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Homocysteine Thiolactone: Biology and Chemistry

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Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 445-459; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020037 - 04 Jun 2021

Homocysteine thiolactone is a five-membered cyclic thioester of amino acid homocysteine. It is generated from homocysteine as a result of an error-editing reaction, principally, of methionyl-tRNA synthetase. An elevated level of homocysteine thiolactone is associated with cardiovascular diseases, strokes, atherosclerosis, neurological abnormalities, etc., [...] Read more.

Homocysteine thiolactone is a five-membered cyclic thioester of amino acid homocysteine. It is generated from homocysteine as a result of an error-editing reaction, principally, of methionyl-tRNA synthetase. An elevated level of homocysteine thiolactone is associated with cardiovascular diseases, strokes, atherosclerosis, neurological abnormalities, etc., presumably because it reacts to the side chain of protein lysine causing protein damage and autoimmune responses. It is not only an important metabolite but also a versatile building block for organic and bioorganic synthesis. This entry contains data on the homocysteine thiolactone formation, metabolism, toxicity mechanism in vivo, and the bioorganic chemistry applications as a powerful synthetic tool in polymer science, sustainable materials development, and probes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biology & Life Sciences)

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Pandemic Prevention: Lessons from COVID-19

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Mario Coccia

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 433-444; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020036 - 31 May 2021

Definition

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which appeared in late 2019, generating a pandemic crisis with high numbers of COVID-19-related infected individuals and deaths in manifold countries worldwide. Lessons learned from COVID-19 can [...] Read more.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by the novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which appeared in late 2019, generating a pandemic crisis with high numbers of COVID-19-related infected individuals and deaths in manifold countries worldwide. Lessons learned from COVID-19 can be used to prevent pandemic threats by designing strategies to support different policy responses, not limited to the health system, directed to reduce the risks of the emergence of novel viral agents, the diffusion of infectious diseases and negative impact in society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of COVID-19)

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Pyramidal Systems in Resistance Training

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Grégoire Hugues Cattan

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 423-432; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020035 - 28 May 2021

Definition

Pyramidal systems refer to a particular type of resistance training in which sets are performed with increasing (or decreasing) weight, in such a way that the number of repetitions is low when the weight is high (and vice versa). Multiple implementations exist such [...] Read more.

Pyramidal systems refer to a particular type of resistance training in which sets are performed with increasing (or decreasing) weight, in such a way that the number of repetitions is low when the weight is high (and vice versa). Multiple implementations exist such as the light-to-heavy, triangle or asymmetric triangle system. They are similar to traditional training, but with slightly different impact on training volume, endurance or power outcome. Therefore, pyramidal systems are ideal candidates for practitioners willing to tune their training routine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medicine & Pharmacology)

Open AccessEntry

Solar Chimney Applications in Buildings

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Haihua Zhang

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Yao Tao

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Long Shi

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 409-422; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020034 - 27 May 2021

Definition

A solar chimney is a renewable energy system used to enhance the natural ventilation in a building based on solar and wind energy. It is one of the most representative solar-assisted passive ventilation systems attached to the building envelope. It performs exceptionally in [...] Read more.

A solar chimney is a renewable energy system used to enhance the natural ventilation in a building based on solar and wind energy. It is one of the most representative solar-assisted passive ventilation systems attached to the building envelope. It performs exceptionally in enhancing natural ventilation and improving thermal comfort under certain climate conditions. The ventilation enhancement of solar chimneys has been widely studied numerically and experimentally. The assessment of solar chimney systems based on buoyancy ventilation relies heavily on the natural environment, experimental environment, and performance prediction methods, bringing great difficulties to quantitative analysis and parameterization research. With the increase in volume and complexity of modern building structures, current studies of solar chimneys have not yet obtained a unified design strategy and corresponding guidance. Meanwhile, combining a solar chimney with other passive ventilation systems has attracted much attention. The solar chimney-based integrated passive-assisted ventilation systems prolong the service life of an independent system and strengthen the ventilation ability for indoor cooling and heating. However, the progress is still slow regarding expanded applications and related research of solar chimneys in large volume and multi-layer buildings, and contradictory conclusions appear due to the inherent complexity of the system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of ZEMCH Research and Development)

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Self-Service Restaurants in SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic

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Renata Puppin Zandonadi

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Raquel Braz Assunção Botelho

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Dayanne da Costa Maynard

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Rita de Cassia Coelho de Almeida Akutsu

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 401-408; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020033 - 25 May 2021

Definition

During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the self-service restaurant sector, as well as other types of food services, are facing an unprecedented crisis needing to adapt their service to avoid closing their doors. With varied and quick meals, the self-service buffet is one of the [...] Read more.

During the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the self-service restaurant sector, as well as other types of food services, are facing an unprecedented crisis needing to adapt their service to avoid closing their doors. With varied and quick meals, the self-service buffet is one of the most important types of outside services. However, the type of service where the clients follow a line on the buffet and serve their meals has impaired traditional restaurant operation during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic and, perhaps, after it. In this sense, this study presents an overview of the self-service buffet restaurant operational system in the context of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of COVID-19)

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Open AccessEntry

Porcelain Enamel Coatings

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Francesca Russo

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Stefano Rossi

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Attilio Monzio Compagnoni

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 388-400; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020032 - 27 Apr 2021

Definition

Porcelain enamel is an inorganic-type coating, which is applied to metals or glass for both decorative and functional purposes. This coating is a silica-based solidified glass mass obtained by high-temperature firing (temperature can range between 450 and 1200 °C depending on the substrate). [...] Read more.

Porcelain enamel is an inorganic-type coating, which is applied to metals or glass for both decorative and functional purposes. This coating is a silica-based solidified glass mass obtained by high-temperature firing (temperature can range between 450 and 1200 °C depending on the substrate). Porcelain enamel coatings differ from ceramic coatings mainly by their glass structure and dilatation coefficient, and from organic paints mainly by the inorganic nature of the matrix and the chemical bond that exists between the coating and the substrate. Full article

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Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 371-387; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020031 - 25 Apr 2021

Definition

The Mediterranean diet is a food pattern incorporated into a set of lifestyle practices typical of Greece and Southern Italy in the early 1960s, where adult life expectancy was notably high, while rates of diet-related chronic diseases were low. The Mediterranean diet was [...] Read more.

The Mediterranean diet is a food pattern incorporated into a set of lifestyle practices typical of Greece and Southern Italy in the early 1960s, where adult life expectancy was notably high, while rates of diet-related chronic diseases were low. The Mediterranean diet was described initially by the work of LG Allbaugh, commissioned by the Rockefeller foundation and the Greek government post-WW2 on the Greek island of Crete in 1948. The Mediterranean diet was accepted as Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO in 2013. The primary advantages of the Mediterranean diet include health benefits pertinent to cardiovascular, metabolic syndrome, and cognition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medicine & Pharmacology)

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Active Edible Packaging

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Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 360-370; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020030 - 13 Apr 2021

Definition

Active edible packaging is a food packaging made of comestible bioproducts and active compounds that interacts with the food. The bioproducts, usually biopolymers, must be recognized as safe and with characteristics to be consumed by humans—comestible—and not toxic and capable of carrying an [...] Read more.

Active edible packaging is a food packaging made of comestible bioproducts and active compounds that interacts with the food. The bioproducts, usually biopolymers, must be recognized as safe and with characteristics to be consumed by humans—comestible—and not toxic and capable of carrying an active compound, like anti-browning agents, colorants, flavors, nutrients, antimicrobial and/or antioxidant compounds, in order to extend the product shelf-life, reduce contamination and maintain or even enhance the nutritional value. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Material Sciences)

Open AccessEntry

Biofunctional Peptide FNIII14: Therapeutic Potential

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Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 350-359; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020029 - 08 Apr 2021

Definition

Biofunctional peptide FNIII14, which is derived from the 14th fibronectin (FN) type III-like (FN-III) repeat of FN molecule, is capable of inhibiting cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM). This functional site is usually buried within the molecular structure of FN, but can [...] Read more.

Biofunctional peptide FNIII14, which is derived from the 14th fibronectin (FN) type III-like (FN-III) repeat of FN molecule, is capable of inhibiting cell adhesion to the extracellular matrix (ECM). This functional site is usually buried within the molecular structure of FN, but can be exposed by conformational changes and proteolytic cleavage. Peptide FNIII14 can induce a conformational change in β1-integrin from the active to the inactive form, causing functional inactivation. Based on this anti-adhesive activity, peptide FNIII14 exhibits therapeutic potential for several diseases such as metabolic diseases, organ fibrosis, and malignant tumors. Peptide FNIII14 blocks integrin-mediated signaling by a mechanism entirely distinct from that of conventional antagonisitic peptides, including Arg-Gly-Asp peptides that competitively inhibit the ECM binding of integrin. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medicine & Pharmacology)

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COVID-19 and Coronary Heart Disease

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Adiba Naz

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Muntasir Billah

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 340-349; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020028 - 07 Apr 2021

Definition

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. One of the main contributions of mortality and morbidity in CHD patients is acute myocardial infarction (AMI), which is the result of abrupt occlusion of an epicardial coronary artery due to a [...] Read more.

Coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading cause of mortality worldwide. One of the main contributions of mortality and morbidity in CHD patients is acute myocardial infarction (AMI), which is the result of abrupt occlusion of an epicardial coronary artery due to a sudden rupture of atherosclerotic plaque, causing myocardial ischemia. In the initial stage of myocardial ischemia, lack of oxygen and nutrient supply results in biochemical and metabolic changes within the myocardium. Depletion of oxygen switches the aerobic cellular metabolism to anaerobic metabolism and impairs the oxidative phosphorylation pathway eventually leading to cardiomyocyte death. Several studies suggest an interlink between COVID-19 and ischemic heart disease. An increased ACE2 receptor expression in the myocardium may partly contribute to the myocardial injuries that are observed in patients affected by SARS-CoV-2. Furthermore, pre-existing cardiovascular disease, in conjunction with an aggravated inflammatory response which causes an up-regulation in pro-inflammatory cytokines. Moreover, patients with atherosclerosis are observed to be more prone to ischemic attacks when affected by COVID-19, due to hypercoagulation in the blood as well as elevated pro-inflammatory markers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biology & Life Sciences)

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Ionic Liquids in Drug Delivery

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Sónia N. Pedro

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Carmen S. R. Freire

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Armando J. D. Silvestre

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Mara G. Freire

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 324-339; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020027 - 01 Apr 2021

Definition

Ionic liquids (ILs) are molten salts composed of a large organic cation and an organic/inorganic anion. Due to their ionic character, most ILs present advantageous properties over conventional solvents, such as negligible volatility at atmospheric conditions and high thermal and chemical stabilities. The [...] Read more.

Ionic liquids (ILs) are molten salts composed of a large organic cation and an organic/inorganic anion. Due to their ionic character, most ILs present advantageous properties over conventional solvents, such as negligible volatility at atmospheric conditions and high thermal and chemical stabilities. The wide variety of IL anion–cation combinations allows these solvents to be designed to display a strong solvation ability for a myriad of active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and (bio)polymers. Given these properties, ILs have been used as solvents and as formulation components in different areas of drug delivery, as well as novel liquid forms of APIs (API-ILs) applied in different stages of development of novel drug delivery systems. Furthermore, their combination with polymers and biopolymers has enabled the design of drug delivery systems for new therapeutic routes of administration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Chemistry)

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Open AccessEntry

Defensible Spaces

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Yasmin Moanis

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Fatmaelzahraa Hussein

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(2), 314-323; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1020026 - 30 Mar 2021

Definition

Defensible space is the concept of creating spaces that include a series of architectural guidelines that are used when designing a new urban residential area to promote both the territorial claim of the residential groups to their surroundings and their ability to conduct [...] Read more.

Defensible space is the concept of creating spaces that include a series of architectural guidelines that are used when designing a new urban residential area to promote both the territorial claim of the residential groups to their surroundings and their ability to conduct natural surveillance of their spaces. Constructing safe environments with safe vocabularies for enhancing well-being is crucial for achieving quality of life in both peace and wartime. Warzone countries that suffer from many changes due to the effect of war (or fourth-generation wars) should be prepared to face those changes with safe spaces as well. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Arts & Humanities)

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Sustainable Architecture—What’s Next?

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Harald N. Røstvik

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(1), 293-313; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1010025 - 23 Mar 2021

Definition

Sustainable architecture encompasses more than energy efficiency, zero carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission or renewable energy use in the built environment. It also needs to alleviate overall impacts on the natural environment or ecosystem that surrounds it. It may be argued that [...] Read more.

Sustainable architecture encompasses more than energy efficiency, zero carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission or renewable energy use in the built environment. It also needs to alleviate overall impacts on the natural environment or ecosystem that surrounds it. It may be argued that primitive vernacular architecture (architecture without architects) built and operated using local techniques and resources alone can be considered to be sustainable. Yet later, after the 1992 Rio Conference and its declarations, more specific definitions emerged putting weight on the rational use of land area, materials and energy, preferably local, as well as area efficient planning, economy and recyclability. The advantage of this is to reduce the ecological footprint of buildings and the climate gas emissions from a sector that represents 35–50 percent of global climate gas emissions, depending on how one counts. This paper clarifies concepts, questions cemented truths and points a way forward by asking; what’s next? Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of ZEMCH Research and Development)

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Metal Binding Proteins

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Eugene A. Permyakov

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(1), 261-292; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1010024 - 15 Mar 2021

Cited by 1

Definition

Metal ions play several major roles in proteins: structural, regulatory, and enzymatic. The binding of some metal ions increase stability of proteins or protein domains. Some metal ions can regulate various cell processes being first, second, or third messengers. Some metal ions, especially [...] Read more.

Metal ions play several major roles in proteins: structural, regulatory, and enzymatic. The binding of some metal ions increase stability of proteins or protein domains. Some metal ions can regulate various cell processes being first, second, or third messengers. Some metal ions, especially transition metal ions, take part in catalysis in many enzymes. From ten to twelve metals are vitally important for activity of living organisms: sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, manganese, iron, cobalt, zinc, nickel, vanadium, molybdenum, and tungsten. This short review is devoted to structural, physical, chemical, and physiological properties of proteins, which specifically bind these metal cations. Full article

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Exsolution Catalysts—Increasing Metal Efficiency

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Encyclopedia 2021, 1(1), 249-260; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1010023 - 25 Feb 2021

Definition

Exsolution catalysts are perovskite oxide-based materials that can exsolve catalytically active dopant elements as nanoparticles covering the surface, while the perovskite backbone can act as a stable support material. Thus, under proper conditions, a highly catalytically active and stable catalyst surface can be [...] Read more.

Exsolution catalysts are perovskite oxide-based materials that can exsolve catalytically active dopant elements as nanoparticles covering the surface, while the perovskite backbone can act as a stable support material. Thus, under proper conditions, a highly catalytically active and stable catalyst surface can be achieved. For many catalytic materials, precious metals or non-abundant elements play a key role in high catalytic activity. As these elements are often expensive or their supply is ecologically and ethically problematic, the replacement, or at the least reduction in the necessary amount used, is a common aim of current research. One strategy to do so is utilizing exsolution catalysts, as the active elements can be very selectively exsolved, and hence only very small doping amounts are sufficient for excellent results. This approach enables catalyst design with very high active metal efficiency. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Material Sciences)

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Photobiomodulation for Taste Alteration

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Marwan El Mobadder

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Samir Nammour

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(1), 240-248; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1010022 - 21 Feb 2021

Definition

Photobiomodulation (PBM) therapy employs light at red and near-infrared wavelengths to modulate biological activity. The therapeutic effect of PBM for the treatment or management of several diseases and injuries has gained significant popularity among researchers and clinicians, especially for the management of oral [...] Read more.

Photobiomodulation (PBM) therapy employs light at red and near-infrared wavelengths to modulate biological activity. The therapeutic effect of PBM for the treatment or management of several diseases and injuries has gained significant popularity among researchers and clinicians, especially for the management of oral complications of cancer therapy. This entry focuses on the current evidence on the use of PBM for the management of a frequent oral complication due to cancer therapy—taste alteration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medicine & Pharmacology)

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Machine Learning in Healthcare Communication

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Sarkar Siddique

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James C. L. Chow

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(1), 220-239; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1010021 - 14 Feb 2021

Cited by 2

Definition

Machine learning (ML) is a study of computer algorithms for automation through experience. ML is a subset of artificial intelligence (AI) that develops computer systems, which are able to perform tasks generally having need of human intelligence. While healthcare communication is important in [...] Read more.

Machine learning (ML) is a study of computer algorithms for automation through experience. ML is a subset of artificial intelligence (AI) that develops computer systems, which are able to perform tasks generally having need of human intelligence. While healthcare communication is important in order to tactfully translate and disseminate information to support and educate patients and public, ML is proven applicable in healthcare with the ability for complex dialogue management and conversational flexibility. In this topical review, we will highlight how the application of ML/AI in healthcare communication is able to benefit humans. This includes chatbots for the COVID-19 health education, cancer therapy, and medical imaging. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Medicine & Pharmacology)

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Tissue Integrity and COVID-19

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Garry Kerch

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(1), 206-219; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1010020 - 14 Feb 2021

Definition

Tissue integrity depends on biological tissue stiffness. Tissue integrity can protect both against age-related diseases and against severity of COVID-19. The disruption of tight junctions and increase of tissue permeability with advancing age can be related with age-related diseases as well as with [...] Read more.

Tissue integrity depends on biological tissue stiffness. Tissue integrity can protect both against age-related diseases and against severity of COVID-19. The disruption of tight junctions and increase of tissue permeability with advancing age can be related with age-related diseases as well as with age-dependent COVID-19. Release of tightly bound water from collagen fibrils leads to the increase of extracellular matrix stiffness and to the associated with matrix stiffness increased tissue permeability. The link between arterial stiffness and oxidative stress has been reported and is expected to be studied in more detail in the future. Trehalose can be suggested for retardation of tightly bound water release and subsequent extracellular matrix crosslinking by advanced glycation end products. Increase in tissue permeability can be blocked by polyphenols that inhibit ICAM-1 expression and mitigate cytoskeleton reorganization. NF-κB activation as a result of increased stiffness and cytoskeleton reorganization can cause both cardiovascular pathologies and COVID-19. Increased cholesterol content in cell membrane leads to increased virus entry into cell and increase of cholesterol is linked with cardiovascular diseases. Statins and chitosan are known as cholesterol-lowering substances. Nrf2 inhibits NF-κB activation and NF-κB inhibits Nrf2 pathway. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Biology & Life Sciences)

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Non-Patent Literature

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Gema Velayos-Ortega

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Rosana López-Carreño

Encyclopedia 2021, 1(1), 198-205; https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia1010019 - 12 Feb 2021

Definition

Non-patent literature is defined as scientific publications, technical standards, conference proceedings, clinical trials, books, manuals, technical or research reports, or any other technical scientific material which is cited in patents to show what has already been published and disseminated about the invention to [...] Read more.

Non-patent literature is defined as scientific publications, technical standards, conference proceedings, clinical trials, books, manuals, technical or research reports, or any other technical scientific material which is cited in patents to show what has already been published and disseminated about the invention to be patented, in order to justify its novelty. These documents are considered technically relevant to the patent granting procedure and are cited along with other patents related to the same subject matter. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Encyclopedia of Social Sciences)

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