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Volume 10
Issue 12
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Languages, Volume 10, Issue 12 (December 2025) – 19 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Massive migration from the Peruvian Andes to Lima in the mid- to late twentieth century transformed the capital into a site of intense dialect contact. This study examines coda /s/ variation among three generations of Andean migrants and long-established Limeños, using speech corpora collected a decade apart to track change in apparent time. Results show a clear intergenerational trajectory: the sibilant associated with Andean Spanish recedes after the first generation, while the weakened variants of /s/ that typify Limeño speakers become more prevalent. Crucially, while the rates of specific variants change, the underlying linguistic constraints remain stable. This study offers compelling evidence of structured contact-driven change in progress, sharpening our understanding of how migration reshapes urban sound patterns. View this paper
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63 pages, 727 KB  
Article
Semantic and Syntactic Realisation of the Incremental Theme (with a Focus on Bulgarian)
by Svetlozara Leseva and Ivelina Stoyanova
Languages 2025, 10(12), 305; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120305 - 18 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1252
Abstract
This article presents ongoing work on the aspectual properties of verb predicates, in particular, the classes of activities and accomplishments. Herein, we focus on incremental theme predicates, starting with consumption verbs as one of the representative subclasses of incremental accomplishments. We explore, in [...] Read more.
This article presents ongoing work on the aspectual properties of verb predicates, in particular, the classes of activities and accomplishments. Herein, we focus on incremental theme predicates, starting with consumption verbs as one of the representative subclasses of incremental accomplishments. We explore, in detail, the semantic, referential, quantisation and morphosyntactic properties of incremental Themes and their realisation in Bulgarian. The analysis is based on original empirical data and enabled us to identify the common features shared with widely studied languages such as English and Russian, as well as to establish language-specific features typical for Bulgarian. We hope that our findings may contribute to the study of aspectual classes in a cross-linguistic perspective. Full article
24 pages, 3121 KB  
Article
On the Constituent Structure of Augmented Plurals in Russian
by Ora Matushansky
Languages 2025, 10(12), 304; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120304 - 16 Dec 2025
Viewed by 935
Abstract
This article examines augmented plurals in Russian, mostly focusing on those in -ĭj- (e.g., pero/perʲja ‘feather.sg/pl’). The accentual behavior of -ĭj-plurals is sensitive to animacy: while inanimates show stem-final stress, animates appear with inflectional stress. This is [...] Read more.
This article examines augmented plurals in Russian, mostly focusing on those in -ĭj- (e.g., pero/perʲja ‘feather.sg/pl’). The accentual behavior of -ĭj-plurals is sensitive to animacy: while inanimates show stem-final stress, animates appear with inflectional stress. This is explained by different constituent structures: while for inanimates, -ĭj- combines with the stem, animate stems require complex suffix formation so as to not create neuter animates, which are not tolerated in Russian. The position of the accent is then derived from the usual assumptions about Russian stress and the hypothesis that -ĭj- is accented but unaccentable. Other plural augments are also discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue SinFonIJA 17 (Syntax, Phonology and Language Analysis))
22 pages, 2299 KB  
Article
A Survey of Family Language Planning in Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture in the Context of New Language Education Policies
by Zhaoyu Wang and Chengyu Liu
Languages 2025, 10(12), 303; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120303 - 16 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1370
Abstract
The family serves as a critical domain for ethnic minority children to acquire their ethnic language. It plays a vital role in fostering multilingual competence and sustaining language diversity. Therefore, the family language planning (FLP) of ethnic minorities in China has attracted scholarly [...] Read more.
The family serves as a critical domain for ethnic minority children to acquire their ethnic language. It plays a vital role in fostering multilingual competence and sustaining language diversity. Therefore, the family language planning (FLP) of ethnic minorities in China has attracted scholarly attention in recent years. However, there is relatively little research on the FLP of the Yi ethnic group. The present study investigated the FLP of the Yi (Nuosu) families in Liangshan Yi Autonomous Prefecture (Liangshan) through questionnaires, interviews, and ethnographic observations. The aim was to elucidate the language life within Nuosu families in the context of recent policy modifications regarding the instruction of Putonghua, the Nuosu language, and English. The results indicate that Nuosu families pay greater attention to Putonghua and English, and the Nuosu language practice in the family domain is decreasing across generations. There are signs of language shift from the Sichuan dialect to Putonghua in urban Nuosu families and from the Nuosu language to Putonghua in rural Nuosu families. The Nuosu parents adopt divergent language management strategies in response to the new language education policies. The findings contribute to our understanding of the FLP of a less-discussed ethnic group, as well as the interaction between FLP and school education policies. This study also provides a unique case in the field of multilingual studies, both domestically and internationally. Full article
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12 pages, 430 KB  
Article
The Atypicality of Verb-Final Clauses in Japanese Conversation: Toward a Speaker-Centered Characterization of Japanese Clausal Syntax
by Tsuyoshi Ono and Yasuyuki Usuda
Languages 2025, 10(12), 302; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120302 - 12 Dec 2025
Viewed by 859
Abstract
The so-called canonical clause, consisting of case-marked NPs and a final finite verb, has played a central role in discussions of Japanese for the past several decades. The current study explores the nature of such clauses in everyday Japanese conversation. Everyday conversation is [...] Read more.
The so-called canonical clause, consisting of case-marked NPs and a final finite verb, has played a central role in discussions of Japanese for the past several decades. The current study explores the nature of such clauses in everyday Japanese conversation. Everyday conversation is considered the most fundamental form of language, and large-scale corpora of Japanese everyday conversation have only become available in recent years, enabling projects like ours. One key finding is that clauses ending with a finite verb are rare, challenging the centrality of the canonical clause in Japanese grammar. Instead, we observe that the verb is usually followed by additional elements that convey pragmatic information. This observation suggests that the canonical clause for Japanese speakers should also include these pragmatic elements. We have observed further that the relatively uncommon examples that do end with a finite verb often involve five frequent semantically light verbs. A preliminary study of one of these verbs, chigau ‘to differ’, reveals that, typically without overt NPs, it functions more like a particle than the verb of a clause. This further calls into question the idea that the canonical clause in Japanese ends with a finite verb. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue (A)typical Clauses across Languages)
16 pages, 4338 KB  
Article
Orthographic Visual Distinctiveness Shapes Written Lexicons: Cross-Linguistic Evidence from 131 Languages
by Jiazheng Wang, Ruimin Lyu, Hangyu Zhu and Zhenping Xie
Languages 2025, 10(12), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120301 - 11 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1076
Abstract
Written language is a multimodal system that integrates visual, phonological, and semantic information. This study examines whether orthographic visual distinctiveness—the degree to which word forms differ visually—acts as a structural constraint across languages. Using standardized script renderings from 131 languages, we extracted visual [...] Read more.
Written language is a multimodal system that integrates visual, phonological, and semantic information. This study examines whether orthographic visual distinctiveness—the degree to which word forms differ visually—acts as a structural constraint across languages. Using standardized script renderings from 131 languages, we extracted visual features of words through a Vision Transformer (VIT) and compared visual distances between co-occurring word pairs from natural corpora and random word pairs from lexicons, controlling for word length and related factors. The results show that co-occurring words are visually more distinct than expected by chance, and this effect is consistent across diverse writing systems. These findings indicate that visual distinctiveness contributes independently to the organization of written language, reflecting an underlying pressure toward visual discriminability in lexical form. Beyond linguistic implications, the framework demonstrates how deep vision models can capture cognitively meaningful visual features of text, offering new perspectives for multimodal research on orthography, reading, and cross-lingual modeling. Full article
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22 pages, 451 KB  
Article
Dynamic Syntax in a Theory of Types with Records
by Robin Cooper and Staffan Larsson
Languages 2025, 10(12), 300; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120300 - 10 Dec 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 604
Abstract
This paper presents a recasting of key aspects of dynamic syntax (DS) in a theory of types with records (TTR), concentrating on the incremental processing of speech events as they unfold and viewed in terms of classifying these events in terms of grammatical [...] Read more.
This paper presents a recasting of key aspects of dynamic syntax (DS) in a theory of types with records (TTR), concentrating on the incremental processing of speech events as they unfold and viewed in terms of classifying these events in terms of grammatical types and making predictions about future types that will be realized as the speech event progresses. TTR, like DS, attempts to provide formal analyses of language in terms of a theory of action which is related to cognitive processes. It therefore seems appropriate to explore one in terms of the other in hopes of revealing how the two theories may interact with and contribute to each other. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Dynamic Syntax)
20 pages, 580 KB  
Article
Style-Shifting in Multidialectal Spaces: The Case for Speaker-Based, Mixed-Methods Approaches to Dialect Contact
by Víctor Fernández-Mallat
Languages 2025, 10(12), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120299 - 9 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1109
Abstract
In this article, I underscore the value of nuanced, speaker-focused approaches to dialect contact, which both complement and extend community-based perspectives. I pursue this goal through two main strategies. First, I use a mixed-methods approach that integrates diverse sources of contextualized conversational data [...] Read more.
In this article, I underscore the value of nuanced, speaker-focused approaches to dialect contact, which both complement and extend community-based perspectives. I pursue this goal through two main strategies. First, I use a mixed-methods approach that integrates diverse sources of contextualized conversational data alongside spontaneous metalinguistic commentary. This broadens the traditional reliance on one-on-one sociolinguistic interviews, in which the regional backgrounds of both interviewees and interviewers are often left uncontrolled. Second, I use an interpretative framework that accounts for individuals’ metalinguistic awareness and examines how this awareness influences their positioning within distinct membership categories. Such positioning is evident in language practices, ranging from accommodation to interlocutors’ speech patterns to the retention of regional variation patterns. The analysis centers on the speech of five individuals in a Spanish dialect contact setting in Anglo-America, using their linguistic behavior as a lens to address broader theoretical and methodological questions in the field. Full article
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29 pages, 3925 KB  
Article
The C/D Model and the Effect of Prosodic Structure on Articulation
by Donna Mae Erickson
Languages 2025, 10(12), 298; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120298 - 30 Nov 2025
Viewed by 909
Abstract
The Converter/Distributor (C/D) model, as proposed by Fujimura is theoretically grounded on articulatory observations of X-ray microbeam (XRMB) data that show that utterance syllable prominence patterns “dictate” the size, timing and phrasing of articulatory movements. This paper briefly addresses some key differences between [...] Read more.
The Converter/Distributor (C/D) model, as proposed by Fujimura is theoretically grounded on articulatory observations of X-ray microbeam (XRMB) data that show that utterance syllable prominence patterns “dictate” the size, timing and phrasing of articulatory movements. This paper briefly addresses some key differences between the C/D model and Articulatory Prosody (AP) before moving on to describe some of the basic components of the C/D model, e.g., the phonological prosodic input to the model, the Converter, which outputs, among other things, descriptions of syllable prominence patterns, prosodic boundaries, and syllable edge features, and the Distributor which enlists “elemental gestures” to articulatorily implement feature sets. Examples from previous research inspired by the C/D model illustrate how articulatory events, i.e., patterns of jaw lowering, account for the temporal organization of spoken language; also, how second language speakers tend to carry over their first language patterns of jaw lowering. Some applications of the C/D model are discussed, including first and second language acquisition, clinical applications, and new insights into prosodic phonology. The final section summarizes some of the strengths of the C/D model as well as the yet-to-be investigated aspects of the model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Articulation and Prosodic Structure)
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23 pages, 2789 KB  
Article
A Description of Hobart English Monophthongs: Vowel and Voice Quality
by Rael Stanley and Debbie Loakes
Languages 2025, 10(12), 297; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120297 - 30 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1342
Abstract
This study focuses on vowel variation in Mainstream Australian English, describing F1/F2 vowel spaces and voice quality produced by speakers from the capital, Hobart, of the island state of Tasmania. Vowels are analysed by comparing F1/F2 vowel spaces produced by 39 male and [...] Read more.
This study focuses on vowel variation in Mainstream Australian English, describing F1/F2 vowel spaces and voice quality produced by speakers from the capital, Hobart, of the island state of Tasmania. Vowels are analysed by comparing F1/F2 vowel spaces produced by 39 male and female speakers, divided into younger and older age groups. Voice quality is measured by acoustic analysis of H1*-H2* as well as CPP. Results for vowel quality show that vowels produced by speakers from Hobart are undergoing change at a slower pace than in other large urban areas in Australia. For monophthongal vowel quality, the study shows congruence with other work in Australia highlighting minor variability between urban centres, as well as illustrating that geographically distant locations with smaller populations have slower rates of change. For voice quality, the study also aligns with recent work showing less modal (and creakier) voiced vowels for younger speakers, and for male speakers. The study contributes to the small but growing body of work analysing speech produced in the island state of Tasmania, relating it to knowledge of variation and change in Mainstream Australian English more generally. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Australian English)
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25 pages, 2990 KB  
Article
Declination and Segmentation in Children with Childhood Apraxia of Speech
by Jill C. Thorson, Rachel T. Babcock, Julia M. Fisher, Kirrie J. Ballard and Donald A. Robin
Languages 2025, 10(12), 296; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120296 - 30 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1550
Abstract
Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) is characterized by atypical timing between segments, leading to prosodic disruption at the lexical level. This study tested whether prosodic impairment in CAS extends to the intonational level by examining declination of fundamental frequency (f0). Eleven children with [...] Read more.
Childhood apraxia of speech (CAS) is characterized by atypical timing between segments, leading to prosodic disruption at the lexical level. This study tested whether prosodic impairment in CAS extends to the intonational level by examining declination of fundamental frequency (f0). Eleven children with CAS and ten typically developing (TD) peers aged 5 to 11 years old produced real and nonce multisyllabic words embedded in carrier phrases. Acoustic measures of inter-segment duration (within-word, between-word) and average f0 across segments were extracted. Children with CAS exhibited significantly longer inter-segment durations both within and between words, influenced by lexical stress position (first syllable, second syllable) and word status (real, nonce). They also showed shallower f0 declination slopes than TD peers, indicating reduced overall pitch fall. Segmentation and declination were not significantly correlated, suggesting distinct mechanisms underlying timing and pitch organization. Consistent with prior work, segmentation was greatest for nonce words with non-initial stress. Reduced declination in CAS may reflect limitations in prosodic planning or programming at the intonational level. These findings highlight dissociable disruptions in timing and pitch patterning in CAS, contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of prosodic control in motor speech disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in the Acquisition of Prosody)
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33 pages, 3341 KB  
Article
Language Change and Migration: /s/ Variation in Lima, Peru
by Carol A. Klee, Rocío Caravedo, Brandon M. A. Rogers, Aaron Rendahl, Lindsey Dietz and Kha T. Tran
Languages 2025, 10(12), 295; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120295 - 29 Nov 2025
Viewed by 2045
Abstract
In Peru, large-scale migration from the provinces to Lima in the second half of the twentieth century has created a context of intense language and dialect contact. This study examines /s/ variation among migrants from the Andean region, where Quechua, Aymara, and varieties [...] Read more.
In Peru, large-scale migration from the provinces to Lima in the second half of the twentieth century has created a context of intense language and dialect contact. This study examines /s/ variation among migrants from the Andean region, where Quechua, Aymara, and varieties of Andean Spanish—shaped through long-standing contact with these indigenous languages—are spoken. We analyze the speech of 59 participants representing “classic Limeños,” whose families have lived in Lima for several generations, and three generations of Andean migrants, using corpora collected in 1999–2002 and 2012–2013 to trace linguistic change in apparent time. Univariable analyses show significant generational differences: as distance from migration increases, aspiration becomes more frequent and elision declines, while [s] remains relatively stable after the first generation. Multivariable models incorporating migrant generation, family origin, neighborhood, education, and sex reveal that while a combined variable of migrant generation and family origin is significant, neighborhood, education, and sex are stronger predictors. Speakers from established neighborhoods, those with university education, and female speakers favor aspiration and [s], aligning with prestige norms. Mixed-effects logistic regression of linguistic variables confirms structured sociolinguistic change: the following segment is the strongest linguistic predictor, and there is a clear intergenerational shift from elision toward aspiration. However, constraint hierarchies—especially following segment and stress—remain stable, indicating change in rates rather than in linguistic conditioning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Analyzing Language Change)
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26 pages, 2465 KB  
Article
Referent Reintroduction in the Japanese Narratives of Bilingual Children: The Relationship Between Referent Accessibility and Explicitness
by Satomi Mishina-Mori, Yuri Jody Yujobo and Yuki Nakano
Languages 2025, 10(12), 294; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120294 - 29 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1018
Abstract
Studies of children’s narratives have shown that selecting appropriate forms to reintroduce a referent compared to retaining a referent is challenging because it requires the integration of different accessibility features. Bilingual children are more explicit than their monolingual peers when it comes to [...] Read more.
Studies of children’s narratives have shown that selecting appropriate forms to reintroduce a referent compared to retaining a referent is challenging because it requires the integration of different accessibility features. Bilingual children are more explicit than their monolingual peers when it comes to referent selection, especially in the context of reintroduction in null-argument languages. Whether different accessibility features influence referent choice in the context of reintroduction in bilingual and monolingual children remains to be investigated. Japanese narratives were elicited from Japanese–English school-age early bilinguals (n = 13) and their monolingual peers (n = 8) using a wordless picture book and video clip, and the linguistic means of referent reintroduction were analyzed in terms of recency, ambiguity, and pragmatic predictability. The analysis revealed that in terms of recency, bilinguals used more noun phrases (NPs) than null forms when the referent was highly accessible, thus exhibiting overexplicitness, whereas in terms of ambiguity, bilinguals used more NPs for less accessible referents, while monolinguals were not as explicit. Both groups were sensitive to accessibility. We argue that bilinguals are selectively redundant, suggesting that the overproduction is not due to the load of processing two languages but is a manifestation of cross-linguistic influence modulated by accessibility features. The results emphasize the importance of considering discourse features in identifying overexplicitness. Full article
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4 pages, 224 KB  
Editorial
Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics: An Introduction
by Trang Phan, Nigel Duffield and Chao-Ting Tim Chou
Languages 2025, 10(12), 293; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120293 - 29 Nov 2025
Viewed by 781
Abstract
This Special Issue of Languages, part of the ISVL (International Symposium on Vietnamese Linguistics) series, presents revised papers from the 4th and 5th ISVL workshops, hosted by National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University in 2024 and Ca’ Foscari University of Venice in [...] Read more.
This Special Issue of Languages, part of the ISVL (International Symposium on Vietnamese Linguistics) series, presents revised papers from the 4th and 5th ISVL workshops, hosted by National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University in 2024 and Ca’ Foscari University of Venice in 2025 [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Vietnamese Linguistics)
17 pages, 1010 KB  
Article
Language Use and Attitudes Among Ukrainian Refugees in Canada: Do They Differ by Participants’ Age?
by Veronika Makarova and Yuliia Hryshyna
Languages 2025, 10(12), 292; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120292 - 29 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2040
Abstract
The language use of Ukrainian war refugees has attracted the attention of researchers worldwide due to the unprecedented number of individuals displaced since the onset of the war in 2022. Earlier studies have documented a shift in language use and attitudes in Ukraine, [...] Read more.
The language use of Ukrainian war refugees has attracted the attention of researchers worldwide due to the unprecedented number of individuals displaced since the onset of the war in 2022. Earlier studies have documented a shift in language use and attitudes in Ukraine, marked by a diminished role for Russian and increased prominence of Ukrainian both within the country and among Ukrainian émigré communities abroad. However, the role of age in this process has not yet been thoroughly investigated. Moreover, research on the specific characteristics of language shift and social integration among Ukrainian refugees in Canada is still insufficient. This article reports the results of a study aimed at examining how home languages shift and the use of the official languages among Ukrainian refugees in Canada may vary by age. The vresearch employed a mixed-methods approach, based on a survey (65 participants). In this research, quantitative data were drawn from the closed-ended survey questions, and open-ended questions were employed to illustrate quantitative results for more depth and insight. The results indicate that there are no significant differences in L1 and L2 or L3 by age in this sample. The study confirms a language shift from Ukrainian-Russian bilingualism in Ukraine to Ukrainian dominance, which does not differ by age or age group. What does differ by age and generation is the proficiency in English, English use, and the perceived difficulty in learning English, whereby younger participants reported higher proficiency in English, its higher use in daily communication, and less difficulty acquiring it, as compared to their older peers. While the findings align with previous research on language use among immigrants—including the impact of age—they offer new insights into the experiences of refugees, highlighting how different age groups respond to social pressures in migration. A further contribution of this study lies in addressing the language shift from the perspectives of both younger and older refugees and establishing that the language shift in Ukraine swept across all ages. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Migrant to Heritage Languages: Transgenerational Language Change in Diasporic Communities)
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14 pages, 769 KB  
Essay
Functionalism and Connectionism as Foundational Theories for Usage-Based SLA: An Explanatory Model for L2 German Case Acquisition
by Daniel Walter
Languages 2025, 10(12), 291; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120291 - 28 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1236
Abstract
Two theories that align with and support Usage-based approaches to language acquisition are Functionalism, which motivates the communicative functions of form-meaning connections produced by grammatical phenomena, and Connectionism, which provides a biologically-plausible framework for understanding language processes. An essential part of the learning [...] Read more.
Two theories that align with and support Usage-based approaches to language acquisition are Functionalism, which motivates the communicative functions of form-meaning connections produced by grammatical phenomena, and Connectionism, which provides a biologically-plausible framework for understanding language processes. An essential part of the learning process for second language (L2) learners is to understand how the target language differs in the ways it represents similar functionality, as well as functions not represented in learners’ first languages (L1s). In some cases, communicative functions served by the L1(s) are mirrored by similar-enough processes in the L2, so that the L1 processes can be utilized by the L2 system by entrenched L1 pathways. However, other communicative functions must develop their own processing pathways to accommodate differing L2 structures, because certain grammatical features allow for, or force particular ways of processing information. If the L2 learner does not notice and adopt the L2 processes needed for distinct linguistic structures, L1 processes connected to similar meanings will continue to be utilized. As a case in point, this paper outlines why L1 English learners of German as an L2 must change the ways they process syntactic role assignment away from syntactic cues towards ones embedded in morphology and morphosyntax. The goal of this paper is to explain how Functional and Connectionist theories, housed within a larger Usage-Based understanding of Second Language Acquisition, can account for frequently unsuccessfully or only partially acquired L2 German case marking, and why instructional interventions like Concept-Based Language Instruction and Processing Instruction all produce uptake of L2 German case marking to varying degrees. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Usage-Based Approaches to Second Language Acquisition: Crosslinguistic Perspectives)
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15 pages, 583 KB  
Article
How Effective Are the Different Family Policies for Heritage Language Maintenance and Transmission in Australia?
by Gloria Pino Escobar, Chloé Diskin-Holdaway and Paola Escudero
Languages 2025, 10(12), 290; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120290 - 27 Nov 2025
Viewed by 1569
Abstract
The one-parent-one-language (OPOL) approach has traditionally been considered a widely recommended strategy for heritage-language (HL) maintenance in bilingual families. However, alternative strategies, such as both parents consistently speaking the HL, may be equally or more effective. This study examines families’ self-reported language policies [...] Read more.
The one-parent-one-language (OPOL) approach has traditionally been considered a widely recommended strategy for heritage-language (HL) maintenance in bilingual families. However, alternative strategies, such as both parents consistently speaking the HL, may be equally or more effective. This study examines families’ self-reported language policies and their perceived effectiveness in HL maintenance in Australia, where minority languages often hold lower status than English and receive minimal institutional support beyond the home. Using data from a nationwide survey of 280 families, we analyzed parents’ self-reported language-use patterns and their perceived impact on HL transmission. Most mothers, who more often identified as primary caregivers, reported speaking a HL with their children, while secondary caregivers’ self-reported language use was varied. Families were categorized into four language-use approaches: OPOL, mixed-language use from one or both caregivers, HL-only from both caregivers, and single-caregiver only. Comparisons across these categories revealed that families following the HL-only and OPOL approaches reported significantly greater success in maintaining the HL than the other two groups, which showed no significant differences in self-reported outcomes. Follow-up analyses showed that Mixed-language families who reported high HL use percieved success comparable to that of HL-only and OPOL families. Our findings suggest that language input may be a central, but not exclusive, contributor to HL transmission. Families who reported higher perceived success showed strong commitment to HL maintenance, with caregivers likely reinforcing each other's efforts beyond direct language input. This study contributes to discussions on bilingual parenting and family language policy, providing empirical insights to inform HL maintenance strategies in diverse linguistic settings. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)
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28 pages, 376 KB  
Article
Morphological Dependencies in English
by Ronnie Cann
Languages 2025, 10(12), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120289 - 27 Nov 2025
Viewed by 845
Abstract
This paper presents accounts of preposition selection and agreement in English within Dynamic Syntax. To achieve this, I introduce two new, non-semantic, labels into the tree language: Ph that takes as values phonological forms which are modelled as ordered sets of phonemes [...] Read more.
This paper presents accounts of preposition selection and agreement in English within Dynamic Syntax. To achieve this, I introduce two new, non-semantic, labels into the tree language: Ph that takes as values phonological forms which are modelled as ordered sets of phonemes and Md which takes as values sets of Ph values, the phonological forms of certain words and forms with which a particular word can collocate. While these labels are not grounded in semantic concepts like type and formula, they are nevertheless grounded in phonological concepts and thus ultimately in phonetic phenomena. These labels are introduced through the parsing of words and are used to constrain the forms of other words they can felicitously appear with, such as nouns and certain determiners or verbs with selected prepositions or prepositional phrases, in a straightforward manner. It is shown how the remnant agreement and selection patterns in modern (standard) English can be captured without any recourse to traditional categories such as gender, person and number. Certain disagreement phenomena are discussed as are the broader implications of the approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Development of Dynamic Syntax)
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19 pages, 1572 KB  
Article
Proximity Loses: Real-Time Resolution of Ambiguous Wh-Questions in Japanese
by Chie Nakamura, Suzanne Flynn, Yoichi Miyamoto and Noriaki Yusa
Languages 2025, 10(12), 288; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120288 - 26 Nov 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 706
Abstract
This study investigated how Japanese speakers interpret structurally ambiguous wh-questions, testing whether filler–gap resolution is guided by syntactic resolution based on hierarchical structure or linear locality based on surface word order. We combined behavioral key-press responses with fine-grained eye-tracking data and applied cluster-based [...] Read more.
This study investigated how Japanese speakers interpret structurally ambiguous wh-questions, testing whether filler–gap resolution is guided by syntactic resolution based on hierarchical structure or linear locality based on surface word order. We combined behavioral key-press responses with fine-grained eye-tracking data and applied cluster-based permutation analysis to capture the moment-by-moment time course of syntactic interpretation as sentences were processed in real time. Key-press responses revealed a preference for resolving the dependency at the main clause (MC) gap position. Eye-tracking data showed early predictive fixations to the MC picture, followed by shifts to the embedded clause (EC) picture as the embedded event was described. These shifts occurred prior to the appearance of syntactic cues that signal the presence of an EC structure, such as the complementizer -to, and were therefore most likely guided by referential alignment with the linguistic input rather than by syntactic reanalysis. A subsequent return of the gaze to the MC picture occurred when the clause-final question particle -ka became available, confirming the interrogative use of the wh-phrase. Both key-press and eye-tracking data showed that participants did not commit to the first grammatically available EC interpretation but instead waited until clause-final particle information confirmed the interrogative use of the wh-phrase, ultimately favoring the MC interpretation. This pattern supports the view that filler–gap resolution is guided by structural locality rather than linear locality. By using high-resolution temporal data and statistically robust analytic techniques, this study demonstrates that Japanese comprehenders engage in predictive yet structurally cautious parsing. These findings challenge earlier claims that filler–gap resolution in Japanese is primarily driven by linear locality and instead showed a preference for resolving dependencies at the structurally higher MC position, consistent with parsing biases previously observed in English, despite typological differences in word order between the two languages. This preference also reflects sensitivity to language-specific morpho-syntactic cues in Japanese, such as clause-final particles. Full article
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Editorial
Phonetics and Phonology of Ibero-Romance Languages: An Introduction to the Special Issue
by Rebeka Campos-Astorkiza
Languages 2025, 10(12), 287; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10120287 - 25 Nov 2025
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Abstract
This Special Issue includes twelve articles that provide an insight into the phonetics and phonology of Ibero-Romance languages [...] Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phonetics and Phonology of Ibero-Romance Languages)
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