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25 pages, 2813 KB

Open AccessArticle

The Structural and Physicochemical Properties of Isolated Starches from Canna (Canna edulis Ker.) Cultivated from Different Regions of China

by Junhong Feng, Qingling Luo, Peiling Liu, Cailin Niu, Yang Lu and Fayin Ye

Gels 2026, 12(3), 267; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030267 - 23 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Canna (Canna edulis Ker.) starch is an important non-conventional starch in global applications. In this study, the structural and physicochemical properties of canna starches extracted from four different geographical regions in China were investigated. The four starches (CES-DH, CES-MS, CES-YB, and CES-YX) [...] Read more.

Canna (Canna edulis Ker.) starch is an important non-conventional starch in global applications. In this study, the structural and physicochemical properties of canna starches extracted from four different geographical regions in China were investigated. The four starches (CES-DH, CES-MS, CES-YB, and CES-YX) exhibited relatively high total starch contents (82.51–93.22%). Apparent and true amylose contents varied markedly among samples, ranging from 31.44% to 43.62% and from 15.21% to 35.90%, respectively. Morphologically, the granules were oval and disc-shaped, with D₅₀ values of 20.19–48.35 μm. CES-YX showed a distinct C-type pattern, while other starches exhibited B-type crystallinity, and relatively crystallinity values among samples were between 20.53% and 25.36%. IR absorbance ratios R_1047/1022 and R_995/1022 varied from 0.56 to 0.63 and from 1.15 to 1.26, respectively. Gelatinization temperatures and enthalpy revealed distinct thermal behaviors among the starches, corresponding to substantial differences in pasting properties with wide ranges in peak, breakdown, and setback viscosities. All starch pastes exhibited shear-thinning behaviors and weak gel characteristics. Notably, CES-YB demonstrated high potential as an effective food thickener and stabilizer, as distinguished by the high final viscosity and consistency coefficient (K), whereas the high amylose and resistant starch content in CES-YX made it a promising ingredient for low-glycemic-index food formulations. These findings provided a theoretical basis and practical guidance for the targeted utilization of canna starch in the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Gel Analysis and Characterization)

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24 pages, 2610 KB

Open AccessReview

Effect of Biopolymer Additives on Functional Properties of Alginate-Based Composite Hydrogels

by Tanja Krunic, Nevena Ilic and Andrea Osmokrovic

Gels 2026, 12(3), 266; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030266 - 22 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Hydrogels constructed from natural biomacromolecules with multifunctional properties, such as improved mechanical strength, ionic stability, biocompatibility, and ionic conductivity, are highly desirable for advanced food and biomedical applications, yet remain challenging to design. Although alginate is one of the most widely used hydrogel-forming [...] Read more.

Hydrogels constructed from natural biomacromolecules with multifunctional properties, such as improved mechanical strength, ionic stability, biocompatibility, and ionic conductivity, are highly desirable for advanced food and biomedical applications, yet remain challenging to design. Although alginate is one of the most widely used hydrogel-forming polysaccharides due to its biocompatibility and gelation ability, its intrinsic limitations often hinder the development of hydrogels with fully optimized performance. This review provides a systematic comparison of alginate-based composite hydrogels formed with complementary biopolymers, including whey proteins, gelatin, pectin, starch, and chitosan, focusing on their synergistic effects on structural, mechanical, and functional properties. Recent studies are critically analyzed to elucidate how polymer–polymer interactions influence gel network formation, environmental ionic stability, and encapsulation performance. Particular attention is given to fabrication strategies and formulation parameters that enhance the immobilization and controlled release of probiotics, vitamins, polyphenols, and other bioactive compounds. By integrating current knowledge on structure–function relationships and processing approaches, this review offers practical design guidelines for the development of multifunctional alginate-based hydrogel systems for applications in functional foods and nutraceutical delivery. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological and Gelling Properties of Gels for Food Applications)

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13 pages, 75560 KB

Open AccessArticle

Rennet-Induced Gelation Properties of Freeze-Dried Micellar Casein Powder: Influence of Pre-Freezing Temperature

by Chuang Dong, Yun Chen, Lin Yang, Weibo Zhang, Shengbo Yu, Pengjie Wang, Zhishen Mu and Chong Chen

Gels 2026, 12(3), 265; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030265 - 22 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Drying significantly influences the quality of micellar casein (MC) powder. This study investigated the effects of three pre-freezing temperatures (−20 °C, −80 °C, and liquid nitrogen) prior to freeze drying on the structure and rennet-induced gelation properties of MC powder. The results showed [...] Read more.

Drying significantly influences the quality of micellar casein (MC) powder. This study investigated the effects of three pre-freezing temperatures (−20 °C, −80 °C, and liquid nitrogen) prior to freeze drying on the structure and rennet-induced gelation properties of MC powder. The results showed that as the pretreatment temperature decreased, the degree of disruption to the secondary and tertiary protein structures was reduced, while the particle size gradually increased. In terms of rennet-induced gel properties, the untreated raw MC consistently outperformed all MC powder samples. Among the MC powders, the sample pre-frozen at −80 °C and then freeze-dried (FD-80) exhibited the highest gel strength and a relatively shorter rennet coagulation time. The observed microstructures of the rennet-induced gel were consistent with the rheological results, showing that samples with smaller particle sizes formed more regular and compact gel networks. In conclusion, the MC powder prepared via pre-freezing at −80 °C and then freeze-drying better preserved protein structure and demonstrated superior rennet-induced gel properties, which were closely related to particle size. This study provides theoretical insights for the application of MC powder in products such as cheese, processed cheese, and protein-fortified foods. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Rheological and Gelling Properties of Gels for Food Applications)

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16 pages, 2297 KB

Open AccessReview

Polymeric Nanogels for Antimicrobial Therapy

by M. Cristina Ibarra-Alonso, Sofía Estrada-Flores, Alejandra E. Herrera-Alonso, Elsa Nadia Aguilera-González and Antonia Martínez-Luévanos

Gels 2026, 12(3), 264; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030264 - 22 Mar 2026

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Abstract

At present, the development of antimicrobial systems requires ongoing and consistent improvement in their efficacy and versatility. Polymeric nanogels can serve as an efficient tool for this purpose, as they have become an excellent alternative for the design of tissue engineering and bone [...] Read more.

At present, the development of antimicrobial systems requires ongoing and consistent improvement in their efficacy and versatility. Polymeric nanogels can serve as an efficient tool for this purpose, as they have become an excellent alternative for the design of tissue engineering and bone regeneration scaffolds, in addition to vehicles for the delivery of drugs or active substances, and they have recently been investigated as wound dressings. Nanogels have also been shown to be an excellent alternative for nanomedicine due to their antimicrobial activity and specific properties, such as swelling, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. In this review, we present an analysis of the use of polymeric nanogels for antimicrobial therapy and provide a discussion focused on different types of nanogels and their advantages and disadvantages, which will serve as a reference point for the future development of nanogels with antimicrobial properties. We also focus on the analysis of the different methodologies employed to prepare nanogels. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Novel Polymer Gels: Synthesis, Properties, and Applications (2nd Edition))

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27 pages, 7165 KB

Open AccessArticle

Protein-Modulated Stimuli-Responsive Hydrogels Based on Methacrylated Bovine Serum Albumin and pNIPAm: pH- and Temperature-Dependent Drug Release Behavior

by Muge Sennaroglu Bostan

Gels 2026, 12(3), 263; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030263 - 22 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Hydrogels are widely investigated as drug carriers for cancer therapy due to their ability to provide sustained release and reduce systemic side effects. In this study, MeBSA–PNIPAm hydrogels were developed as dual-temperature and pH-responsive systems for gastrointestinal delivery of 5-FU. MeBSA was successfully [...] Read more.

Hydrogels are widely investigated as drug carriers for cancer therapy due to their ability to provide sustained release and reduce systemic side effects. In this study, MeBSA–PNIPAm hydrogels were developed as dual-temperature and pH-responsive systems for gastrointestinal delivery of 5-FU. MeBSA was successfully synthesized using glycidyl methacrylate and confirmed by FTIR and ¹H-NMR analyses. Hydrogels with varying MeBSA/NIPA ratios were prepared via redox polymerization. DSC results showed that increasing MeBSA content shifted the phase transition temperature of hydrogels, while TGA analysis revealed enhanced thermal stability with higher MeBSA incorporation. Temperature-dependent swelling experiments further demonstrated that the VPTT slightly shifted depending on the surrounding pH, indicating that the thermoresponsive behavior of the hybrid network is influenced by the pH-dependent charge state of the protein component. Swelling studies performed at 30, 37, and 40 °C and at pH 1.2 and 7.4 confirmed dual-responsive behavior. Drug loading efficiencies above 70% were achieved for all formulations. In vitro release studies at 37 °C demonstrated distinct composition-dependent release profiles. During the first 2 h, all hydrogels exhibited controlled and limited release without burst behavior under acidic conditions. Following the transition to pH 7.4, a composition-dependent increase in drug release was observed. GEL 4 achieved the fastest and highest cumulative release (91%), whereas GEL 1 provided the most sustained release over 72 h (32%). Kinetic analysis indicated diffusion-controlled release, best described by the Weibull and Korsmeyer–Peppas models. Cytocompatibility tests showed that fibroblast viability improved with increasing MeBSA content. Overall, protein-modulated dual-responsive hydrogels offer tunable and biocompatible platforms for stimuli-responsive gastrointestinal drug delivery applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Hydrogel-Type Formulations: New Insights Regarding Design and Biomedical Applications)

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21 pages, 2590 KB

Open AccessReview

Hyaluronic Acid-Based Gels and Biomaterial Systems for Oral Wound Healing: Design and Clinical Translation

by Vlad Constantin, Ionut Luchian, Dragos Ioan Virvescu, Mihaela Scurtu, Nicoleta Tofan, Dan Nicolae Bosinceanu, Elena Raluca Baciu, Carina Balcos, Monica Mihaela Scutariu and Dana Gabriela Budala

Gels 2026, 12(3), 262; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030262 - 22 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Hyaluronic acid (HA), a naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan and major component of the extracellular matrix, has attracted increasing interest as a therapeutic adjunct in oral wound management due to its biological activity and biocompatibility. The search for the current narrative review literature was performed [...] Read more.

Hyaluronic acid (HA), a naturally occurring glycosaminoglycan and major component of the extracellular matrix, has attracted increasing interest as a therapeutic adjunct in oral wound management due to its biological activity and biocompatibility. The search for the current narrative review literature was performed in the PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases for studies published up to December 2025. Eligible studies included experimental investigations, clinical trials, and relevant reviews assessing HA applications in oral mucosal or gingival wounds. Available clinical evidence suggests potential benefits of HA in reducing postoperative discomfort, accelerating re-epithelialization, and improving soft tissue healing following periodontal and surgical procedures. However, substantial heterogeneity exists regarding molecular weight, formulation, concentration, and application protocols, which limits direct comparison between studies and precludes definitive conclusions. Further well-designed, standardized clinical trials are required to clarify optimal formulations and confirm long-term therapeutic benefits. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Designing Gels for Wound Healing and Drug Delivery Systems)

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18 pages, 3767 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formulation and 3D Printing of Collagen/Chitosan Inks: Tailoring the Scaffold Properties

by Teresa Carranza, Mireia Andonegui, Raquel Hernáez, Ana Aiastui, Yi Zhang, Koro de la Caba and Pedro Guerrero

Gels 2026, 12(3), 261; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030261 - 21 Mar 2026

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Abstract

The development of inks with suitable rheological, physicochemical, mechanical, and biological properties is crucial for the successful fabrication of functional scaffolds via extrusion-based 3D printing. In this study, collagen/chitosan hydrogels with varying polymer ratios were developed and characterized to evaluate their printability and [...] Read more.

The development of inks with suitable rheological, physicochemical, mechanical, and biological properties is crucial for the successful fabrication of functional scaffolds via extrusion-based 3D printing. In this study, collagen/chitosan hydrogels with varying polymer ratios were developed and characterized to evaluate their printability and suitability for cartilage tissue engineering. Rheological analyses revealed that all samples exhibited shear-thinning behavior and solid-like viscoelasticity, with the formulation of an 80:20 COL/CHI ratio (20CHI) demonstrating optimal filament formation and dimensional stability. Physicochemical analyses confirmed the preservation of the collagen triple helix and the formation of hydrogen bonding between chitosan and collagen. 20CHI scaffolds showed swelling capacity and high cohesiveness. In vitro studies confirmed the cytocompatibility of the scaffolds with murine fibroblasts and the ability of the scaffolds to promote adhesion, proliferation, and extracellular matrix production of both chondrocytes and adipogenic mesenchymal stem cells (aMSCs). Quantification of sulfated glycosaminoglycan (sGAG) indicated sustained matrix deposition over 28 days, particularly by chondrocytes. These findings demonstrate that 20CHI hydrogel is a promising candidate for 3D printing of biomimetic scaffolds for cartilage regeneration. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Hydrogels: Properties and Application in Biomedicine)

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18 pages, 2739 KB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Composition and Network Formation Sequence on the Responsive Behavior of Double-Network Hydrogels

by Lenka Hanyková, Julie Šťastná and Ivan Krakovský

Gels 2026, 12(3), 260; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030260 - 21 Mar 2026

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Abstract

This study investigates how the composition and synthesis sequence affect the structure and responsive behavior of single-network (SN) and double-network (DN) hydrogels composed of poly(N,N’-diethylacrylamide) (PDEAAm) and polyacrylamide (PAAm). DN hydrogels were prepared in two configurations, PDEAAm/PAAm and PAAm/PDEAAm, and compared [...] Read more.

This study investigates how the composition and synthesis sequence affect the structure and responsive behavior of single-network (SN) and double-network (DN) hydrogels composed of poly(N,N’-diethylacrylamide) (PDEAAm) and polyacrylamide (PAAm). DN hydrogels were prepared in two configurations, PDEAAm/PAAm and PAAm/PDEAAm, and compared with SN copolymer hydrogels of varying DEAAm/AAm ratios. ¹H NMR spectroscopy revealed that DN hydrogels exhibit significant heterogeneity due to polymer-rich domains, impacting the accuracy of compositional determination and leading to broad NMR signals. Temperature-dependent NMR and gravimetric swelling analyses were used to quantify thermoresponsive behavior, showing that SN copolymer hydrogels exhibit composition-dependent phase transition parameters, while DN hydrogels show relatively constant transition parameters due to heterogeneous structures. NMR relaxation studies of water molecules identified “free” and “bound” molecules whose dynamics differ markedly above the transition temperature, especially in DN systems. Finally, the swelling behavior in water–acetone mixtures was examined, revealing distinct responses depending on hydrogel composition and thermal state. PAAm-rich hydrogels showed abrupt deswelling near 40 vol% acetone, while PDEAAm-based hydrogels responded more gradually. The findings demonstrate that both composition and network formation order critically influence the structural, thermal, and solvent-responsive properties of hydrogels, offering insights for the design of stimuli-responsive materials. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Polymeric Hydrogels for Biomedical Application (2nd Edition))

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39 pages, 1821 KB

Open AccessReview

Hydrogel Development, Processing and Applications in Agriculture: A Review

by Carmen Mª. Granados-Carrera, Victor M. Perez-Puyana, Mercedes Jiménez-Rosado and Alberto Romero

Gels 2026, 12(3), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030259 - 20 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Hydrogels have emerged as promising functional materials for improving water management and nutrient delivery in agriculture, particularly under conditions of increasing water scarcity and declining soil fertility. However, most commercially available superabsorbent hydrogels are based on petroleum-derived polymers, raising concerns regarding their persistence [...] Read more.

Hydrogels have emerged as promising functional materials for improving water management and nutrient delivery in agriculture, particularly under conditions of increasing water scarcity and declining soil fertility. However, most commercially available superabsorbent hydrogels are based on petroleum-derived polymers, raising concerns regarding their persistence in soils, potential microplastic formation and long-term environmental impact. In response, significant research efforts are being directed toward the development of biodegradable hydrogels derived from renewable biopolymers. This review provides a critical overview of recent advances in hydrogel systems designed for agricultural applications, with a particular focus on biopolymer-based materials. First, the current landscape of hydrogel technologies used as soil conditioners and controlled-release systems for agrochemicals is contextualized, highlighting the limitations of conventional synthetic hydrogels. Subsequently, the main classes of natural polymers explored for hydrogel fabrication, including polysaccharides (e.g., chitosan, alginate, cellulose and starch) and proteins (e.g., gelatin, keratin and soy protein), are analyzed in terms of raw material sources, gelation mechanisms and structure–property relationships. Their performance in key agricultural functions, such as water retention, controlled nutrient release, soil conditioning and enhancement of plant growth, is also discussed. Finally, the review identifies major challenges that currently hinder large-scale implementation, including mechanical stability, degradation behavior in complex soil environments, nutrient release control and economic scalability. By integrating recent progress and outlining emerging research directions, this work aims to support the rational design of next-generation biodegradable hydrogels capable of contributing to sustainable agriculture and circular bioeconomy strategies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Innovative Gels: Structure, Properties, and Emerging Applications)

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16 pages, 3031 KB

Open AccessArticle

Cell-Laden Gel Biomimetic Skin Promotes Full-Thickness Skin Wound Regeneration

by Pei Zhang, Qianqian Chen, Yuge Pu, Mingxing Liu, Mengru Ma, Yihan Wu, Ying Zhang and Xueyi Yang

Gels 2026, 12(3), 258; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030258 - 20 Mar 2026

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Abstract

The regeneration and repair of scarless skin tissue remain a significant challenge for full-thickness wounds. Traditional wound management approaches, particularly passive healing through scabbing and conventional mechanical debridement, are frequently associated with significant pain, high infection risks, and abnormal scar formation, often failing [...] Read more.

The regeneration and repair of scarless skin tissue remain a significant challenge for full-thickness wounds. Traditional wound management approaches, particularly passive healing through scabbing and conventional mechanical debridement, are frequently associated with significant pain, high infection risks, and abnormal scar formation, often failing to support the regeneration of skin appendages like hair follicles. In recent years, collagen-based scaffolds have been widely adopted in tissue-engineered skin substitutes owing to their favorable biocompatibility. However, their simplistic, single-component architecture inherently lacks the dynamic, cell-instructive microenvironment found in native skin, which not only compromises the long-term survival and functional integration of seeded cells but also directly leads to insufficient reconstruction of the dermo-epidermal junction, thereby impairing skin barrier function and ultimately limiting overall regenerative efficacy. In this study, we propose a biomimetic multilayer composite scaffold system in which decellularized amniotic membrane matrix (AM) is combined with fibroblast-laden collagen gel (FCG) and seeded with epidermal stem cells (EpiSCs). This bionic skin (denoted as AM-FCG-EpiSCs) is designed to achieve hierarchical regeneration of full-thickness skin defects. Compared with injured skin treated with Moropicin ointment, the injured skin treated with AM-FCG-EpiSCs healed more quickly and regenerated appendages like hair follicles without scarring. The results show that the biomimetic structure of AM-FCG-EpiSCs can mediate dynamic cell–cell interactions and regulate the microenvironment. This breakthrough overcomes the dual challenges of scar suppression and functional restoration in full-thickness skin regeneration, offering an innovative solution for translational medicine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Hydrogels for Tissue Engineering Applications)

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20 pages, 7513 KB

Open AccessArticle

Combined Stromal Vascular Fraction and HGF-Functionalized Self-Assembling Peptide Hydrogel Improves Intracerebral Hemorrhage Repair in Rats

by Xuhuai Chen, Tiantian Li, Feng Yang, Yanling Chen, Yuanyi Liu, Linshu Ding, Jialin Li, Haibo Zhou, Qiuju Yuan and Wutian Wu

Gels 2026, 12(3), 257; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030257 - 19 Mar 2026

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Abstract

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) remains a devastating condition with no available therapies that can effectively mitigate secondary injury and promote neurological repair. This research presents a novel combinatorial regenerative strategy, concurrently delivering adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction (SVF) within an adhesive self-assembling peptide (HGF-RADA16-IKVAV) nanohydrogel [...] Read more.

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) remains a devastating condition with no available therapies that can effectively mitigate secondary injury and promote neurological repair. This research presents a novel combinatorial regenerative strategy, concurrently delivering adipose-derived stromal vascular fraction (SVF) within an adhesive self-assembling peptide (HGF-RADA16-IKVAV) nanohydrogel (HGF). In a clinically relevant rat model of ICH with hematoma evacuation, the combined therapy of HGF and SVF demonstrated synergistic and enhanced efficacy. In the short term, the combined therapy demonstrated hemostatic benefits, and significantly reduced hematoma volume, brain edema, neuronal apoptosis and neuroinflammation indicated by pro-inflammatory markers (NLRP3, caspase-1, Iba-1, CD68, GFAP) while increasing the levels of anti-inflammatory (CD206) and angiogenic (CD31) markers. Longitudinal behavioral assessments conducted over six weeks demonstrated persistent and significant improvements in motor coordination, forelimb strength, and gait parameters within the HGF + SVF group, surpassing all monotherapies. Ultrastructural analysis also showed that myelinated axons were better preserved at the injury border, with thicker myelin sheaths. These findings demonstrate that the co-administration of SVF with an adhesive and hemostatic hydrogel collaboratively diminishes secondary injury, modulates neuroinflammation, and promotes functional and structural brain recovery following ICH, indicating a promising and translatable strategy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Gel Analysis and Characterization)

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17 pages, 2995 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Performance Evaluation of a Supramolecular Gel Plugging Agent for Severe Lost Circulation Gas Reservoirs

by Yingbiao Liu, Kecheng Liu, Tao Zeng, Xuyang Yao, Weiju Wang, Huijun Hao, Zhangkun Ren and Jingbin Yang

Gels 2026, 12(3), 256; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030256 - 18 Mar 2026

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Abstract

The plugging of fractured gas reservoirs with severe lost circulation during oil and gas drilling and production has long been challenged by technical issues such as low plugging strength and short effective duration. This paper reports the preparation of a high-strength supramolecular gel [...] Read more.

The plugging of fractured gas reservoirs with severe lost circulation during oil and gas drilling and production has long been challenged by technical issues such as low plugging strength and short effective duration. This paper reports the preparation of a high-strength supramolecular gel plugging agent via micellar copolymerization based on the synergistic effects of hydrophobic association and hydrogen bonding. Systematic optimization determined the optimal synthesis formula: acrylamide (AM) 12%, 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropanesulfonic acid (AMPS) 2%, stearyl methacrylate (SMA) 0.4%, sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) 1.5%, and potassium persulfate 0.3%, with a reaction temperature of 60 °C. Performance evaluations revealed that the gel possesses a controllable gelation time (120 min) and excellent viscoelastic recovery properties. At a compressive strain of 87%, the compressive stress reached 1.43 MPa while maintaining structural integrity. Swelling behavior analysis indicated that the gel follows a non-Fickian diffusion mechanism, with its swelling process governed by the synergistic interplay of water molecule diffusion and polymer network relaxation. Core plugging experiments demonstrated that the gel achieved plugging efficiencies exceeding 95% for cores with permeabilities ranging from 0.18 to 0.90 μm², with a maximum breakthrough pressure gradient of up to 11.48 MPa/m. These results highlight the gel’s efficient and broad-spectrum plugging capability for fractured lost circulation zones. This preliminary study provides experimental foundations for the material design and performance optimization of supramolecular gel-based long-lasting plugging agents for severe lost circulation gas reservoirs, and further field-scale validation is required for engineering application. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Polymer Gels for Oil Drilling and Enhanced Recovery)

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22 pages, 1905 KB

Open AccessArticle

Chios Mastic Essential Oil in Sodium Alginate Edible Films Combined with High-Pressure Processing as Listeria monocytogenes Inhibitors in Cheese Slices

by Olga S. Papadopoulou, Anthoula A. Argyri, Eleftherios Kalogeridis, Konstantinos C. Mountzouris, Chrysoula C. Tassou, George-John Nychas and Nikos Chorianopoulos

Gels 2026, 12(3), 255; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030255 - 18 Mar 2026

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Abstract

The antimicrobial effect of Chios mastic gum essential oil (mastic EO) was evaluated in vitro in a variety of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria and yeast strains isolated from spoiled cheeses with concentrations ranging from 0.006 to 2% (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)) and in [...] Read more.

The antimicrobial effect of Chios mastic gum essential oil (mastic EO) was evaluated in vitro in a variety of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria and yeast strains isolated from spoiled cheeses with concentrations ranging from 0.006 to 2% (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)) and in situ (cheese slices). The mastic EO (2%) was incorporated in sodium alginate edible gel films (Mastic Edible Films (MEFs)), and then the films were applied between the cheese slices that had been previously inoculated with a cocktail of three strains of Listeria monocytogenes (on both sides of the slices) and subjected or not to high-pressure processing (HPP). Cheese samples were vacuum-packaged and cold stored (4 °C), and microbiological, pH and organoleptic (in pathogen-free slices) analyses were employed, while Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was applied as a rapid technique to monitor the biochemical changes present on the slices. Samples without MEF, without the pathogen and with or without HPP were employed as controls. Results showed that the MIC of the mastic EO varied from 0.01% to 1.8% depending on the species and/or strains. Pathogen’s growth was suppressed by HPP, MEF or their combination, which showed the highest efficacy. These results could provide useful data to support risk assessment studies on ready-to-eat foods. Finally, FTIR implementation with data analytics was found to be satisfactory, indicating FTIR’s potential as a reliable information source for cheese quality control. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research and Application of Edible Gels)

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23 pages, 2789 KB

Open AccessArticle

Formulation and Characterization of Edible Bigel Inks for Structuring Fat Alternatives in 3D-Printed Foods

by Konstantina Zampouni, Theocharis Salamandrakis, Triantafyllia Biza, Thomas Moschakis and Eugenios Katsanidis

Gels 2026, 12(3), 254; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030254 - 18 Mar 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 300

Abstract

Bigels (BGs) are promising biphasic systems for extrusion-based 3D food printing inks. In this study, BG inks were formulated by combining a 6% beeswax—4% monoglycerides oleogel (OG) with a 4% gelatin—1% guar gum hydrogel (HG). The BGs were formulated at OG:HG ratios of [...] Read more.

Bigels (BGs) are promising biphasic systems for extrusion-based 3D food printing inks. In this study, BG inks were formulated by combining a 6% beeswax—4% monoglycerides oleogel (OG) with a 4% gelatin—1% guar gum hydrogel (HG). The BGs were formulated at OG:HG ratios of 10:90 up to 50:50. The effect of the OG:HG ratio on appearance, microstructure, extrusion, rheological and thermal characteristics was investigated to assess printability and shape fidelity. All formulations showed no signs of phase separation during storage, while changes in color were observed with increasing OG content, suggesting modifications in phase distribution and light-scattering behavior. Increasing the OG content induced a transition from OG-in-HG systems to a bicontinuous structure at a 50:50 ratio. All inks showed shear-thinning behavior (G′ > G″) and viscoelastic properties suitable for 3D printing. BG with intermediate OG contents displayed moderate extrusion forces (7.27–9.00 N) and improved structural recovery (up to ≈60%), consistent with desirable printability and appropriate yield/flow points to ensure shape fidelity after deposition. Thermal analysis further confirmed the coexistence of OG and HG phases, ensuring structural integrity at printing temperature. These findings demonstrate the potential of BG as tunable, fat-reduced inks for 3D food structuring. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Hydrocolloids and Hydrogels: Rheology and Texture Analysis)

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18 pages, 4057 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of CuO on the Structural, Antimicrobial, and Redox Activity of TiO₂/TeO₂/CuO Sol–Gel Powders

by Kalina Ivanova, Elitsa Pavlova, Iva Kirova, Iliana A. Ivanova and Albena Bachvarova-Nedelcheva

Gels 2026, 12(3), 253; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030253 - 18 Mar 2026

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Abstract

This study investigates the synthesis, characterization, antimicrobial performance, and redox activity of sol–gel–derived TiO₂/TeO₂/CuO powders. The as-prepared gel with the nominal composition 80TiO₂/10TeO₂/10CuO was subjected to thermal treatment at 400 °C and 600 °C for [...] Read more.

This study investigates the synthesis, characterization, antimicrobial performance, and redox activity of sol–gel–derived TiO₂/TeO₂/CuO powders. The as-prepared gel with the nominal composition 80TiO₂/10TeO₂/10CuO was subjected to thermal treatment at 400 °C and 600 °C for 2 h, resulting in the formation of composite materials at both temperatures. By UV-Vis spectroscopy, it has been found that CuO is responsible for the red shifting of the absorption edge. The SEM-EDS analysis verified the elemental composition of the synthesized powders. The antimicrobial activity of the heat-treated powders was proved against Escherichia coli ATCC 25922 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 25923, representative Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria frequently associated with hospital-acquired infections and antibiotic resistance. At physiological pH, the 600 °C-treated sample exhibited strong prooxidant properties, supporting antimicrobial activity. At alkaline conditions, the nanomaterials were effective against superoxide radicals. The variation in oxidation with changes in pH is indicative of the potential for controlled application. Antimicrobial activity was assessed through minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assays and spot and luminescent tests, providing both quantitative and qualitative evaluations. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Soft Gels with Enhanced Functionality for Biomedical and Additive Manufacturing Applications (2nd Edition))

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39 pages, 4997 KB

Open AccessReview

Food-Grade Microgels for Age-Related Macular Degeneration: Design, Fabrication, and Targeted Delivery

by Sun Ju Kim, Dong Yoon Kim, Daehyeok Jeong, Changmin Lee, Hyun-Dong Cho and Minsoo P. Kim

Gels 2026, 12(3), 252; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030252 - 17 Mar 2026

Viewed by 489

Abstract

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of irreversible vision loss worldwide and is driven by complex pathophysiological processes, including oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, complement dysregulation, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-mediated neovascularization. Nutritional interventions—particularly supplementation with carotenoids, omega-3 fatty acids, polyphenols, [...] Read more.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of irreversible vision loss worldwide and is driven by complex pathophysiological processes, including oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, complement dysregulation, and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-mediated neovascularization. Nutritional interventions—particularly supplementation with carotenoids, omega-3 fatty acids, polyphenols, and essential micronutrients—have demonstrated clinical benefits in slowing disease progression, as evidenced by landmark trials such as AREDS and AREDS2. However, many AMD-relevant bioactives exhibit poor aqueous solubility, low chemical stability, and limited gastrointestinal bioavailability, which significantly constrain their therapeutic efficacy. Food-grade microgels have emerged as versatile colloidal delivery platforms capable of addressing these limitations through rational structural and physicochemical design. This review provides a systematic roadmap for developing food-grade microgels, organized into: (1) the molecular design of protein- and polysaccharide-based networks; (2) advanced fabrication strategies such as microfluidics and atomization; (3) spatiotemporal release programming within the gastrointestinal tract; and (4) multi-nutrient synergy for retinal protection. This approach highlights how controlled crosslinking, interfacial assembly, and tunable network architectures enhance nutrient stabilization. Particular emphasis is placed on spatiotemporal release programming within the gastrointestinal tract, including diffusion-limited gastric retention, pH- and bile-responsive swelling in the small intestine, and microbiota-triggered degradation in the colon. These mechanisms collectively enable region-specific release, improved micellar incorporation, enhanced systemic absorption, and more consistent retinal delivery. Furthermore, we discuss co-encapsulation strategies that accommodate both hydrophilic and lipophilic bioactives, thereby minimizing antagonistic interactions and enabling synergistic nutritional modulation of oxidative and inflammatory pathways implicated in AMD. A central novelty of this review is the integration of the gut–eye axis, framing microgel-based oral delivery as a systemic pathway to modulate retinal health via the intestinal environment. By bridging retinal disease biology with food colloid science, this review proposes food-grade microgels as a translational platform for next-generation nutraceutical interventions. The integration of programmable release behavior with clinically validated nutrient regimens offers a promising pathway toward more effective and mechanistically informed dietary management of AMD. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multifunctional Polymer Nano-, Micro- and Hydro- Gels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications (2nd Edition))

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26 pages, 2141 KB

Open AccessArticle

Mitochondria-Targeted Hydrogen Sulphide Delivery via an Adhesive Hydrogel Modulates Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Diabetic Wounds

by Mandeep Kaur Marwah, Hala Shokr, Yukta Sameer Hindalekar, Mohamad Anas Al Tahan, Karan Rana, Lissette Sanchez-Aranguren, Maymunah Sarr, Jacob Baxandall, Katy Mcgonigal, Bahareh Hassanzadeh, Shakil Ahmad, Sami A. Al-Ani, Jeevan Singh Lall, Harmony C. K. Cheema, Kavun Dhesi, Keqing Wang, Irundika H. K. Dias, Srikanth Bellary and Anisa Mahomed

Gels 2026, 12(3), 251; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030251 - 17 Mar 2026

Viewed by 446

Abstract

Chronic diabetic wounds are challenging to treat due to persistent inflammation, oxidative stress, impaired angiogenesis, and dysregulated matrix remodelling. Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) has emerged as a therapeutic mediator with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and pro-angiogenic properties; however, its clinical translation is limited by [...] Read more.

Chronic diabetic wounds are challenging to treat due to persistent inflammation, oxidative stress, impaired angiogenesis, and dysregulated matrix remodelling. Hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) has emerged as a therapeutic mediator with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and pro-angiogenic properties; however, its clinical translation is limited by volatility and a short biological half-life. Controlled delivery systems, such as hydrogels, are therefore required to harness its potential. This study aimed to develop and evaluate a sodium 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonate (Na-AMPS)-based adhesive hydrogel incorporating AP39, a mitochondria-targeted H₂S donor, for sustained localised delivery and promotion of wound healing. Hydrogel formulations were characterised for rheological behaviour, adhesion, swelling, and AP39 release. Cytocompatibility was assessed in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs); human dermal fibroblasts, adult (HDFa); and keratinocytes. Anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and matrix-modulatory effects were evaluated via interleukin-6 and 8 (IL-6/IL-8) secretion, reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels, mitochondrial membrane potential, matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), and transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β). Functional wound healing activity was assessed using tube formation and scratch assays in endothelial cells. AP39-loaded hydrogels exhibited predominantly elastic, shear-thinning behaviour, strong adhesion, rapid hydration, and sustained release of AP39 (11.63 ± 1.20% over 24 h). Across all cell types, 500 nM concentrations of AP39 were well tolerated. In diabetic-like stress conditions, AP39 significantly decreased ROS in HUVECs (50122 ± 5999 to 33,087 ± 1865 AU; p < 0.0001) and HDFa cells (41,367 ± 4225 to 29,813 ± 2406 AU; p < 0.0001). AP39 improved mitochondrial membrane potential in both cell types (p < 0.01–0.001) and decreased pro-inflammatory cytokines. IL-6 decreased in HUVECs (96.05 ± 4.22 pg/mL to 60.99 ± 4.21 pg/mL; p < 0.0001) and HDFa cells (77.54 ± 8.94 pg/mL to 52.25 ± 6.78 pg/mL; p < 0.001), whilst in HDFa cells, MMP-9 was reduced (419.4 ± 25.51 pg/mL to 174 ± 15.1 pg/mL; p < 0.0001). Finally, wound closure was enhanced in HUVECs. The AP39-loaded Na-AMPS hydrogel represents a multifunctional wound dressing capable of controlled H₂S delivery, mechanical stability, and biological activity to support tissue repair in diabetic wound environments. These results highlight this gel’s therapeutic potential for diabetic wound treatment. Full article

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23 pages, 3404 KB

Open AccessReview

Alginate-Based Biomaterials: From Fundamental “Egg-Box” Chemistry to Diverse Biomedical and Metabolic Management of Obesity and Diabetes

by Adnan Alsaei, Ahmad Zarwi, Ayah Binrajab, Fatema Rahimi, Renad AlAnsari, Manyam Praveen Kumar, Alexandra E. Butler, Stephen L. Atkin and G. Roshan Deen

Gels 2026, 12(3), 250; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030250 - 17 Mar 2026

Viewed by 601

Abstract

Alginate, a naturally occurring polysaccharide derived from brown algae, has emerged as a versatile cornerstone in the field of biomedical materials. Its widespread adoption is driven by its exceptional biocompatibility and the unique cation-dependent gelation defined by the “egg-box” model. This review examines [...] Read more.

Alginate, a naturally occurring polysaccharide derived from brown algae, has emerged as a versatile cornerstone in the field of biomedical materials. Its widespread adoption is driven by its exceptional biocompatibility and the unique cation-dependent gelation defined by the “egg-box” model. This review examines the fundamental chemistry of alginate, detailing how its crosslinking mechanisms dictate the physicochemical properties essential for clinical performance. The discussion bridges the gap between polymer structure and diverse biomedical applications, including drug delivery, tissue engineering, and the clinical management of gastrointestinal reflux and wound care. Furthermore, the article evaluates the role of alginate-based systems in the biomedical and metabolic management of obesity and diabetes. By analyzing how alginate influences satiety, glycemic index modulation, and lipid absorption through biophysical mechanisms, this review highlights the transition from fundamental chemical architecture to practical clinical utility. By integrating structural chemistry with physiological impact, this work underscores the evolving potential of alginate-based materials as supportive and functional strategies in modern clinical care. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Gel Processing and Engineering)

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50 pages, 1763 KB

Open AccessReview

Next-Generation Hydrogels Integrating Natural Antioxidants and Microbiome Modulators for Improved Cancer Management

by Camelia Munteanu, Eftimia Prifti, Larisa Achim, Ciprian Nicolae Silaghi and Sorin Marian Mârza

Gels 2026, 12(3), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030249 - 16 Mar 2026

Viewed by 489

Abstract

Cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide, and current treatments are often limited by toxicity and resistance. Emerging research highlights the crucial roles played by gut microbiome dysbiosis and oxidative stress in cancer development and treatment response. Through their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and [...] Read more.

Cancer remains a leading cause of death worldwide, and current treatments are often limited by toxicity and resistance. Emerging research highlights the crucial roles played by gut microbiome dysbiosis and oxidative stress in cancer development and treatment response. Through their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties, natural antioxidants such as resveratrol, along with microbiome modulators like probiotics, prebiotics, and synbiotics, offer promising therapeutic benefits. However, issues such as low bioavailability, instability, and challenges related to targeted delivery hinder the clinical translation of these bioactive compounds. Next-generation hydrogels have emerged as adaptable platforms capable of delivering and protecting these agents in a site-specific and controlled manner. This review summarizes the design and synthesis of multifunctional hydrogels incorporating natural antioxidants and microbiome modulators for cancer therapy. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Advances in Gel-Based Materials for Cancer Therapy)

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43 pages, 11995 KB

Open AccessArticle

Oleogel Dressings for Skin Therapy: Physicochemical and Bioactive Properties of Cosmetic Oil-Based Systems Enriched with Essential Oils

by Andres Zapata Betancur, Freddy Forero Longas and Adriana Pulido Diaz

Gels 2026, 12(3), 248; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030248 - 15 Mar 2026

Viewed by 360

Abstract

Developing potential skincare formulations capable of simultaneously managing infection and promoting tissue repair remains a critical challenge in dermatological care. This study engineered bioactive oleogels using sunflower wax (SFW), rice bran wax (RBW), and 12-hydroxystearic acid (HSA) to deliver a synergistic essential oil [...] Read more.

Developing potential skincare formulations capable of simultaneously managing infection and promoting tissue repair remains a critical challenge in dermatological care. This study engineered bioactive oleogels using sunflower wax (SFW), rice bran wax (RBW), and 12-hydroxystearic acid (HSA) to deliver a synergistic essential oil blend (ginger, cinnamon, tea tree, geranium). A D-optimal mixture design optimized formulations to match the textural profile of a commercial benchmark. Crucially, the fatty acid architecture of the carrier oil emerged as a primary determinant of network integrity; the high oleic acid content in camellia oil facilitated robust RBW crystallization by minimizing steric hindrance, whereas the polyunsaturated, kinked structure of linoleic acid in almond oil disrupted SFW networks, resulting in lower stiffness. Thermal characterization (DSC) established a distinct stability hierarchy with RBW exhibiting the highest melting point (Tp = 60.1 °C) and enthalpy (ΔHm = 7.79 ± 0.74 J/g). Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) confirmed high thermal resistance for wax-based systems (Tdeg ≈ 357 °C), whereas HSA displayed a biphasic degradation starting at ~206 °C. FTIR spectroscopy verified the stable physical entrapment of bioactives, with the lipid vehicle dominating the spectral fingerprint. Rheological profiling revealed that RBW oleogels, structured in high-oleic camellia oil, formed rigid networks (G′ ≈ 5.7 × 104 Pa) with high yield stress (20.91 Pa), offering superior retention. In contrast, HSA oleogels displayed “smart” thixotropic recovery with lower stiffness (G′ ≈ 2.1 × 104 Pa) and a distinct melting peak at 22.5 °C, compared to 60.1 °C for RBW. All formulations achieved a >2 Log₁₀ reduction (99%) in Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa viability after 12 h. Furthermore, in vitro keratinocyte assays identified a hormetic therapeutic window at 1–5 μg/mL (essential oil blend equivalent); specifically, SFW oleogels at 5 μg/mL stimulated proliferation to 158.07% relative to controls. These findings confirm that optimizing the lipid vehicle–bioactive interface creates dual-action scaffolds capable of simultaneously managing infection and stimulating in vitro keratinocyte proliferation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Gel Applications)

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22 pages, 5773 KB

Open AccessArticle

Valorized Shrimp Shell-Derived Aerogel for Trace Enrofloxacin Removal from Aquaculture Wastewater: Adsorption Performance and Mechanisms Exploration

by Chengci Liu, Lei Huang, Sihan Wei, Bohao Qi, Jinhua Xu, Xiaodong Xu, Lu Qiao, Zhen Yang, Yuanyuan Ren, Jincheng Li, Yingchun Mu, Mutai Bao, Meitong Li, Zhiyang Zhao and Xin Hu

Gels 2026, 12(3), 247; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030247 - 15 Mar 2026

Viewed by 268

Abstract

Enrofloxacin (ENR), as a widely used antimicrobial agent in aquaculture, poses potential risks to ecosystems and human health due to its environmental persistence. Therefore, it is of great significance to explore efficient methods for removing ENR from aquaculture wastewater. In this study, a [...] Read more.

Enrofloxacin (ENR), as a widely used antimicrobial agent in aquaculture, poses potential risks to ecosystems and human health due to its environmental persistence. Therefore, it is of great significance to explore efficient methods for removing ENR from aquaculture wastewater. In this study, a series of shrimp shell-derived aerogel (MBC300–MBC700) were fabricated from Litopenaeus vannamei shells through chemical modification followed by pyrolysis at 300–700 °C, and their adsorption performance and mechanisms toward ENR were systematically investigated. The modified porous materials exhibited a well-developed micro–mesoporous structure, high specific surface area, and abundant surface functional groups. Meanwhile, MBC400 demonstrated the highest adsorption capacity for ENR, reaching 14.56 mg/g, with a corresponding specific surface area of 77.71 m²/g. The adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo-second-order model, and the isothermal data were better fitted by the Freundlich model, indicating a chemisorption-dominated, heterogeneous multilayer adsorption process. Thermodynamic analysis revealed that the adsorption was spontaneous (ΔG < 0) and endothermic (ΔH > 0). In regeneration experiments, 30% ethanol solution achieved the best desorption efficiency for MBC400, with adsorption efficiency remaining above 75% after three cycles. Based on the characterization and adsorption results, adsorption mechanism of ENR on MBC400 was elucidated as a synergistic effect of hydrogen bonding, π–π stacking, electrostatic interaction, and surface complexation. This study provides a novel strategy and theoretical basis for the high-value utilization of shrimp shell waste and for the efficient removal of fluoroquinolone antibiotics from aquaculture effluents. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Functional Aerogels: Design and Innovation)

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19 pages, 3586 KB

Open AccessArticle

Exploratory Multivariate Analysis of Mediator Organization in Canine Platelet-Rich Gel Under NSAID Exposure

by Jorge U. Carmona, Julián Ospina and Catalina López

Gels 2026, 12(3), 246; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030246 - 14 Mar 2026

Viewed by 292

Abstract

Platelet-rich gel (PRG) is a fibrin-based biobased biomaterial generated by activating platelet-rich plasma (PRP), yet its biological characterization has commonly relied on univariate measurements of isolated mediators. This study aimed to define the multivariate biological organization of PRG and related hemocomponents (PRP, chemically [...] Read more.

Platelet-rich gel (PRG) is a fibrin-based biobased biomaterial generated by activating platelet-rich plasma (PRP), yet its biological characterization has commonly relied on univariate measurements of isolated mediators. This study aimed to define the multivariate biological organization of PRG and related hemocomponents (PRP, chemically induced platelet lysate (CIPL), and plasma) in a canine model under single exposure to non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). In a randomized crossover design (n = 6 dogs), hemocomponents were produced at baseline (0 h) and 6 h after administration of carprofen or firocoxib. Platelet and white blood cell (WBC) counts, growth factors (platelet-derived growth factor-BB (PDGF-BB) and transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1)), and cytokines (tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1 beta, and interleukin-10) were integrated using linear mixed-effects modeling, principal component analysis (PCA), and hierarchical clustering. PRG was derived from a leukocyte-poor PRP precursor with moderate platelet enrichment (~1.6-fold vs. whole blood) and a marked WBC reduction (~8–9-fold). In mixed-effects modeling, hemocomponent type significantly influenced the PDGF-BB:TNF-α log-ratio, with PRG (estimate −1.12; 95% CI −1.34 to −0.90) and plasma (−2.06; 95% CI −2.28 to −1.84) lower than PRP, while CIPL did not differ. Time and NSAID effects were not supported. PCA identified two orthogonal axes explaining 61.3% of total variance (PC1 = 43.7%, PC2 = 18.6%), separating a platelet/trophic dimension (log(PDGF-BB), log(TGF-β1), platelet count, PDGF-BB:TNF-α log-ratio) from an inflammatory dimension (log(TNF-α), log(IL-1β)). Overall, hemocomponent composition emerged as the primary determinant of mediator organization, supporting the interpretation of PRG as a structured, biomaterial defined by coordinated mediator networks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Biobased Gels for Drugs and Cells (2nd Edition))

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28 pages, 2424 KB

Open AccessReview

Poly(Ionic Liquids) and Ionogels for Electrochromic Devices: Material Design and Additive Manufacturing Strategies

by Tatiana G. Statsenko, Ekaterina P. Baturina, Anna A. Nikitina and Sofia M. Morozova

Gels 2026, 12(3), 245; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030245 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 618

Abstract

Escalating requirements for smart energy management are driving advances in functional electrochromic devices (ECDs), which are pivotal for the regulation of light, heat, and reduction in energy consumption in buildings, transportation, and smart devices. However, the commercialization of ECDs is hindered by com [...] Read more.

Escalating requirements for smart energy management are driving advances in functional electrochromic devices (ECDs), which are pivotal for the regulation of light, heat, and reduction in energy consumption in buildings, transportation, and smart devices. However, the commercialization of ECDs is hindered by com plex designs, high fabrication costs, and slow switching speeds. Additive manufacturing (AM, 3D-printing) emerges as a promising approach to overcome these limitations, as it enables the creation of complex structures, enhances design flexibility, and can reduce production costs. For such printed devices, materials combining poly(ionic liquids) (PILs) with ionogels—an emerging and promising class of materials known for their high ionic conductivity, stability, and tunable properties—are particularly suitable for integration with 3D printing. Comparing previous reviews that address PILs, ionogels, or AM modalities in isolation, this work uniquely combines the structure–property–processing relationships specific to the synergistic integration of these fields. Current work highlights recent progress in PIL/ionogel-based ECDs and distills specific design guidelines for optimizing ink rheology, balancing ionic conductivity with mechanical integrity, and selecting appropriate printing modalities. These insights provide a roadmap for overcoming current fabrication challenges and scaling up next-generation smart devices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Smart Gels for Sensing Devices and Flexible Electronics)

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12 pages, 1574 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Performance Gel Design for Flexible Pressure-Sensing Films in Taekwondo Applications

by Zhiyong Zhang, Weimin Pan, Qianle Zhang, Yi Men, Niankun Zhang and Tao Liu

Gels 2026, 12(3), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030244 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 254

Abstract

Exploring effective training methods to reliably trigger scoring in electronic protective gear is a significant challenge faced by coaches and athletes, and it constitutes a critical research direction that urgently demands scientific exploration. To improve the scientific precision of daily Taekwondo training and [...] Read more.

Exploring effective training methods to reliably trigger scoring in electronic protective gear is a significant challenge faced by coaches and athletes, and it constitutes a critical research direction that urgently demands scientific exploration. To improve the scientific precision of daily Taekwondo training and enhance competitive performance more efficiently and to improve the effectiveness of daily Taekwondo training and enhance competitive performance, a hydrogel-based flexible pressure-sensing film was developed. This film would enable traditional Taekwondo protective gear with electronic sensing capabilities via a simple adhesion method. By attaching a low-cost, high-precision, and appropriately flexible gel-based pressure-sensing film to conventional protective gear through a straightforward adhesion approach, it can attain sensing performance comparable to that of specialized competition-grade electronic protective gear. This innovation will provide technological support for advancing the scientific rigor of Taekwondo training in China. This study focuses on the design and development of high-strength, high-toughness ionic hydrogels, offering technical backing for the creation of flexible pressure-sensing films tailored for Taekwondo applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Gel-Based Materials for Sensors, Self-Powered Nanogenerators, and Artificial Intelligence Prospects)

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41 pages, 21956 KB

Open AccessArticle

Sustainable ZnO/Zn₃(PO₄)₂ Nanoparticles Synthesized from Coconut-Derived Media Incorporated into Bioactive ALG/PVA Hydrogel Dressings

by Alexandra Cătălina Bîrcă, Alexandra Cristina Burdușel, Adelina-Gabriela Niculescu, Carmen Curuțiu, Alina Maria Holban, Alexandru Mihai Grumezescu, Ariana Hudiță, Bianca Gălățeanu, Bogdan Severus Gaspar and Alfred Najm

Gels 2026, 12(3), 243; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030243 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 373

Abstract

The adaptive nature of bacteria and their increasing resistance to conventional therapies demand alternative strategies to effectively control wound infections. At the wound site, dynamic biological processes are easily disrupted by microbial colonization, compromising normal healing. In this study, Zn-based nanoparticles composed of [...] Read more.

The adaptive nature of bacteria and their increasing resistance to conventional therapies demand alternative strategies to effectively control wound infections. At the wound site, dynamic biological processes are easily disrupted by microbial colonization, compromising normal healing. In this study, Zn-based nanoparticles composed of zinc oxide (ZnO) and zinc phosphate (Zn₃(PO₄)₂) were synthesized via a green route using coconut milk and coconut water as biological media. Although ZnO formation via zinc hydroxide intermediates was initially targeted, structural analyses revealed a multiphase Zn-based system resulting from interactions between Zn²⁺ ions and naturally occurring phosphate species in the coconut-derived sources. The resulting material was incorporated into sodium alginate/poly(vinyl alcohol) hydrogel dressings, further enhanced with spirulina and aronia powders. Physicochemical characterization (XRD, SEM, EDS, FTIR), along with swelling and degradation studies, confirmed structural stability and appropriate hydrogel behavior. Antimicrobial testing against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli demonstrated a dominant antibiofilm effect of the Zn-based nanoparticles, while botanical additives exhibited moderate, time-dependent activity. Biological evaluation demonstrated good cytocompatibility toward human keratinocytes and murine macrophages, with botanical additives mitigating mild nanoparticle-induced cellular responses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Multifunctional Polymer Nano-, Micro- and Hydro- Gels: Synthesis, Properties and Applications (2nd Edition))

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18 pages, 4751 KB

Open AccessArticle

Preparation and Characterization of Casein–Soy Protein Hybrid Gels Cross-Linked by Transglutaminase

by Yan Ma, Juanjuan Chen, Meixia Yi, Xiaohui Xiong, Feng Xue and Chen Li

Gels 2026, 12(3), 242; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030242 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 365

Abstract

To enhance the gelling functionality of plant proteins, this study developed hybrid gels by blending casein with soy protein isolate (SPI) at various ratios using microbial transglutaminase (MTG) as a cross-linking catalyst. The gels were systematically characterized in terms of microstructure, water distribution, [...] Read more.

To enhance the gelling functionality of plant proteins, this study developed hybrid gels by blending casein with soy protein isolate (SPI) at various ratios using microbial transglutaminase (MTG) as a cross-linking catalyst. The gels were systematically characterized in terms of microstructure, water distribution, rheological and textural properties, secondary structure, and intermolecular interactions. Incorporation of casein significantly improved gel strength, water-holding capacity, and network uniformity. Notably, the 1:1 casein-to-SPI ratio yielded the highest performance, featuring extensive inter-protein cross-linking, an increased proportion of ordered secondary structures, and a finely porous matrix that effectively immobilized water. Mechanistically, MTG-catalyzed covalent bonding established the primary network scaffold, while hydrophobic interactions and disulfide bonds further stabilized the gel matrix. These findings demonstrate that MTG-induced Casein–SPI hybrid gels can enhance the functional properties of plant proteins and offer a viable strategy for designing sustainable protein-based food structures with tailored performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Food Gels: Structures, Properties and Applications)

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16 pages, 3906 KB

Open AccessArticle

Gelatinization and Pasting Property of Small Granular Starch from Chlamydomonas reinhardtii and Its Structural Basis

by Tao Xu, Yongheng Zhong, Wei Jiang, Xuan Luo, Xiaofang Zhou and Peiwu Li

Gels 2026, 12(3), 241; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030241 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 292

Abstract

The gelatinization and pasting behavior of starch play a critical role in governing its suitability for various food and non-food applications. Although Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is the most-studied microalga, its starch gelatinization and pasting properties have remained elusive. In this study, we applied nitrogen [...] Read more.

The gelatinization and pasting behavior of starch play a critical role in governing its suitability for various food and non-food applications. Although Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is the most-studied microalga, its starch gelatinization and pasting properties have remained elusive. In this study, we applied nitrogen limitation to promote the starch accumulation of C. reinhardtii and recovered the starch using high-pressure homogenization. The multiscale structure and properties of C. reinhardtii starch (CRS) were comprehensively analyzed and compared with those of commonly used terrestrial plant starch. Results showed that CRS possesses a unique multiscale structure characterized by an exceptionally high degree of branching (18.6%) and a thinner crystalline lamellae (9.29 nm). While maintaining an A-type crystalline pattern, CRS granules exhibited higher crystallinity compared with other microalgal starches. CRS had an irregular red blood cell-like morphology with a small size (~1 μm diameter). Physicochemical analysis revealed that CRS has an intermediate gelatinization temperature and a pasting profile defined by low viscosity and remarkable shear resistance, suggesting high stability during hydrothermal processing. Significantly, cooked CRS demonstrated a lower hydrolysis rate and higher resistant starch content than several common terrestrial starches. It is attributed to its higher degree of branching and superior thermostability. This study extends the fundamental knowledge of CRS and provides a critical scientific basis for its application as a novel, sustainable ingredient with special gel properties in the future food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Gel Chemistry and Physics)

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25 pages, 1982 KB

Open AccessArticle

A Novel Bioactive Emulgel with Phlomis kurdica: Antioxidant Potential, Enzyme Inhibition and Permeation Kinetics

by Tuğba Buse Şentürk, Timur Hakan Barak, Emre Şefik Çağlar, Emine Saldamlı, Ebru Özdemir Nath and Zafer Ömer Özdemir

Gels 2026, 12(3), 240; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030240 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 306

Abstract

Phlomis L., with more than 100 species belonging to the Lamiaceae family, is a genus encompassing a diverse group of plants known for their rich phytochemical profiles and important medicinal properties. Phlomis kurdica Rech. fil. is a member of this genus widely distributed [...] Read more.

Phlomis L., with more than 100 species belonging to the Lamiaceae family, is a genus encompassing a diverse group of plants known for their rich phytochemical profiles and important medicinal properties. Phlomis kurdica Rech. fil. is a member of this genus widely distributed in the Middle East, especially in Iran, Iraq and Türkiye. In traditional medicine, Phlomis species have been employed in the treatment of various disorders, particularly skin conditions such as wound healing, as well as diabetes, hemorrhoids, inflammation, and gastric ulcers. The purpose of this study was to investigate the biological activities of Phlomis kurdica on skin-related enzymes and to evaluate its phytochemical properties using HPTLC, LC-MS/MS. Additionally, an emulgel formulation was developed with methanolic extract of the plant and characterized in terms of spreadability, textural profile analysis, pH, viscosity, and content quantification determination. In vitro release and rheology studies were carried out following the characterization investigations. According to our investigations, P. kurdica may be a useful component of wrinkle prevention and skin-regenerating products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Women’s Special Issue Series: Gels (2nd Edition))

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21 pages, 7217 KB

Open AccessArticle

Investigating Reinforcing and Cracking Resistance Behaviors of Waste Sweet Potato Vine Straw Fiber (WSVF) in Gel-like Base Asphalt

by Chenze Fang, Zhenxia Li, Yuanzhao Chen, Xu Guo, Hui Li, Naisheng Guo, Zongyuan Wu, Jingyu Yang and Tengteng Guo

Gels 2026, 12(3), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030239 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 251

Abstract

Waste sweet potato vine fiber (WSVF) effectively extends asphalt service life by enhancing cracking resistance in gel-like base asphalt matrices, yet its crack-resistant mechanism lacks mechanical characterization. This study proposes an analytical method for evaluating WSVF-modified asphalt’s crack-resistant behavior based on the principle [...] Read more.

Waste sweet potato vine fiber (WSVF) effectively extends asphalt service life by enhancing cracking resistance in gel-like base asphalt matrices, yet its crack-resistant mechanism lacks mechanical characterization. This study proposes an analytical method for evaluating WSVF-modified asphalt’s crack-resistant behavior based on the principle of mechanical energy balance. First, alkali-treated WSVF with a mass fraction of 1% was added into 70# gel-like base asphalt to prepare WSVF-modified asphalt. Lignin fiber (LF)-modified asphalt and 70# gel-like base asphalt were selected as control groups, and three types of time sweep and scanning electron microscopy tests were conducted. Then, the three-dimensional cracking volume model and damage kinetics model were established for analyzing the cracking response behavior, defining the asphalt damage variable and determining the cracking damage activation energy (E_acd). Finally, the E_acd was used to quantify the difficulty of the cracking damage process for the WSVF-modified asphalt. The reinforcement and cracking resistance mechanisms of WSVF in asphalt were analyzed by the E_acd and asphalt microstructure. The results show that the cracking volume response of WSVF-modified asphalt under cyclic loading presents three-stage nonlinear behaviors. The established fatigue damage kinetics model can accurately describe the fatigue damage evolution process of alkali-treated WSVF-modified asphalt. The E_acd values of WSVF-modified asphalt, LF-modified asphalt, and 70# gel-like base asphalt are 10.60 kJ·mol⁻¹, 21.83 kJ·mol⁻¹, and 29.74 kJ·mol⁻¹, respectively. After alkali treatment, the WSVF surface exhibits grooves, demonstrating superior adsorption and storage capacity for asphalt. The WSVF can cross link through the bonding effect of asphalt and form a three-dimensional network framework structure, which can significantly increase the E_acd and provide strengthening and toughening effects on gel-like base asphalt. In summary, E_acd values are used as a mechanical indicator to quantitatively evaluate the fatigue cracking resistance of WSVF-modified asphalt. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Synthesis, Properties, and Applications of Novel Polymer-Based Gels (2nd Edition))

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23 pages, 6021 KB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Sodium Acetate on High-Temperature Gelation Characteristics of Sodium-Modified Calcium-Based Bentonite Water-Based Drilling Fluids

by Rui Liu, Yu Zhao, Huan Wang, Wenjun Long, Junge Zhu and Fengshan Zhou

Gels 2026, 12(3), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/gels12030238 - 13 Mar 2026

Viewed by 235

Abstract

As global oil and gas exploration extends to deep and ultra-deep wells, high bottom-hole temperature is prone to deteriorating the gelation and rheological properties of water-based drilling fluids, which manifests as undesirable thickening or thinning at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the development of high-temperature [...] Read more.

As global oil and gas exploration extends to deep and ultra-deep wells, high bottom-hole temperature is prone to deteriorating the gelation and rheological properties of water-based drilling fluids, which manifests as undesirable thickening or thinning at elevated temperatures. Therefore, the development of high-temperature resistant and stable drilling fluids is crucial for ensuring safe and efficient drilling operations, and the enhancement of high-temperature performance is typically achieved by adding drilling fluid treatment agents. The main objective of this study is to apply sodium acetate (SA) to drilling fluid systems, developing an economical and efficient non-polymer treatment agent with dual functions as a composite sodium-modifier and a rheological regulator. By-product sodium acetate (TRSA) is adopted to provide better cost-effectiveness while maintaining equivalent performance, and its universality across seven types of bentonites is verified. Three grades of sodium acetate were added to the bentonites as either composite sodium-modifiers or rheological regulators. After high-temperature aging, rheological parameters, including mud density, plastic viscosity (PV), yield point (YP), and gel strength, were measured in accordance with standard API methods. The results indicate that adding 2 wt.% TRSA to drilling fluid and subjecting it to hot rolling at 180 °C for 16 h keeps the viscosity at a high shear rate (1022 s⁻¹) nearly unchanged (from 36 mPa·s to 37.5 mPa·s), while increasing the viscosity at a low shear rate (5.11 s⁻¹) from 250 mPa·s to 1400 mPa·s, thereby effectively improving the shear thinning effect of the sodium-modified calcium-based bentonite water-based drilling fluid. Although TRSA increases the filtration loss from 21.8 mL to 30 mL, this can be reduced to 20–25 mL by co-extrusion sodium modification with sodium carbonate or by adding additional TRSA to sodium-modified bentonite. This study provides a novel perspective for significantly improving the gelation characteristics and rheological properties of bentonite suspensions at high temperatures through a special inorganic substance, while realizing resource reuse and cost reduction. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Polymer Gels for Oil Drilling and Enhanced Recovery)

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Gels, Volume 12, Issue 3 (March 2026) – 81 articles

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