profile internationally. This systematic review is [...] Read more.
The government, business, and higher education sectors benefit from internationalisation. This viewpoint is articulated considering the improved academic quality and international recognition derived from faculty/student exchange programs and research partnerships, which elevate academic standards and the institution’s profile internationally. This systematic review is intended to (i) highlight the prevalence of current publications and other research-related activities that are steered towards the innovation of internationalisation in Higher Education Sector (HES), (ii) analyse and organise data on the impact of internationalisation effectiveness in the HES, and (iii) conclude with future characteristics of internationalisation effectiveness with suggestions to government, decision-makers, and institutions to achieve sustainable education sector. A search strategy was initiated through various research databases within the years 2005–2024. Of the 3865 identified papers from the database search, 3558 were excluded, and 307 were selected, of which 32 publications were utilised in the review process. The study identified several themes: transformation, factors, global nationality, international mobility, impact, curriculum and strategic framework. The study highlights the need to decolonise the HES for internationalisation effectiveness. This study also highlights future empirical research on the innovative effects of internationalisation for economic development. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
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9 pages, 200 KiB  
Entry
Workplace Deviance: A Non-Western Perspective
by Ijeoma Gloria Ukeni and Shelley Harrington
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 79; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020079 - 9 Jun 2025
Viewed by 457
Definition
Deviance is defined as actions that are opposed to generally accepted norms or violate acceptable behaviours within a society. Much of the deviant literature emphasises how the divergence from acceptable standards or behaviour is deviant. However, this begs the question: what happens when [...] Read more.
Deviance is defined as actions that are opposed to generally accepted norms or violate acceptable behaviours within a society. Much of the deviant literature emphasises how the divergence from acceptable standards or behaviour is deviant. However, this begs the question: what happens when an acceptable norm is unethical or ought to be? In response, this entry calls into question the work-chop phenomenon in Nigeria. The work-chop phenomenon supports using dishonest means for personal gain. It is promoted via a repetitive statement that appeals to the listeners’ cognition and sentiments. Its prevalence makes it a norm in some sense, so defining deviance from a Western perspective alone leaves room for this nuanced phenomenon to go unnoticed in the literature. Based on secondary research and normative ethical theories, the authors argue that work-chop is ethical deviance because its means and ends are not mutually beneficial to the parties involved. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)
13 pages, 257 KiB  
Review
Measuring Money Attitudes and Beliefs
by Adrian Furnham
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 78; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020078 - 5 Jun 2025
Viewed by 714
Abstract
Over the last 50 years, there have been many attempts to devise and validate questionnaires to assess an individual’s attitude toward money and related issues. This paper attempts to conduct a comprehensive review of those measures. In all, this paper documents 54 salient [...] Read more.
Over the last 50 years, there have been many attempts to devise and validate questionnaires to assess an individual’s attitude toward money and related issues. This paper attempts to conduct a comprehensive review of those measures. In all, this paper documents 54 salient studies and consults many other references from diverse and multi-disciplinary literature. There is evidently a great deal of overlap in the money attitudes dimensions assessed. Research has concentrated on the correlates of these attitudes (cultural, demographic, financial, and personality). Suggestions for the choice and development of measures are made, along with propositions for future research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
15 pages, 270 KiB  
Entry
Political Communication in the Age of Platforms
by Stylianos Papathanassopoulos and Iliana Giannouli
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 77; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020077 - 3 Jun 2025
Viewed by 1313
Definition
Political communication has been extensively studied through both the broader context of societal and political systems, as well as through the lens of mediatization, which emphasizes the intersection of political and media logics. Within this framework, scholars originally identified three distinct stages or [...] Read more.
Political communication has been extensively studied through both the broader context of societal and political systems, as well as through the lens of mediatization, which emphasizes the intersection of political and media logics. Within this framework, scholars originally identified three distinct stages or eras of political communication. However, recent scholarship has increasingly focused on the transition to a “fourth” era, characterized by the growing impact of digital and social media. This shift, from the “television age” to the “social media age”, has not only introduced new media channels for conveying political messages but has also fundamentally transformed the nature of political communication itself—shifting from top-down, centralized models to more horizontal, decentralized forms of interaction. Current research on the role of social media in political communication reveals a complex landscape. These platforms appear to both enhance and undermine established processes of political deliberation. On the one hand, they provide new avenues for civic engagement and political discourse, while on the other, they contribute to issues such as disinformation, polarization, and the erosion of privacy. This entry aims to offer a comprehensive review of how social media platforms have reshaped the dynamics of political communication and civic participation. It further explores the challenges that accompany these transformations, such as the spread of disinformation, rising political polarization, increasing incivility, and privacy concerns stemming from advanced digital marketing techniques in political contexts. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
12 pages, 466 KiB  
Entry
Matrix Certified Reference Materials
by Tadeusz Gorewoda, Justyna Kostrzewa, Marta Wolska, Ewa Jamroz and Jacek Anyszkiewicz
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 76; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020076 - 3 Jun 2025
Viewed by 733
Definition
Matrix certified reference materials (mCRMs) are materials characterized by suitable homogeneity, stability, and traceability, with certified values, including uncertainties, and a specific matrix. mCRMs constitute a reference for instrumental analytical methods and ensure their metrological consistency. Matrix certified reference materials (mCRMs) are essential [...] Read more.
Matrix certified reference materials (mCRMs) are materials characterized by suitable homogeneity, stability, and traceability, with certified values, including uncertainties, and a specific matrix. mCRMs constitute a reference for instrumental analytical methods and ensure their metrological consistency. Matrix certified reference materials (mCRMs) are essential tools for ensuring the accuracy and traceability of analytical measurements, particularly for samples with complex matrices. These mCRMs are carefully manufactured materials that closely mimic the composition and properties of real samples, allowing laboratories to validate their analytical methods, calibrate analytical instruments, or check the classical methods. This article highlights the challenges associated with the production and characterization of these complex mCRMs, including obtaining homogeneous materials, establishing accurate target values, and ensuring stability for different types of materials, such as gases, liquids, and metal alloys. Additionally, the process of statistical evaluation through the use of advanced statistical methods is discussed, as is the systems approach associated with the implementation of the ISO 17034 standard, which specifies the requirements for manufacturers of reference materials. This paper also includes a summary of the current status in trends of normalization as well as mCRM production. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemistry)
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16 pages, 548 KiB  
Entry
Sport During Franco’s Technocracy: From Propaganda to Development
by Juan Manuel Garcia-Manso, Antonio Sánchez-Pato and Juan Alfonso Garcia-Roca
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 75; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020075 - 2 Jun 2025
Viewed by 870
Definition
Sport in Spain during the dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939–1975) underwent significant evolution across three distinct political phases: autarky, the technocratic stage, and late Francoism. Each of these periods was characterized by different approaches and uses of sport within the regime’s political structure. [...] Read more.
Sport in Spain during the dictatorship of Francisco Franco (1939–1975) underwent significant evolution across three distinct political phases: autarky, the technocratic stage, and late Francoism. Each of these periods was characterized by different approaches and uses of sport within the regime’s political structure. In the early years, sport was primarily employed as a tool for propaganda and social control, aligning with the authoritarian values of the state. Subsequently, with the rise of technocrats in the 1960s, reforms were implemented to promote the structural development of the sports system, fostering its modernization and the creation of specialized institutions. Finally, in the late Francoist period, sport became an instrument for international projection, as Spain increased its participation in international competitions and hosted sporting events. This entry analyzes the primary governmental initiatives for the organization and promotion of sport during the Franco regime, with particular attention to the administrative roles played by figures such as José Antonio Elola-Olaso and Juan Antonio Samaranch in the evolving structure of the Spanish sports system. Through an analysis based on documentary sources, it provides a comprehensive overview of Francoist sports policies, their objectives, and their impact on Spanish society. In this regard, sport under Franco’s rule was not only a means of political control but also laid the foundation for the later professionalization and globalization of Spanish sport. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)
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19 pages, 319 KiB  
Entry
Physician Burnout: Historical Context, Psychosomatic Division, Evolution, Results, Solutions, and Recommendations
by Carol Nash
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 74; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020074 - 28 May 2025
Viewed by 1518
Definition
Physician burnout is a psychosomatic syndrome that arises from feeling overwhelmed with confronting issues in those with dedication or commitment to their job. It presents with emotional, mental, and physical fatigue that negatively influences patient treatment decisions and care, representing a primary occupational [...] Read more.
Physician burnout is a psychosomatic syndrome that arises from feeling overwhelmed with confronting issues in those with dedication or commitment to their job. It presents with emotional, mental, and physical fatigue that negatively influences patient treatment decisions and care, representing a primary occupational hazard affecting a significant number of these healthcare providers at some point in their career such that there is an urgency to the need for improvement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)
17 pages, 285 KiB  
Entry
Enablers and Barriers to Youth Employment: An Employment Ecosystem Approach
by Panos Karanikolas and Joanne Xiaolei Qian-Khoo
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 73; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020073 - 28 May 2025
Viewed by 932
Definition
An “employment ecosystem” approach acknowledges that factors affecting employment are never the result of one singular factor but are the product of multiple, intersecting, and mutually reinforcing factors at the individual level (personal attributes and immediate circumstances), relationships and wider community, the workplace, [...] Read more.
An “employment ecosystem” approach acknowledges that factors affecting employment are never the result of one singular factor but are the product of multiple, intersecting, and mutually reinforcing factors at the individual level (personal attributes and immediate circumstances), relationships and wider community, the workplace, and the wider macro-level (societal and structural factors, such as legislation, government policies, and macro-economic trends). Originally conceptualised within the context of employment for people with disabilities, the employment ecosystem approach provides an ecological perspective that can be used to understand the ingredients of inclusive employment more generally. This entry applies an employment ecosystem analytical lens to explore and identify enablers and barriers to youth employment in the Australian context, based on reviews of published research and reports of initiatives and programs targeting youth employment. Findings include the need to recognise the centrality of support from broader community resources, including family and community-based support, employers and co-workers, policy, and legislation. It provides evidence-based insights for practitioners and researchers interested in the development and implementation of inclusive employment practices. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
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17 pages, 618 KiB  
Review
A Scoping Review for Hamstring Injury Risk Monitoring in Australian Rules Football
by Dale Wilson Chapman, Sorcha Humphreys, Shannon Spencer, Nathan Tai, Dag Øyen, Kevin Netto and Robert Waller
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020072 - 27 May 2025
Viewed by 747
Abstract
Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) are the most common time loss injury sustained in male Australian Football League (AFL) athletes, causing significant financial cost, time cost, and impaired team and individual performance. In a squad of 42 players, HSIs accounted for 4.86 new injuries [...] Read more.
Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) are the most common time loss injury sustained in male Australian Football League (AFL) athletes, causing significant financial cost, time cost, and impaired team and individual performance. In a squad of 42 players, HSIs accounted for 4.86 new injuries sustained by players per club per AFL season in 2020. This is consistent with injury reporting over the last decade in AFL, despite best efforts to reduce the rate. This scoping review sought to firstly identify the reported hamstring injury prevention risk factors in elite AFL, discern the impact of these factors, and map the gaps in the current literature using a biopsychosocial understanding of injury prevention. The scoping review process was based on the Askey and O’Malley framework. Five relevant online databases (MEDLINE, Proquest, CINAHL, SPORTdiscuss, and EMBASE) were systematically searched using a series of Boolean and operator terms following the PRISMA-ScR protocol using the criteria: (1) assessing male professional/elite athletes in AFL; (2) written in English and peer-reviewed; (3) full text available; and (4) published after 2006. Only manuscripts that fit the search terms and inclusion criteria were retained in the scoping review. Following an initial search, 246 potential studies were identified, with 12 studies meeting the inclusion criteria after full-text screening. The risk factors examined were subclassified into modifiable and non-modifiable categories. Modifiable factors include high-speed running exposure, gluteus medius activation, eccentric hamstring strength, shorter bicep femoris fascicle length, use of interchange, and hamstring stiffness. Non-modifiable factors include previous history of HSI and limb injury, age, and size of injury on MRI. This scoping review highlights the need for continued monitoring of high-speed running volumes as rapid increases in completed distances present as a substantial risk factor. The modifiable mechanistic risk factors of eccentric hamstring strength and hamstring stiffness were identified as important components of player screening to reduce the risk of future HSI. Risk factors identified throughout will help develop comprehensive injury profiling for athletes. Further research is warranted to develop a holistic approach to injury profiling. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Medicine & Pharmacology)
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14 pages, 241 KiB  
Entry
Differentiated Education Using Technology in Junior and High School Classrooms
by Elissavet Spyropoulou, Manolis Wallace and Vassilis Poulopoulos
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 71; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020071 - 26 May 2025
Viewed by 652
Definition
This entry presents the findings of a bibliographic review in Differentiated Instruction (DI), emphasizing its importance in classrooms with diverse student abilities. DI encourages teachers to adjust their instructional methods based on students’ learning profiles and needs. It has been identified as a [...] Read more.
This entry presents the findings of a bibliographic review in Differentiated Instruction (DI), emphasizing its importance in classrooms with diverse student abilities. DI encourages teachers to adjust their instructional methods based on students’ learning profiles and needs. It has been identified as a crucial strategy for fostering inclusion and equal opportunities in education. Overall, the document underscores the importance of DI in fostering personalized learning and equal opportunities, especially in diverse classrooms. It also highlights ongoing challenges, such as teacher preparation, time constraints, and the need for the effective use of technology and data. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
19 pages, 885 KiB  
Entry
Origins, Styles, and Applications of Text Analytics in Social Science Research
by Konstantinos Zougris
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 70; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020070 - 26 May 2025
Viewed by 1328
Definition
Textual analysis is grounded in conceptual schemes of traditional qualitative and quantitative content analysis techniques that have led to the hybridization of methodological styles widely used across social scientific fields. This paper delivers an extensive review of the origins and evolution of text [...] Read more.
Textual analysis is grounded in conceptual schemes of traditional qualitative and quantitative content analysis techniques that have led to the hybridization of methodological styles widely used across social scientific fields. This paper delivers an extensive review of the origins and evolution of text analysis within the domains of traditional content analysis. Emphasis is given to the conceptual schemas and operational structure of latent semantic analysis, and its capacity to detect topical clusters of large corpora. Further, I describe the operations of Entity–Aspect Sentiment Analysis which are designed to measure and assess sentiments/opinions within specific contextual domains of textual data. Then, I conceptualize and elaborate on the potential of streamlining latent semantic and Entity–Aspect Sentiment Analysis complemented by Correspondence Analysis, generating an integrated operational scheme that would detect the topic structure, assess the contextual sentiment/opinion for each detected topic, test for statistical dependence of sentiments/opinions across topical domains, and graphically display conceptual maps of sentiments in topics space. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)
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3 pages, 3239 KiB  
Correction
Correction: Adragna et al. State-of-the-Art Power Factor Correction: An Industry Perspective. Encyclopedia 2024, 4, 1324–1354
by Claudio Adragna, Alberto Bianco, Giovanni Gritti and Matteo Sucameli
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 69; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020069 - 23 May 2025
Viewed by 273
Abstract
The authors would like to make the following corrections to the originally published paper [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Engineering)
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11 pages, 214 KiB  
Review
Formative Assessment and Educational Benefits
by Rosa Vegliante
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020068 - 21 May 2025
Viewed by 892
Abstract
Evaluation in education is a complex and multifaceted process, linked to teaching and planning. It represents a powerful tool for regulating behaviors, refining actions, and adapting educational interventions to the specific context in which they are implemented. In this evaluation framework, the work [...] Read more.
Evaluation in education is a complex and multifaceted process, linked to teaching and planning. It represents a powerful tool for regulating behaviors, refining actions, and adapting educational interventions to the specific context in which they are implemented. In this evaluation framework, the work aims to highlight the educational value of assessment, considered a moment in which both the teacher and the student are involved in the teaching-learning process. In particular, formative assessment allows you to find essential information to understand the progress of the actions implemented, highlighting strengths and weaknesses to intervene in educational planning. In this sense, it becomes a valid support for both teachers and students as it allows them to monitor the progress of the teaching/learning process. The work is divided into two parts: the first is theoretical, in which the transition from the assessment of learning (summative) to the assessment for learning (formative) is presented; the second is focused on formative assessment and feedback practices. From a methodological perspective, the literature review emphasizes the potential of assessment that involves students both as recipients and active participants through peer assessment. The paper highlights potential and challenges aimed at improving and experimenting with ways to enhance evaluation competence, which prepares students for professional life. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)
30 pages, 10124 KiB  
Review
Innovations in Sensor-Based Systems and Sustainable Energy Solutions for Smart Agriculture: A Review
by Md. Mahadi Hasan Sajib and Abu Sadat Md. Sayem
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 67; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020067 - 20 May 2025
Viewed by 1121
Abstract
Smart agriculture is transforming traditional farming by integrating advanced sensor-based systems, intelligent control technologies, and sustainable energy solutions to meet the growing global demand for food while reducing environmental impact. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of recent innovations in smart agriculture, focusing [...] Read more.
Smart agriculture is transforming traditional farming by integrating advanced sensor-based systems, intelligent control technologies, and sustainable energy solutions to meet the growing global demand for food while reducing environmental impact. This review presents a comprehensive analysis of recent innovations in smart agriculture, focusing on the deployment of IoT-based sensors, wireless communication protocols, energy-harvesting methods, and automated irrigation and fertilization systems. Furthermore, the paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI), machine learning (ML), computer vision, and big data analytics in monitoring and managing key agricultural parameters such as crop health, pest and disease detection, soil conditions, and water usage. Special attention is given to decision-support systems, precision agriculture techniques, and the application of remote and proximal sensing technologies like hyperspectral imaging, thermal imaging, and NDVI-based indices. By evaluating the benefits, limitations, and emerging trends of these technologies, this review aims to provide insights into how smart agriculture can enhance productivity, resource efficiency, and sustainability in modern farming systems. The findings serve as a valuable reference for researchers, practitioners, and policymakers working towards sustainable agricultural innovation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Engineering)
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18 pages, 840 KiB  
Entry
Airport Retail Market Power: A Performance Assessment Framework on Business Success and Regional Retail Market Characteristics
by Aristi Karagkouni
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 66; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020066 - 19 May 2025
Viewed by 808
Definition
This entry proposes an integrative approach to assessing market power in airport retail environments that highlights the impact of strategic and operational factors on the performance of the enterprise in a regulated and restrictive commercial environment. Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), this [...] Read more.
This entry proposes an integrative approach to assessing market power in airport retail environments that highlights the impact of strategic and operational factors on the performance of the enterprise in a regulated and restrictive commercial environment. Using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), this entry discerns and quantifies important factors determining market power using weights that include price flexibility, consumer conduct, brand value, technological uptake rate, and barriers to entry. To support this qualitative analysis, this entry combines a quantitative countervailing power model (CPA/E) and a market penetration model (MPE/A) to determine the levels of retailer penetration in airport authorities and passenger markets. The integration of these models makes it possible to perform a multivariate analysis of market domination, geographical interdependence, and bargaining power. The findings highlight the configurational complexity in strategic positioning in terms of organizational size, dependence levels, and digital preparedness and provide actionable information for airport managers, concession planners, and policymakers determined to maximize lease deals and improve commercial performance in the face of changing risk profiles. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Entrepreneurship in the Digital Era)
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17 pages, 256 KiB  
Entry
Questionnaire Use and Development in Health Research
by Malcolm Koo and Shih-Wei Yang
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 65; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020065 - 16 May 2025
Viewed by 1686
Definition
A questionnaire is a structured instrument used in health research to systematically collect data on perceptions, behaviors, and health outcomes. It serves as a fundamental tool for capturing patient-reported outcomes, evaluating treatment effectiveness, and monitoring public health trends. Questionnaires can be administered in [...] Read more.
A questionnaire is a structured instrument used in health research to systematically collect data on perceptions, behaviors, and health outcomes. It serves as a fundamental tool for capturing patient-reported outcomes, evaluating treatment effectiveness, and monitoring public health trends. Questionnaires can be administered in various formats, including paper-based, digital, or interactive systems, and must be carefully designed to ensure reliability, validity, and minimal bias. While validated questionnaires facilitate cross-study comparability, new instruments may be needed to address emerging health concerns or specific cultural contexts. Adhering to best practices in survey methodology allows researchers to maximize the utility of questionnaires, ensuring accurate, reproducible, and ethically sound health research. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Medicine & Pharmacology)
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21 pages, 290 KiB  
Entry
Academic Freedom in US Higher Education: Rights Emergent from the Law and the Profession
by Jeffrey C. Sun
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 64; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020064 - 13 May 2025
Viewed by 969
Definition
The various definitions of academic freedom in the United States reflect the influence of social and political norms in its interpretation as both a professional and legal right. Yet, underlying these interpretations is the operational understanding, which includes both legal and professional considerations, [...] Read more.
The various definitions of academic freedom in the United States reflect the influence of social and political norms in its interpretation as both a professional and legal right. Yet, underlying these interpretations is the operational understanding, which includes both legal and professional considerations, that academic freedom is a widely recognized principle that grants professors the autonomy and authority to explore intellectual questions within their academic disciplines, conduct professional work, and express their views in the public sphere without undue interference or suppression. In other words, academic freedom is a foundational principle rooted in legal and institutional frameworks that safeguards professors’ ability to engage in intellectual inquiry, professional practice, and public discourse without undue interference. This principle extends beyond mere professional courtesy. It is recognized as essential to the functioning of higher education institutions and the broader democratic exchange of ideas. The public (including policymakers, industry leaders, media, and students) generally acknowledges academic freedom as an inherent protection that protects from unjustified interferences. By doing so, professors can participate in governance, disciplinary leadership, and extramural activities without the fear of retaliation or coercion. By insulating academic work from ideological, political, or economic constraints, academic freedom maintains the legitimacy and independence of scholarly inquiry in service to both knowledge advancement and the public good. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)
23 pages, 881 KiB  
Review
Comparative Characteristics of Various Cereals in Terms of Fodder Value, Antinutrients and Use for Poultry Feeding
by Olena V. Gaviley, Oleg O. Katerynych, Igor A. Ionov, Darren K. Griffin, Olena O. Dekhtiarova and Michael N. Romanov
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020063 - 12 May 2025
Viewed by 1510
Abstract
The primary ingredients in poultry feed, cereals, are among the most widely used crops in worldwide agriculture, with principal staples being wheat, rice, corn (maize), sorghum, barley, oat and millet. The scope of this review is to provide a detailed comparative analysis of [...] Read more.
The primary ingredients in poultry feed, cereals, are among the most widely used crops in worldwide agriculture, with principal staples being wheat, rice, corn (maize), sorghum, barley, oat and millet. The scope of this review is to provide a detailed comparative analysis of the nutritive values of cereal crops, and the antinutrients they contain, with reference specifically to their use for feeding poultry. These cereal crops range in biological value from 55 to 77.7%, in protein digestibility from 77 to 99.7%, and in net protein utilization from 50 to 73.8%. Most essential amino acids, including lysine, are found in cereal grains, whereas the nutritional value of cereals is impacted by antinutritional elements. These include non-starch polysaccharides (NSPs), such as pentosans (arabinoxylans) and β-glucan, as well as alkylresorcinols. Around 100 g/kg of pentosans are found in rye, 50–80 g/kg in wheat and 68–92 g/kg in triticale. There are strategies to reduce NSPs and other antinutrients and maximize the effectiveness of utilizing grains in compound feed for poultry. These include the application of enzyme preparations, along with dry and wet extrusion methods, for processing grains. By restricting our narrative to a direct comparison of all major staples for poultry feed, we conclude that further research is required specifically in the area of determining how economically viable it is to feed adult and young chickens with compound feeds containing various cereal crops. Furthermore, we speculate on the utility of employing enzyme preparations and extrudates to maximize feed efficiency. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biology & Life Sciences)
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15 pages, 1686 KiB  
Entry
Metaverse City: Conceptual Views and Formation Factors Towards the Digital Society
by Giovana Goretti Feijó Almeida
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020062 - 7 May 2025
Viewed by 817
Definition
The “metaverse city” is defined as an immersive, interactive, and experiential digital environment that replicates or reinvents elements of physical cities, inserting them into an alternative reality. This concept involves transposing the urban, social, and cultural aspects of real cities into the metaverse, [...] Read more.
The “metaverse city” is defined as an immersive, interactive, and experiential digital environment that replicates or reinvents elements of physical cities, inserting them into an alternative reality. This concept involves transposing the urban, social, and cultural aspects of real cities into the metaverse, thus creating new ways of interacting with and experiencing urban space. Thus, it is not necessarily a digital replica of a physical city; however, it is invariably distinguished by its immersive nature, offering users a sensory and interactive experience. This concept goes beyond the mere digital replication of a city, evolving into a multifaceted space that integrates urban, social, cultural, and technological elements. It is shaped by digital interactions mediated by social actors (users), whose relationships in the metaverse are influenced by the power dynamics occurring in the virtual environment, much like in physical cities. The metaverse city is not merely an extension of the physical city; rather, it is a digital construct that enables alternative ways of living and relating to urban space. Consequently, it is a dynamic and ever-evolving construct, contingent on the active engagement of multiple social actors and their interactions for its consolidation. without the strategic involvement of diverse social actors, the identity and practices that characterize this contemporary urban entity—made possible by emerging technologies—risk losing their viability. Full article
(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Digital Society, Industry 5.0 and Smart City)
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24 pages, 1119 KiB  
Systematic Review
A Systematic Review of Driving Sustainability Through Circular Economy Marketing: Insights and Strategies for Green Marketing Innovation
by Teresa Paiva
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 61; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020061 - 7 May 2025
Viewed by 1334
Abstract
Circular economy marketing (CEM) represents an innovative approach to aligning business strategies with sustainability objectives. This paper explores the role of CEM as a driver of green marketing innovation, emphasising strategies that minimise environmental impact on business competitiveness while enhancing consumer engagement. Using [...] Read more.
Circular economy marketing (CEM) represents an innovative approach to aligning business strategies with sustainability objectives. This paper explores the role of CEM as a driver of green marketing innovation, emphasising strategies that minimise environmental impact on business competitiveness while enhancing consumer engagement. Using a systematic literature review based on the PRISMA methodology, we identified 39 high-impact studies across multiple industries, categorising findings into key themes, theoretical frameworks, and marketing strategies. The analysis highlights emerging trends, including the shift toward product-service systems (PSSs), behavioural nudging, transparent sustainability branding, and integration of digital technologies such as AI and blockchain to enhance traceability and consumer trust. Findings reveal that while circular economy marketing presents opportunities for businesses to differentiate themselves and build long-term sustainability strategies, significant challenges remain, including scalability issues, consumer scepticism, and risks of greenwashing. Moreover, gaps in standardising impact measurement and industry-specific adaptation hinder wider implementation. Business model innovation, policy support, and collaborative efforts are crucial in overcoming these barriers. This study provides insights for businesses, policymakers, and researchers, highlighting how CEM fosters green innovation and competitiveness. Future research should compare the effectiveness of various strategies to accelerate the transition toward sustainable marketing practices through regulation and interdisciplinary collaboration. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
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17 pages, 241 KiB  
Entry
The Psychological and Neurological Legacy of the COVID-19 Pandemic: How Social Distancing Shaped Long-Term Behavioral Patterns
by Raluca Iuliana Georgescu and Dumitru Alexandru Bodislav
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 60; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020060 - 6 May 2025
Viewed by 526
Definition
The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in persistent alterations in social cognition, trust, and behavior because of its long-term psychological and neurological effects. By conditioning individuals to associate proximity with risk, the pandemic-induced psychological distance has reshaped human interactions. This distance is enforced through [...] Read more.
The COVID-19 pandemic has resulted in persistent alterations in social cognition, trust, and behavior because of its long-term psychological and neurological effects. By conditioning individuals to associate proximity with risk, the pandemic-induced psychological distance has reshaped human interactions. This distance is enforced through social distancing and public health measures. Ultimately, this process has impacted societal cohesion, interpersonal relationships, and workplace behaviors by reinforcing avoidance behaviors, heightened social anxiety, and altering trust dynamics. An interdisciplinary approach that integrates neuroscience, psychology, and social science is necessary to comprehend these changes to address the challenges of re-establishing pre-pandemic norms. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
9 pages, 201 KiB  
Entry
Classifications of Sociological Paradigms
by Alexandru-Cosmin Apostol and Romeo Asiminei
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020059 - 6 May 2025
Viewed by 596
Definition
In this entry paper, we propose a brief analysis of the use of the notion of “paradigm” in sciences in general and in social sciences and sociology in particular. A “paradigm” expresses a worldview and/or a unified perspective—at the level of the scientific [...] Read more.
In this entry paper, we propose a brief analysis of the use of the notion of “paradigm” in sciences in general and in social sciences and sociology in particular. A “paradigm” expresses a worldview and/or a unified perspective—at the level of the scientific community—on a given situation. Paradigms represent a collection of beliefs shared by the scientific community or a set of agreements through which social issues should be understood and interpreted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
17 pages, 844 KiB  
Review
Role of Phages in Past Molecular Biology and Potentially in Future Biomedicine
by Philip Serwer
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 58; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020058 - 4 May 2025
Viewed by 938
Abstract
Viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages or phages) have a history of use in both biomedicine and basic molecular biology. Here, I briefly outline the pre-1940 use of phages in biomedicine and then more comprehensively outline the subsequent use of phages in determining the [...] Read more.
Viruses that infect bacteria (bacteriophages or phages) have a history of use in both biomedicine and basic molecular biology. Here, I briefly outline the pre-1940 use of phages in biomedicine and then more comprehensively outline the subsequent use of phages in determining the basics of molecular biology. Finally, I outline work that appears to form the foundation for a future, phage-enhanced biomedicine that generally extends medicine in the areas of anti-bacterial therapy (including vaccinology), anti-tumor therapy, and understanding the basic process of amyloid-associated neurodegenerative diseases. The following are general conclusions. (1) In the future, the discipline of phage-based biomedicine will be enhanced by more extensive merging with the discipline of basic phage biology (including molecular biology) and evolution. These two disciplines have been separated post-1940. (2) Biomedicine, in general, will be assisted if the focus is on key problems and key observations, thereby leaving details to later work. (3) Simplicity of strategy is a virtue that can be implemented and should be pursued with phages. (4) Capacity for directed evolution provides phages with generative (artificial intelligence-like) means for increasing biomedical effectiveness without using human design. Two related quotes set the stage (references at the end of the text). “But see that the imagination of nature is far, far greater than the imagination of man” (physicist Richard Feynman). “Nature, in all its variations and seeming paradoxes, speaks to those who pay attention and gives hints and clues to basic facts” (a thought attributed to Felix d’Herelle, a self-trained biologist who developed biological phage isolation and characterization). The integration of natural phenomenon-focused basic science and medical practice is an underlying theme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Biology & Life Sciences)
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15 pages, 308 KiB  
Entry
Quantifying Methane Emission Rates Using Downwind Measurements
by Stuart N. Riddick
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 57; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020057 - 30 Apr 2025
Viewed by 497
Definition
This entry describes the methods used to quantify methane emissions from either point or area sources using downwind methods. The methods described could be used as a practical guide to quantify emissions of any trace gas type from either a point or area [...] Read more.
This entry describes the methods used to quantify methane emissions from either point or area sources using downwind methods. The methods described could be used as a practical guide to quantify emissions of any trace gas type from either a point or area emission source. Methane is a relatively strong greenhouse gas, its GWP is 25 times larger than CO2 over a 100-year period, and an increase in methane anthropogenic emissions has been correlated to a changing global climate. Emission estimates that are calculated and used for national inventories are usually derived from bottom-up approaches, however there is now an increasing pressure for these to be validated by direct measurement. Calculating emission rates from downwind measurements has proven to be a versatile and relatively simple approach for direct measurement. Downwind measurement method descriptions are presented here as a practicable guide to quantifying point and area source emissions. Emission quantification is a two-stage process where methane concentration and meteorological data must be measured downwind of a source and then converted to emissions using an atmospheric dispersion model. Only four technology types currently measure in the range typical of downwind methane concentrations: metal oxide sensors, non-dispersive infrared sensors, tunable diode laser absorption spectrometers and optical cavity instruments. The choice of methane measurement is typically determined by the size of the emission source, location and the budget of the project. Meteorological data are essential to quantifying emissions, especially regarding wind speed and direction. In most cases, simple atmospheric dispersion approaches can be used to quantify both area and point emissions using these downwind measurements. Emissions can be generated using limited data (only methane concentration, wind speed, wind direction, and locations are necessary), but quantification uncertainty can be reduced using more input data. Site selection and location of instrument deployment are essential because quantification approaches assume a flat fetch (no aerodynamic obstructions) and constant wind fields. When modeling assumptions are violated, quantification uncertainty can range between +250% and −100% of the actual emission rate. At present there, is no happy medium between modeling complexity and computational time, and this remains the biggest challenge for downwind emission quantification. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Chemistry)
14 pages, 373 KiB  
Review
A Scoping Review of Burnout Avoidance by Employees During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Role of Psychological Flow
by Carol Nash
Encyclopedia 2025, 5(2), 56; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia5020056 - 28 Apr 2025
Viewed by 789
Abstract
Background: Burnout represented a significant employee problem during the COVID-19 pandemic. Experiencing the psychological flow investigated by Csikszentmihalyi might avoid it. Yet, COVID-19 may have contributed to the unattainability of psychological flow for burnout-prone employees. The objective of this study is to determine [...] Read more.
Background: Burnout represented a significant employee problem during the COVID-19 pandemic. Experiencing the psychological flow investigated by Csikszentmihalyi might avoid it. Yet, COVID-19 may have contributed to the unattainability of psychological flow for burnout-prone employees. The objective of this study is to determine the COVID-19 achievability of employee flow and, if attained, whether flow resulted in burnout avoidance during the pandemic. Method: This scoping review includes searches of six primary databases (CINAHL, OVID, ProQuest, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science), two searches of one supplementary database (Google Scholar), and one register (Cochrane COVID-19 register) of the keywords “burnout, COVID-19, employees, healthcare providers, psychological flow, Csikszentmihalyi”. Included are peer-reviewed, COVID-19-related, 2020–2025 journal publications. Excluded are duplicates, non-COVID-19-related publications, reports lacking a research study, keywords, or relevant information. Results: In identifying 754 records, five records met the inclusion criteria. Mental healthcare practitioners, nurses, gig workers, corporate professionals, and working parents were the focus of the studies. Quantitative studies showed statistical significance. Qualitative studies showed promise for psychological flow mitigating burnout. Conclusions: Psychological flow was possible during COVID-19 for various employee types, and attaining it permitted burnout avoidance, suggesting a focus on achieving flow in the workplace during pandemics would diminish the incidence of employee burnout. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Social Sciences)
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