Encyclopedia

Antipsychotics (APs) are psychotropic drugs that generally have a psycholeptic effect, capable of reducing psychotic symptoms and psychomotor agitation. This class of drugs is widely used in psychiatric practice, especially for the treatment of psychosis in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. Most APs pass through a biotransformation process, or metabolism, after they enter the body before being eliminated. There are three phases of AP metabolism. Cytochrome P450 (CYP) monooxygenase (mixed-function oxidase) plays a central role in most AP biotransformation. CYP’s functional activity depends on gene–drug and drug–drug interaction and influences on the occurrence of adverse drug reactions (ADRs). So, it is extremely important for a practicing psychiatrist to know the oxidation pathway of APs, since most of them are metabolized in the liver. This is important both to prevent ADRs and to avoid unwanted drug–drug interactions, which will undoubtedly increase the effectiveness and safety of AP therapy. Full article

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) are produced from physiologically biocompatible lipids. They have been proven to improve solubility, cellular uptake, and stability, reduce enzyme degradation, and prolong the circulation time of various drugs. SLNs have been applied in the oral, parenteral, transdermal, intranasal, ocular, and pulmonary drug delivery of different drugs, with enhanced safety, bioavailability, and overall therapeutic effects. In this entry, the authors summarize the primary features of SLNs, methods to prepare SLNs, and recent applications of SLNs in drug delivery. Owing to their advantages, SLNs are potential drug delivery systems to improve the management of various diseases and will, soon, be available for clinical use. Full article

Khosrow II (r. 590–628 CE) was the last great Sasanian king who took the throne with the help of the Romans and broke with dynastic religious preferences as he became married to a Christian empress. It was under his rule that the Sasanian Empire reached its greatest expansion. From the standpoint of iconographic studies, Khosrow II is among the most influential Persian kings. Although he was literally occupied by rebels and wars within the borders of the Sasanian territories and beyond, Khosrow managed to create a powerful image of himself that emphasized the legitimacy of his monarchy. Indeed, Khosrow Parviz (the Victorious) drew upon royal iconography as a propaganda tool on a wide range of materials such as rock and stucco reliefs, coins, seals, and metal plates. His image (created both visually and verbally) not only revived the traditional iconography of the Persian kings but also evolved it in a way that transcended his time and was passed on to the early Islamic Caliphates after him. Khosrow II imitated and manipulated the traditional royal iconography of his predecessors in order to display his legitimacy, piety, and valor. Full article

Genome-editing systems such as Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR)/Cas9 technology have uncovered new opportunities to model diseases such as chronic lymphocytic leukemia. CRISPR/Cas9 is an important means of advancing functional studies of Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (CLL) through the incorporation, elimination and modification of somatic mutations in CLL models. Full article

The COVID-19 pandemic has affected many aspects of our lives, including mental health. Identifying risk factors and risk groups associated with anxiety, depression, and other emotional disorders for reasons related to the COVID-19 pandemic is highly relevant. This narrative review aims to summarize the evidence to date on risk factors for emotional disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic in order to identify the risk groups of people in need of early psychiatric and psychological assistance, point out the controversial data on the influence of risk factors on emotional disorders in COVID-19, and finally offer recommendations for alleviating symptoms of anxiety, depression, and other emotional disorders in such people. According to the current literature, being under the age of 40, being female, having contact with a COVID-infected person, and watching the news about COVID-19 for more than 3 h a day all increase the likelihood of anxiety, depression, and sleep disturbances. Healthcare workers, particularly nurses, working in the COVID-19 hot zone suffer more from sleep disorders, anxiety, and depression. It is also noted that people with a previous psychiatric history, in addition to increased risks of anxiety and depression, have an increased risk of relapse during the COVID-19 pandemic. The same is true for people who have had episodes of substance abuse in the past. Aside from socioeconomic factors, the mental wellbeing of those who have had COVID-19 is also impacted by biological factors (using anti-COVID-19 drugs, COVID-19-associated immunothrombosis and venous thromboembolism, interferon-gamma-related cytokine storm, etc.), resulting in a wide range of acute and long-term cognitive disorders. During the restricted resource time, the aforementioned risk groups should be prioritized for prevention, early identification, and proper treatment of potential emotional disorders. The risk factors that were found in this narrative review, as well as how they interact and change over time, will help understand why some studies of at-risk groups do not agree with each other, justify new preventive measures, and strengthen existing programs to keep people’s mental health in check during this pandemic and other emergencies. Full article

In primary total hip arthroplasty (THA), dual-modular stems were introduced to better restore hip stability, femoral offset, and leg length. This entry highlights the gathered knowledge about dual-modular stems and related complications in combinations with titanium (Ti) and cobalt-chrome (CoCr) exchangeable necks. The reasons for a modular neck failure are multifactorial. Some of the dual-modular stems are still on the market despite the fact th these designs have neither been proven for durability nor have shown any clinical benefits for the patients as compared to monolithic stems. Apart from very limited indications, orthopaedic surgeons should not use dual-modular stem designs for primary THA. Full article

The Bagnolidistrict in Naples has needed urban redevelopmentfor many years. The area is not only affected by pollution caused by many industries but also by environmental pollutants, according togeognostic surveys that have found numerous contaminantsin the subsoil and water.Currently, the combination of an urban rehabilitation processwith the phytodepuration technique may represent a successful idea for obtaining bothurban regenerationand environmental remediation. Phytoremediation, a biologically based technology, has attracted the attention of both thepublic and scientists as a low-cost alternative for soil requalification. The use of plants as well as the microorganisms present in their root systems plays an important role in the ecological engineering field in controlling and reducing pollutants present in theair, water and soil.The result is efficient, sustainable and cost-effective environmental recovery compared to conventional chemical–physical techniques. In this way, not only the environmental recovery of SIN Bagnoli-Corogliocan be obtained, but also the regeneration of its landscape. Full article

Extracellular vesicles are small blebs that are secreted by cells, which are lipid-rich and contain proteomic and genomic material (including small RNAs, mRNA, and plasmid DNA). These materials are delivered into recipient cells leading to a phenotypic change. Recent studies have demonstrated the secretion of extracellular vesicles by mosquito and tick cells, as well as tick salivary glands. Further, these studies suggest vesicles play a role in the transmission of vector-borne pathogens, including viruses and bacteria, and are involved in the manipulation of wound healing and immune responses. Both of these processes are key in the host response to hematophagous arthropods’ feeding. The role of mosquito and tick EVs in the modulation of immune responses and pathogen transmission is discussed in this entry. Full article

The existence of differences in susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection between males and females in both incidence and outcomes is well documented in the scientific literature. These differences, which are still underestimated, may have important implications in terms of prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of COVID-19, with significant prognostic consequences. The greater severity of the infection observed in males, even more so if they are elderly, would seem, according to current knowledge, to be due to multiple influences: immunological and endocrinological, but also genetic and behavioral. Full article

Biochemical signaling is one of the key mechanisms to coordinate a living organism in all aspects of its life. It is still enigmatic how exactly cells and organisms deal with environmental signals and irritations precisely because of the limited number of signaling proteins and a multitude of transitions inside and outside the cell. Many components of signaling pathways are functionally pleiotropic, which means they have several functions. A single stimulus often results in multiple responses, a distinct response can be triggered by numerous stimuli and signals initiated by different stimuli are often transduced via commonly used network components. This review sheds light on the most important molecular mechanisms of cellular signaling in fungi and consequently provides a comprehensive overview about the current state of research on the road to understand the impact of signal transduction in eukaryotic microorganisms. Full article

Formulation is an ancient concept, although the word has been used only recently. The first formulations made our civilization advance by inventing bronze, steel, and gunpowder; then, it was used in medieval alchemy. When chemistry became a science and with the golden age of organic synthesis, the second formulation period began. This made it possible to create new chemical species and new combinations “à la carte.” However, the research and developments were still carried out by trial and error. Finally, the third period of formulation history began after World War II, when the properties of a system were associated with its ingredients and the way they were assembled or combined. Therefore, the formulation and the systems’ phenomenology were related to the generation of some synergy to obtain a commercial product. Winsor’s formulation studies in the 1950s were enlightening for academy and industries that were studying empirically surfactant-oil-water (SOW) systems. One of its key characteristics was how the interfacial interaction of the adsorbed surfactant with oil and water phases could be equal by varying the physicochemical formulation of the system. Then, Hansen’s solubility parameter in the 1960s helped to reach a further understanding of the affinity of some substances to make them suitable to oil and water phases. In the 1970s, researchers such as Shinoda and Kunieda, and different groups working in Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR), among them Schechter and Wade’s group at the University of Texas, made formulation become a science by using semiempirical correlations to attain specific characteristics in a system (e.g., low oil-water interfacial tension, formulation of a stable O/W or W/O emulsion, or high-performance solubilization in a bicontinuous microemulsion system at the so-called optimum formulation). Nowadays, over 40 years of studies with the hydrophilic-lipophilic deviation equation (HLD) have made it feasible for formulators to improve products in many different applications using surfactants to attain a target system using HLD in its original or its normalized form, i.e., HLD_N. Thus, it can be said that there is still current progress being made towards an interdisciplinary applied science with numerical guidelines. In the present work, the state-of-the-art of formulation in multiphase systems containing two immiscible phases like oil and water, and therefore systems with heterogeneous or micro-heterogeneous interfaces, is discussed. Surfactants, from simple to complex or polymeric, are generally present in such systems to solve a wide variety of problems in many areas. Some significant cases are presented here as examples dealing with petroleum, foods, pharmaceutics, cosmetics, detergency, and other products occurring as dispersions, emulsions, or foams that we find in our everyday lives. Full article

The Mediterranean diet is a dietary pattern and associated lifestyle that adopts mainly plant foods. The Mediterranean diet (MD) has been acknowledged by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as an intangible cultural heritage of humanity since 2013, a candidacy involving seven countries in the area, including Portugal, aiming to safeguard the MD in its multiple dimensions. The corresponding food system is recognized as healthy and sustainable by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and by the World Health Organization (WHO), inspiring dietary guidelines around the world. The current entry examines the sustainability and resilience of the Mediterranean dietary food pattern, using the Portuguese as a case study to examine the feasibility of prospective composite indicators in assessing the sustainability of diets and food systems. Information extracted from reports and official statistics was used to assess a set of proposed metrics. Although information to fulfil most metrics was found, some data gaps were identified, highlighting the need to improve existing metrics. The current work highlights the role of science and policy in transforming four key areas of human–nature interaction: use of natural resources, food systems, production and consumption, and cities’ sustainability. Since sustainable production and consumption (SGD 12) is key to the UN’s 2030 agenda, it is important to analyze to what extent the dissemination of the Mediterranean diet among the population can be a way to achieve this goal. Full article

Cyclodextrin-based nanosponges (CD-NSs) have gained importance in drug delivery in the last years due to their easy synthesis and versatility. However, their use as carriers for the delivery of macromolecules such as proteins is less known and sometimes difficult to consider. In this entry, the authors summarize and highlight the multiple possibilities of CD-NSs to deliver active proteins, improving their activity or stability. Starting with a brief description of CD-NSs and their characteristics, the entry will be focused on several proteins, such as (1) Lipase, (2) Insulin and (3) Nisin, for chemical or pharmaceutical applications. The revised results demonstrated that CD-NSs can generate different and interesting applications with proteins. These results could be added to their uses with small drugs, being an interesting alternative for protein delivery and applicability. Full article

Neuromarketing is the union of cognitive psychology, which studies mental processes, neurology and neurophysiology, which study the functioning and responses of the brain and body physiology to external stimuli, and marketing, which studies valuable exchanges, to explain marketing effects on customers’ and consumers’ behaviours and on buying and decision processes. It includes a set of research techniques that, by observing and evaluating how the brain and other body parts respond, avoids possible biases and provides truthful and objective information on consumer subconscious. The term “consumer neuroscience” covers academic approaches using techniques such as fMRI, Eye Tracking, or EED. The objectives of this entry are to show what neuromarketing is and what added value it brings to the study of consumer behaviour and purchase decision processes. The conclusions show a favourable future and positive attitudes towards neuromarketing. Full article

This section analyzes the influence of COVID-19 in the construction sector. Construction workers’ high vulnerability to the spread of the virus motivated this entry. The construction sector’s peculiarities and some work procedure characteristics in this sector make telecommuting impossible in most activities. In addition, most of the states and national governments declared the construction sector essential activity due to its high economic impact. The working conditions in this sector are very special: constant trips to work in groups, work group execution with little interpersonal distance, group travel, stays and accommodations away from home, meals in restaurants or work canteens, lunch in restaurants or work canteens, etc. Due to all of this, the contagion rate was very high during the pandemic months. Even today, it is still considered one of the most dangerous sectors for these purposes. With all this in mind, here we discuss why it is difficult to minimize the spread of the virus for construction workers, summarize how to assess exposure risk grades for construction job tasks, and provide possible protection requirements for the different exposure risk grades. Full article

This entry provides an understanding of the past, present, and future of the Finnish cottage culture to create an overall picture of its development trajectory and its terminology, e.g., villa, in this context denoting a second home. Convenient, ready-made solutions, easy maintenance, a high level of equipment, year-round use, location, and modern and simple architectural styles are important selection criteria for (summer) cottages that belonged only to the wealthy bourgeois class in the 19th century and have taken their present form with a major transformation in Finland since then. Additionally, municipal regulations and increased attention to ecological concerns are other important issues regarding the cottage today. Cottage inheritance has changed over the generations, and the tightening of building regulations and increased environmental awareness are key drivers of the future transformation of cottage culture. Moreover, the increasing demand for single-family and outdoor spaces created by social changes such as remote working, which has become widespread with the COVID-19 pandemic, will make the summer cottage lifestyle even more popular in Finland. It is thought that this entry will contribute to the continuance of the Finnish cottage culture, which is essential for the vitality of countryside municipalities, local development, national culture, and the well-being of Finnish people. Full article

About 250 million people affected, 779 million people at risk of infection, and 440 million people with residual morbidity are globally attributable to schistosomiasis. Highly sensitive and specific, simple, and fast to perform diagnostics are required for detecting trace infections, and applications in resource-poor settings and large-scale assessments. Research assessing isothermal diagnoses of S. japonicum, S. haematobium, S. mansoni, mixed infections, and schistosomal hybrids among clinical human specimens was investigated. Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) and combined techniques were identified. Both LAMP and RPA reached species-dependent 100% sensitivity, and detection levels within femtogram and nanogram amounts for pure and hybridale breeds. Cross-reactivity among Schistosoma species and co-endemic pathogens was rare, though research on diagnostic markers and primer optimization should continue. Operating with ready-to-use lyophilized reagents, simplified and inexpensive nucleic acid extraction, tolerability to likely inhibitors, and enzyme stability at ambient temperature is advantageous. RPA performed optimal at 35–39 °C within 5–10 min. while LAMP operated at 61–65 °C for up to 120 min.; properties are preferable over assays requiring expensive laboratory equipment. DNA degradation could be prevented by stabilizing substances. A limitation throughout warranting future research is the small sample size reaching a few hundred participants at the maximum. Isothermal diagnostics are highly valuable in detecting trace infections seen subsequent to chemotherapeutic treatment, and among apparently healthy individuals, both constituting likely sources of ongoing pathogen transmission. Its expansion to the vaccine field for assessing parasitological trial endpoints could be considered. Full article

Predictive modelling of infectious diseases is very important in planning public health policies, particularly during outbreaks. This work reviews the forecasting and mechanistic models published earlier. It is emphasized that researchers’ forecasting models exhibit, for large t, algebraic behavior, as opposed to the exponential behavior of the classical logistic-type models used usually in epidemics. Remarkably, a newly introduced mechanistic model also exhibits, for large t, algebraic behavior in contrast to the usual Susceptible-Exposed-Infectious-Removed (SEIR) models, which exhibit exponential behavior. The unexpected success of researchers’ simple forecasting models provides a strong support for the validity of this novel mechanistic model. It is also shown that the mathematical tools used for the analysis of the first wave may also be useful for the analysis of subsequent waves of the COVID-19 pandemic. Full article

John II Komnenos was the son of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos and Eirene Doukaina, and brother of Princess Anna Komnene, the author of the Alexiad. Born in 1087, he was crowned soon after his fifth birthday as co-emperor with his father, and in 1105, he was married to Piroska Árpád, daughter of King Ladislaus I of Hungary and Adelaide of Rheinfelden. He is principally known for continuing his father’s work of stabilising Byzantium after the crises of the eleventh century. This included major wars of defence and conquest in both the Balkans and Anatolia, and especially a major eastern expedition in 1137–1139. During this campaign, he conquered Cilicia, but he was recalled to defend his borders against the Turks before he could make further conquests in Syria and bring the crusader states under his aegis. He died in a hunting accident just before he returned to Syria, with intentions to go to Jerusalem as well. His best-known iconographic representation is a mosaic of him and his wife in the Great Church of Sophia. Whilst there is also an image of him in a contemporary ornate gospel book, his most common representations are found on his many coin issues and seals. Full article