Encyclopedia, Volume 5, Issue 4 (December 2025) – 63 articles

NOOR is the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia’s national Educational Management Information System (EMIS), developed by the Ministry of Education to digitize and streamline academic and administrative processes across public schools. Through its unified digital infrastructure, the platform enables essential functions such as student enrolment, grade and attendance management, curriculum administration, and communication with families. Beyond its operational role, NOOR is regarded as a flexible digital foundation, with a predictive architecture, modular integration, and distributed infrastructure which position it as a potential model for broader public-service domains, including healthcare and digital governance. NOOR’s design supports equitable access, facilitates cooperation between educational organizations, and provides real-time data to inform evidence-based decision making. These capabilities contribute to improving learning processes, though their impact depends on wider institutional and pedagogical environments. The system has already demonstrated progress in areas such as data accuracy, academic monitoring, family engagement, and reporting efficiency. Aligned with Saudi Arabia’s Vision 2030 and the Tanweer educational reform program, NOOR reflects the national shift toward centralized, data-driven management of public education. With more than 12 million users, it is one of the largest EMIS platforms in the Middle East and contributes to global discussions on how integrated digital infrastructures can support impactful educational reform. Full article

Virtual reality (VR) is a new technological advancement that has been at the forefront of a promising new era of technology-based psychoeducation, therapeutic practices, and interventions. VR offers the ability for individuals to enter an immersive virtual world with opportunities to engage with stimuli that exposes them to situations that otherwise cannot be created or controlled in the real world. Thus, VR presents a viable avenue for research, therapeutic treatment, and socio-emotional learning in adolescents. This entry seeks to provide a comprehensive overview of the developing landscape of virtual reality as a means of promoting mental health for youth. We illuminate the robust opportunities for utilizing this new technology in psychological treatment, education, and intervention in adolescents, as well as the unique challenges it presents, and areas that future research should explore. Full article

Adult learner dropout is adults’ withdrawal or stop-out from formal or non-formal educational programs before successful completion. For adult learners, withdrawal often manifests as stop-out or temporary disengagement rather than permanent attrition, reflecting the episodic nature of their participation. Unlike traditional students, adult learners must often balance multiple life responsibilities—employment, caregiving, financial obligations, and community roles—while also pursuing education or training. Their vulnerability to attrition is further exacerbated by these overlapping demands, particularly when educational programs do not accommodate their situational and motivational needs. Adult learner dropout therefore requires a more dynamic understanding of persistence as a continuous negotiation between internal and external demands. Participation in online education has significantly expanded over the past two decades, particularly during and after the COVID-19 pandemic, as adult learners increasingly engage with digital platforms for work and communication. This exposure has enhanced their digital fluency, transforming their expectations and experiences of online learning. Thus, the underlying factors that influence adult learner dropout have also shifted—moving beyond technological and access-related barriers to instructional quality, engagement design, and relevance issues. In this evolving landscape, adult learner dropout can no longer be regarded as isolated or individual events. It is a systemic phenomenon emerging from dynamic interactions among psychological, pedagogical, contextual, and institutional factors. Full article

Kindness, from the perspective of positive psychology and character strengths, is a virtue that supports others’ emotional and practical needs, strengthens relationships, and fosters a positive, inclusive social environment. Kindness can be defined as characterized by a set of behaviors, attitudes, and dispositions rooted in care, empathy, respect, and prosocial motivation. Kindness is a multidimensional, prosocial construct that developmentally evolves, shaped by cognitive development, personal and interpersonal factors, and social contexts. As individuals mature across childhood and adolescence, their understanding and expression of kindness become more complex, reflecting growing social and relational awareness and competency. Full article

This systematic review and meta-analysis synthesises 88 effect sizes from 88 peer-reviewed journal articles to evaluate the association between marketing capability and firm performance. Studies were identified in Scopus and Dimensions for the period 2000–2025 and were eligible if they reported a construct identifiable as marketing capability, at least one firm performance outcome, and sufficient statistics to compute a correlation. Random-effects pooling indicates a positive and practically meaningful correlation between marketing capability and performance (r = 0.44, 95% CI [0.40, 0.48]), with a 95% prediction interval from 0.06 to 0.71, indicating that marketing capability is an important correlate of performance outcomes. Subgroup analyses show stronger correlations for reflective first-order models, weaker estimates for higher-order and formative specifications, and wider prediction intervals when confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is reported. Contextual differences are also evident: business-to-consumer samples exhibit the largest effects, business-to-business samples moderate effects, and mixed samples smaller effects. Small-study patterns were examined with funnel plots, Egger’s test and trim-and-fill, and sensitivity analyses using Restricted Maximum Likelihood (REML), Hartung–Knapp, and multilevel models produced similar pooled estimates. Most included studies were cross-sectional, which limits causal interpretation, so the findings should be read as consistent associations rather than proven effects. Taken together, the review shows that construct design, validation practice, and market setting systematically shape both the size and spread of the marketing capability–performance association and provides benchmarks and prediction intervals that future studies can use for theory development and research design. Full article

Disinformation refers to false or misleading information created with the deliberate intention to deceive and cause individual or societal harm. It is typically distinguished from misinformation, which involves falsehoods shared without deceptive intent, and from malinformation, which uses accurate information in misleading or harmful ways. Terms often used interchangeably in public debate—such as fake news, propaganda, and conspiracy theories—describe related but distinct phenomena with differing aims and methods. The term derives from the Soviet concept of dezinformatsiya, originally associated with covert influence operations and strategic deception. Over time, however, its meaning has expanded to encompass a wide range of manipulative practices enacted by both state and non-state actors. Disinformation can take textual, visual, and multimodal forms, including fabricated images and AI-generated content such as deepfakes. Motivations vary and may include political influence, economic gain, ideological mobilisation, or efforts to stigmatise specific groups. Although these practices have long historical precedents, digital and platformised communication environments have amplified their scale, speed, and persuasive potential. This entry provides a narrative overview and conceptual synthesis structured around four dimensions: the history of disinformation, the supply and diffusion mechanisms, the psychological, social, and narrative drivers, and the interventions designed to mitigate its impact. Full article

Şerefeddin Sabuncuoğlu (c. 1385–1470) was one of the most prominent surgeons of the early Ottoman period, particularly noted for his systematic and visually documented surgical approaches to breast tissue. His principal work, Cerrahiyyetü’l-Hâniyye, is based on the 30th volume of the Andalusian physician al-Zahrawi’s Kitab al-Tasrif, yet it goes well beyond a translation by incorporating Sabuncuoğlu’s clinical observations, experiential knowledge, and original surgical explanations. The text provides detailed descriptions of breast pathologies, including gynecomastia, and outlines diagnostic procedures, therapeutic strategies, surgical drainage methods, local wound-cleansing practices, and the definitions and uses of numerous surgical instruments, many of which are illustrated via miniatures. His second major work, Mücerrebnâme, is equally significant from a pharmacotherapeutic perspective, containing experiential prescriptions for swelling, inflammation, and painful breast lesions and reflecting the empirical reasoning he applied to drug-based treatments. Together, these two works portray Sabuncuoğlu as a versatile physician who combined operative techniques with pharmacological knowledge, offering a comprehensive view of medical practice in the early Ottoman period. His detailed account of gynecomastia surgery, supported by observations on pre- and postoperative care, represents an important source for understanding both medieval surgical practice and the development of anatomical and therapeutic knowledge in the Islamic medical tradition. Full article

The Bunun are one of the Indigenous peoples of Taiwan, traditionally known for their mountain agriculture and communal cooperation. The cultural transmission of the Bunun people refers to the intergenerational process through which knowledge, values, and beliefs are passed down via language, rituals, music, hunting ethics, and daily practices. This system not only sustains ethnic identity but also demonstrates cultural resilience. However, historical colonization, forced relocation, assimilation in education, and modernization have disrupted these pathways. In recent years, elders, cultural health stations, community universities, and schools have collaboratively promoted cultural revitalization through curriculum design, ritual restoration, and language teaching. Full article

This report bridges fundamental ideas from introductory calculus to advanced concepts in quantum mechanics and nonlinear dynamics. Beginning with the behavior of second derivatives in oscillatory and exponential functions, it introduces the Airy equation and the WKB approximation as mathematical tools for describing wave propagation and quantum tunneling near turning points—locations where transitions between oscillatory and exponential components occur. The analysis then extends to the non-dissipative Lorenz model, whose double-well potential and solitary-wave (sech-type) solutions reveal a deep mathematical connection with the nonlinear Schrödinger equation. Together, these examples highlight the universality of second-order differential equations in describing turning-point dynamics, encompassing physical phenomena ranging from quantum tunneling to coherent solitary-wave structures in fluid and atmospheric systems. Full article

The love for horses is deeply rooted in human history and culture, captivating us with their magnificent nature. For millennia, horses have been crucial to human survival and development, providing transportation, labor, and even status. Currently, interest in human relationships with other animals has grown significantly, in the context of promoting the well-being and essential health of both species. This entry aims to explore the possibilities of human–horse relationships, from early interactions to strong bonds. The literature collected here highlights the complexity of this relationship, with special attention to the various biological and social factors involved. The text compares historical practices with current perspectives, examining how these changes affect the relationship between humans and horses. It examines how connecting with horses potentially benefits both humans and horses, underlining the importance of recognizing horse behavior and noting that our assumptions may not reflect their true needs. This literature enriches our understanding of the multifaceted nature of human–horse relationships, offering a new perspective on horse care, which focuses on positive relationship and well-being, and therefore on the importance of harmonious provision of all domains of well-being, highlighting the importance of healthy behavioral interactions and emotional stability of both species. Full article

Background: Telemedicine expanded dramatically during the COVID-19 pandemic, transforming healthcare delivery worldwide. However, implementation faced challenges, and the impact on clinical outcomes, access, and quality remains under investigation. Objective: To systematically review the literature from 2020 to 2025 on telemedicine adoption, identifying key barriers and facilitators, and to evaluate clinical outcomes associated with telehealth use during this period. Methods: We followed PRISMA 2020 guidelines in conducting this review. Multiple databases were searched for studies on the implementation or evaluation of telemedicine/telehealth. Eligible studies included randomized trials and observational studies reporting telehealth-related outcomes, barriers, or facilitators. Two reviewers screened studies and extracted data on study characteristics, telemedicine interventions, barriers/facilitators, and clinical outcomes. Risk of bias was assessed using RoB2 for randomized controlled trials (RCTs) for qualitative or cross-sectional studies. Meta-analyses were performed where data were comparable, and qualitative synthesis was used to summarize barriers and facilitators. Results: Thirty-two studies (17 RCTs and 15 observational) were included. Telemedicine use surged in 2020 and remained elevated compared to baseline through August 2025. Reported barriers included insufficient broadband access, limited digital literacy, uncertain reimbursement policies, and workflow disruptions. Facilitators encompassed supportive policy waivers, the integration of telehealth into established care pathways, and strong acceptance from patients and providers. Clinical outcomes were generally comparable to in-person care. Telehealth enhanced chronic disease management (e.g., hypertension, diabetes) and decreased hospitalizations for heart failure, while ensuring safety in surgical follow-up and prenatal care. However, higher revisit rates were observed in some acute follow-up settings. Patient satisfaction consistently remained high, especially among rural and underserved populations reporting benefits, though disparities in digital access continued to exist. Conclusions: Telemedicine has become a sustainable component of healthcare, delivering clinical outcomes comparable to traditional care while offering convenience and resilience. Overcoming technology gaps, regulatory uncertainties, and equity issues is crucial for ongoing progress. Hybrid care models that combine telemedicine with in-person services, supported by strong policy frameworks, are recommended to maximize benefits and promote fair access in the post-pandemic era. Full article

Early School Leaving (ESL), or Early Leaving from Education and Training (ELET), remains a critical challenge across Europe and globally, with profound implications encompassing economic disadvantages, social exclusion, and reduced life opportunities for individuals. This entry analyzes the authoritative definition of the phenomenon, explores the multifaceted causes that drive it, and outlines the severe professional, social, and psychological consequences of failing to attain a minimal credential. ESL is widely understood not as an abrupt event but as a complex, cumulative, long-term process of school disengagement that is influenced by a myriad of interconnected risk factors originating in childhood and early adolescence. Understanding the interplay between individual, family, and institutional factors is crucial for designing effective, coordinated policy responses. Full article

This entry presents the history, geography, business, regulations, and the roles of gig workers, platform/algorithms, and employers, focusing primarily on the USA and the EU. The gig economy is informally referred to also as the fourth industrial revolution or the 1099 economy, emphasising sharing, freelance, or platform work; it is a complex and changing business model and regulatory environment. In practice, the gig economy refers to a tripartite relation between workers, platforms/apps, and employers, leading to a two-sided market, where algorithms match supply and demand for paid labour and clients. It is only recently that the gig economy has started to be conceptualised, and its implications, challenges, and impacts are captured in economic law and society, including the power dynamics related to the interplay between economics, technology, regulation, and communities. Conceptually, the gig economy is important, as small paid work has always been present in society for all types of workers and beneficiaries. This new business model of on-demand work has some perceived advantages, such as freedom of work, under-regulation, efficient use of capital, driving down costs, and improving services. However, there is a dualisation of anti-power between workers and non-employers that may lead to precarious work, less free workers, and shadow corporations that distort the market using game changers like digital management algorithms. Currently, the size of the gig economy comprises 154–435 million gig workers out of the world’s 3.63 bn workers, with a market size of USD 557 bn, and is still expanding. Full article

Stock valuation models can be used to guide the investment decisions of institutions or individuals. In the traditional approach, the investor will use a valuation model to calculate a stock’s intrinsic value as a function of the estimated future cash flows the firm will distribute to its shareholders. The investment decision will hinge on how the estimated intrinsic value compares to the current stock price. This approach is appropriate when the investor has access to the detailed company-specific information required to forecast future cash flows. In an alternative approach, the process is reversed, and stock valuation models can be used to identify the cash flow expectations supporting a firm’s current stock price. Depending on whether or not these expectations are reasonable—in light of current and expected firm-specific, industry, and macroeconomic conditions—the investor can decide whether to buy, sell, or hold the stock. This approach is appropriate for external investors who do not have access to detailed company-specific information. This entry discusses the uses and limitations of the most prominent stock valuation models when used in the traditional framework, and explains how to identify and evaluate the expectations embedded within a current stock price. Full article

De-influencing is an emerging trend that appeared in 2023 on the TikTok platform as a reaction to overconsumption. De-influencers are content creators who, through their videos, seek to discourage consumers from purchasing products or services widely promoted by major brands. They position themselves in opposition to traditional social media influencers, who are oriented toward paid brand promotion and driven by the commercial logic of the influencer marketing. Through their content, de-influencers advocate for the mindful use of the planet’s resources and for the consumption of goods and services in a way that meets present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own. Thus, the de-influencing movement has been grounded in the growing awareness of the multiple dangers posed by excessive consumption of goods, products, and services—overconsumption having negative effects on natural resources, which are diminishing exponentially and ultimately generating major imbalances in both the environment and society. Full article

This entry delineates artificial intelligence (AI) ethics and the field’s core ethical challenges, surveys the principal normative frameworks in the literature, and offers a historical analysis that traces and explains the shift from ethical monism to ethical pluralism. In particular, it (i) situates the field within the trajectory of AI’s technical development, (ii) organizes the field’s rationale around challenges regarding alignment, opacity, human oversight, bias and noise, accountability, and questions of agency and patiency, and (iii) compares leading theoretical approaches to address these challenges. We show that AI’s development has brought escalating ethical challenges along with a maturation of frameworks proposed to address them. We map an arc from early monisms (e.g., deontology, consequentialism) to a variety of pluralist ethical frameworks (e.g., pluralistic deontology, augmented utilitarianism, moral foundation theory, and the agent-deed-consequence model) alongside pluralist governance regimes (e.g., principles from the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and the Asilomar AI principles). We find that pluralism is both normatively and operationally compelling: it mirrors the multidimensional problem space of AI ethics, guards against failures (e.g., reward hacking, emergency exceptions), supports legitimacy across diverse sociotechnical contexts, and coheres with extant principles of AI engineering and governance. Although pluralist models vary in structure and exhibit distinct limitations, when applied with due methodological care, each can furnish a valuable foundation for AI ethics. Full article

Emile Durkheim is well known but poorly understood in the disciplines of criminology and criminal justice. His concept of anomie is often oversimplified to mean a state of normlessness. In fact, there are five related conceptions of the concept stated in his works. The purpose of this work is to summarize what is known about relationships between anomie, crime, and punishment. Whereas there is more evidence supporting relationships between anomie and various types of crime, the evidence with regard to the relationship between anomie and punishment is far less clear. This article attempts to provide clarity. Full article

Stochastic streamflow synthesis has long been the cornerstone of water resource planning, enabling the generation of extended hydrological sequences that reflect natural variability beyond the limitations of observed records. This paper presents a comprehensive review of the theoretical foundations, methodological advancements, and evolving trends in synthetic streamflow generation. Historical progression is explored through three distinct eras: the pre-modern formulation era (pre-1960), the era dominated by autoregressive models (1960–2000), and the recent period marked by the rise of data-driven AI/ML approaches. Various modelling paradigms, parametric versus non-parametric, traditional versus AI-based, and single- versus multi-scale approaches, are critically assessed and compared with a focus on their applicability across temporal resolutions and hydrological regimes. This study also categorizes evaluation criteria into four dimensions: preservation of stochastic characteristics, distributional consistency, error-based metrics, and operational performance. In addition, the use and impact of transformation techniques (e.g., log or Box-Cox) employed to normalize streamflow distributions for improved model fidelity are examined. A bibliometric analysis of over 200 studies highlights the global research footprint, showing that the United States leads with 70 studies, followed by Canada with 15, reflecting the growing international engagement in the field. The analysis also identifies the most active journals publishing streamflow synthesis research: Water Resources Research (50 publications, since 1967), Journal of Hydrology (25 publications, since 1963), and Journal of the American Water Resources Association (9 publications, since 1974). This review not only synthesizes past and current practices but also outlines key challenges and future research directions to advance stochastic hydrology in an era of climatic uncertainty and data complexity. Full article

Nanoimprint lithography (NIL) is a high-resolution parallel patterning method based on molding. It has proven resolution down to the nanometer range and can be scaled up for large areas and high throughput. Its main characteristic is that the surface pattern of a mold is imprinted on a material that is displaced locally by using the difference in hardness of the mold and the moldable material, thus replicating its surface topography. This can be achieved by shaping a thermoplastic film by heating and cooling (T-NIL) or a photosensitive resin followed by a curing process for hardening (UV-NIL). In lithography, the local thickness contrast of the thin molded film can be used as a masking layer to transfer the pattern onto the underlying substrate. Therefore, NIL will be an alternative in fields in which electron-beam lithography and photolithography do not provide sufficient resolution at reasonable throughput. Direct imprint enables applications where a modified functional surface is needed without pattern transfer. NIL is currently used for high-volume manufacturing in different applications, like patterned sapphire substrates, wire grid polarizers, photonic devices, lightguides for AR/VR devices, metalenses, and biosensors for DNA analysis, and is being tested for semiconductor integrated circuit chips. Full article

This systematic review investigates the state of the art of smart fasteners and smart washers. The collected documents were systematically classified, focusing on fasteners and washers equipped with embedded sensors capable of detecting flaws, corrosion, cracks, or monitoring features like structural response, applied load, and preload. The review emphasizes sensor technologies rather than devices made from smart materials. A total of 148 documents were found through electronic databases, of which 32 were thoroughly analyzed and categorized into 5 categories depending on the sensing capabilities, actuating capabilities, ability to transmit data, and their combinations. The analysis showed that most devices incorporate piezoelectric materials as sensing or actuation elements, primarily aimed at detecting fastener loosening or monitoring preload and load in fastened joints. Despite progress, several challenges limit industrial adoption, including sensor integration affecting bolt integrity, durability and calibration issues, and high costs. Few studies address scalability or measurement performance, highlighting the need for reliable, low-cost, and industrially scalable solutions. Full article

Misinformation has emerged as a significant threat to both society and public health, with social media acting as a major conduit for its dissemination. This contributes to harmful health outcomes and undermines trust in authoritative institutions. In addition, the dismantling of scientific authority seems to be a symptom of the post-truth era, where “alternative facts” are presented in the public debate as indisputable evidence of the inherent limitations of scientific infallibility. The prevalence of misinformation on social media platforms stems from multiple, interconnected factors, including individual-level influences such as cognitive biases, as well as systemic aspects of social media’s information architecture. Unlike scientific institutions that adhere to the principles of evidence-based knowledge, social media platforms operate under an attention-driven model that favors virality over factuality. Addressing these challenges effectively requires coordinated, multi-level, and multidisciplinary interventions targeting users, content creators, technology companies, health authorities, and governments to restore public trust and safeguard the credibility of medical expertise. Full article

Technocracy refers to any political–social–economic system that is governed and managed using purportedly objective scientific and technical principles, and in which ultimate power and authority rests with technical and scientific experts. The concept had its initial origins in the early decades of the Industrial Revolution (with antecedents stretching back to the rationalism of ancient Greece and, later, the Enlightenment in the West). Henri Saint-Simon in early 19th century France was the earliest exponent of a technocratic system which involved overall political and economic government by industrialists. Technocracy was formally coined as a term in the early 20th century in the United States in the context of a specific intellectual movement under the same name which laid out a more detailed system of economic and social management by industrialists and scientists that supposedly would guarantee maximum efficiency in production, consumption and distribution without the self-defeating tendencies of political systems of the time, either democratic or authoritarian. Technocracy is currently used to refer to any policy or governmental arrangement that purportedly emphasizes technical criteria above non-technical values in policy, planning and public decision-making, and which gives significant authority to experts. Singapore is often referred to as a leading example of such an approach. Various controversies have arisen around technocracy, especially its potential incompatibility with democracy and social values that are not easily translated into technical terms. There is also debate about how feasible a genuine technocracy actually is in practice. Full article

A growing international consensus holds that science education must advance beyond content coverage to cultivate robust understanding of the Nature of Science (NoS)—how scientific knowledge is generated, justified, revised, and socially negotiated. Yet naïve conceptions persist among students and teachers, and effective, scalable classroom strategies remain contested. This narrative review synthesizes research and practice on games and playful activities that make epistemic features of science visible and discussable. We organize the repertoire into six families—(i) observation–inference and discrepant-event tasks; (ii) pattern discovery and rule-finding puzzles; (iii) black-box and model-based inquiry; (iv) activities that dramatize tentativeness and anomaly management; (v) deliberately underdetermined mysteries that cultivate warrant-based explanations; and (vi) moderately contextualized games. Across these designs, we analyze how specific mechanics afford core NoS dimensions (e.g., observation vs. inference, creativity, plurality of methods, theory-ladenness and subjectivity, tentativeness) and what scaffolds transform playful engagement into explicit, reflective learning. We conclude with pragmatic guidance for teacher education and curriculum design, highlighting the importance of language supports, structured debriefs, and calibrated contextualization, and outline priorities for future research on equity, assessment, and digital extensions. Full article

This paper reviews social science studies of emergency evacuations to point to the difficulties in associating them with panic formulations stressing irrationality and to show how the misunderstandings that how the conceptualization of one of these approaches on panic flight, which assumes the prevalence of nonsocial and self-centered behaviors and movements, has been transformed by recent studies of emergency evacuations from buildings, which show that the evacuation is best understood as social behavior in which people exhibit means-end rationality and social solidarity and act as socialized individuals moving towards sources of actual or perceived safety. The conclusion suggests first that the continued usage of the irrationality formulation by a minority of engineers and computer scientists writing on the topic of emergency evacuation and their use of “herding,” or the notion that during dangerous conditions, people follow the actions of others, leading to conformity, is not supported by a majority of findings in the social sciences, and second, that a likely solution to the disconnect between the two science communities is the adoption of transdisciplinary collaborative efforts. Full article

This entry examines how wage-setting institutions (WSIs) shape wages across advanced economies. It focuses on four core mechanisms—minimum wages, collective bargaining, wage coordination, and wage centralization—drawing on theoretical insights, empirical evidence, and cross-country comparisons. The analysis shows that minimum wages safeguard low-paid workers but have heterogeneous employment effects depending on their level and enforcement. Collective bargaining raises average wages and compresses wage inequality, though it can reduce flexibility and create insider–outsider dynamics. Wage coordination stabilizes wage growth, prevents inflationary spirals, and fosters equity, while wage centralization promotes solidarity wages and macroeconomic discipline but may limit adaptability. Using The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and Institutional Characteristics of Trade Unions, Wage Setting, State Intervention and Social Pacts (ICTWSS) data, the study highlights institutional diversity, ranging from coordinated Nordic models to fragmented liberal systems, and identifies trends toward “organized decentralization”. Policy implications suggest that WSIs should be viewed not as rigidities but as adaptable frameworks that can balance efficiency, equity, and stability when carefully designed. The conclusion emphasizes that the future of wage-setting lies in leveraging institutional complementarities to respond to globalization, technological change, and shifting labor market conditions. Full article

The Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) is a psychometric instrument used in research and clinical studies to measure the intensity of subjective experiences that cannot be objectively quantified using defined biomarkers, such as pain, fatigue, or mood. It typically consists of a 100 mm straight line with descriptive anchors at each end representing the extremes of the sensation (for example, “no pain” at one end and “the most severe pain imaginable” at the other). Respondents indicate their experience by marking a point on the line, and the distance from the lower anchor is measured and recorded as a continuous variable. VAS data can be analyzed using descriptive or inferential statistics, with the ordinal and non-linear properties of the scale requiring careful justification of the statistical methods applied. Full article

Intangible Cultural Heritage (ICH) is increasingly recognised as a potential factor that can strengthen social cohesion and societal resilience. Yet, existing scholarship often valorises ICH without fully examining the challenges, exclusions, and political tensions it can produce. This article addresses that gap by critically reviewing UNESCO frameworks, case studies, and academic literature to evaluate both the opportunities and the limitations of ICH in contemporary societies. Our analysis highlights how ICH can contribute to shared identity, intergenerational transmission, and adaptive ecological knowledge, while also noting the risks of standardisation, misappropriation, and nationalistic appropriation. Using a comparative and critical literature review approach, we synthesise examples from diverse contexts to illustrate the dual role of ICH as both a community resource and a contested political tool. The findings do not suggest that ICH universally or inevitably generates resilience or cohesion. Rather, they map the paradigms in which ICH has been mobilised for these purposes, showing both the potential benefits and the risks. On this basis, the article offers policy recommendations that emphasise community-led safeguarding, integration of traditional knowledge into resilience frameworks, and vigilance against exclusionary or exploitative uses of ICH. Full article

This entry explores how foresight approaches can guide the future of water infrastructures. It highlights key long-term disruptive drivers of change—such as climate change, digital transformation, and geopolitical tensions—that infrastructures must withstand and adapt to. It also emphasizes the role of collective choices and innovation alliances, including Water-Oriented Living Labs, in shaping resilient and sustainable water systems. The focus is on transforming today’s infrastructures into adaptive systems that ensure water security and ecosystem integrity for future generations. Although many of the drivers of change are global, this entry emphasizes the European context, where policy frameworks and innovation agendas are currently shaping infrastructure transitions. Full article

The increasing presence of minors on digital platforms raises complex legal questions regarding their privacy, data protection, and the limits of parental authority in supervising their online activities. This entry analyses the legal framework applicable to the use of the Internet by minors, with particular emphasis on the validity of consent for data processing, the risks of overexposure, the need for digital literacy and the particularities of minors who create content. This study incorporates a comparative perspective, examining national and international approaches—especially in Spain, the United States, and France—to highlight the existing regulatory gaps and the urgent need for legal harmonisation in protecting minors in the digital age. Full article