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Languages, Volume 11, Issue 1 (January 2026) – 19 articles

Cover Story (view full-size image): Research indicates that language ideologies rooted in purism and perceived intelligibility often position Eastern varieties of Arabic as more prestigious than Western ones. At the same time, Morocco has emerged as a major destination for Arabic study abroad, where an increasing number of students are learning the local variety, Moroccan Arabic (Darija). This study examines the beliefs of four advanced learners regarding Arabic varieties as they embarked on a year-long study abroad program in Morocco. Findings reveal that prior to departure, participants expressed little interest in learning Darija, largely due to negative stereotypes and misconceptions. However, once faced with the linguistic realities of studying in Morocco, their attitudes shifted; learners developed greater interest in Darija and began to challenge those stereotypes. View this paper
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21 pages, 1449 KB  
Article
The Development of Children’s Request Strategies in L1 Greek
by Stathis Selimis and Evgenia Vassilaki
Languages 2026, 11(1), 19; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010019 - 22 Jan 2026
Viewed by 282
Abstract
The study investigated the developmental trajectory of the speech act of request among L1 Greek-speaking children spanning the preschool and primary school years (ages 4–11), aiming to address the scarcity of pragmatic research within this age range in Greek. Seventy-three children participated in [...] Read more.
The study investigated the developmental trajectory of the speech act of request among L1 Greek-speaking children spanning the preschool and primary school years (ages 4–11), aiming to address the scarcity of pragmatic research within this age range in Greek. Seventy-three children participated in an experimental task that elicited oral requests based on scenarios systematically manipulating addressee status/familiarity and the cost of the requested action. Responses were analysed via a bottom-up coding method, which showed that three quarters of all utterances adhered to four highly conventionalised, interrogative request constructions: (i) Can-you V-SUBJUNCTIVE?, (ii) Will-you V?, (iii) Can-I V-SUBJUNCTIVE?, and (iv) V-PRESENT-YOU?. Notably, the direct Imperative mood was marginal even among the youngest participants. Results indicate a statistically significant variation in the distribution of these dominant patterns across age groups. Increasing age correlates with greater sensitivity to sociocultural parameters of communication, specifically the imposition/cost and the addressee’s face needs. This is further evidenced by a more elaborated repertoire of modifiers and supportive moves. We conclude that requestive behaviour progresses developmentally from largely underspecified directive forms toward a repertoire of more complex and contextually specified constructions, thereby providing empirical support for usage-based accounts of language acquisition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)
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19 pages, 922 KB  
Article
The Greek Vocative-Based Marker Moré in Contexts of Disagreement
by Angeliki Alvanoudi
Languages 2026, 11(1), 18; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010018 - 20 Jan 2026
Viewed by 171
Abstract
This study examines the functions of the vocative-based marker moré in contexts of disagreement in Greek conversation, drawing on interactional linguistics. The analysis of audio-recorded informal face-to-face conversations and telephone calls from the Corpus of Spoken Greek shows that, in such contexts, moré [...] Read more.
This study examines the functions of the vocative-based marker moré in contexts of disagreement in Greek conversation, drawing on interactional linguistics. The analysis of audio-recorded informal face-to-face conversations and telephone calls from the Corpus of Spoken Greek shows that, in such contexts, moré functions as an interpersonal marker, signaling solidarity and friendliness and thereby mitigating the potential face threat posed by disagreement. It also functions as a cognitive marker, conveying counterexpectation to the addressee. The study compares moré with its grammaticalized form, vre. Both moré and vre appear in contexts of ‘friendly’ disagreement with similar discourse functions. However, unlike vre, moré occurs in a broader range of disagreement types from the most to the least face-aggravating, including challenges, contradictions and counterclaims, and it also appears in contexts of impoliteness. This suggests that the two forms have different affordances, with vre displaying a higher level of solidarity than more. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)
18 pages, 337 KB  
Article
Exploring GenAI-Powered Listening Test Development
by Junyan Guo
Languages 2026, 11(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010017 - 20 Jan 2026
Viewed by 341
Abstract
The advent of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) has ushered in a transformative wave within the field of language education. However, the applications of GenAI are primarily in language teaching and learning, with assessment receiving much less attention. Drawing on task characteristics identified from [...] Read more.
The advent of Generative Artificial Intelligence (GenAI) has ushered in a transformative wave within the field of language education. However, the applications of GenAI are primarily in language teaching and learning, with assessment receiving much less attention. Drawing on task characteristics identified from a corpus of authentic prior tests, this study investigated the capacity of GenAI tools to develop a short College English Test-Band 4 (CET-4) listening test and examined the degree to which its content, concurrent, and face validity corresponded to those of an authentic, human-generated counterpart. The findings indicated that the GenAI-created test aligned well with the task characteristics of the target test domain, supporting its content validity, whereas sufficient robust evidence to substantiate its concurrent or face validity was limited. Overall, GenAI has demonstrated potential in developing listening tests; however, further optimization is needed to enhance their validity. Implications for language teaching, learning and assessment are therefore discussed. Full article
22 pages, 933 KB  
Article
‘Ya ves que’—You See That: A Deictic Intersubjective Pragmatic Marker
by Ricardo Maldonado and Juliana De la Mora
Languages 2026, 11(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010016 - 16 Jan 2026
Viewed by 261
Abstract
In the pragmaticalization of ya ves que… ‘you see that…’, the perceptual basis of the verb becomes diluted, keeping its deictic profile. Most of its pragmatic values extend to non-perceptual phenomena, implying shared knowledge. Further extensions involve bleaching the concrete referent into abstract [...] Read more.
In the pragmaticalization of ya ves que… ‘you see that…’, the perceptual basis of the verb becomes diluted, keeping its deictic profile. Most of its pragmatic values extend to non-perceptual phenomena, implying shared knowledge. Further extensions involve bleaching the concrete referent into abstract shared information in the form of (i) first and second-hand evidentials: shared and alien facts presented as familiar; (ii) mitigators: small appeal to shared information; (iii) miratives missing crucial information; and (iv) a continuity discourse marker where shared information is not relevant. Based on spontaneous oral data from Mexican Spanish, we propose that intersubjectivity prevails given its common ground deictic schema, allowing for assumed information to become diluted into a fictive common space where the speaker assumes the existence of notions the speaker may not always have. Diachronic data support the analysis: data from the 16th–17th century from Spain show the prevalence of testimonial references with no presence of shared knowledge; from the 19th century onward, shared knowledge becomes crucial, and it is not until current informal Mexican Spanish that even referential and shared knowledge may be diluted, and the assessment is validated by incorporating the hearer into the speaker’s mental space. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Pragmatic Diachronic Study of the 20th Century)
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23 pages, 1740 KB  
Article
Print Exposure Interaction with Neural Tuning on Letter/Non-Letter Processing During Literacy Acquisition: An ERP Study on Dyslexic and Typically Developing Children
by Elizaveta Galperina, Olga Kruchinina, Polina Boichenkova and Alexander Kornev
Languages 2026, 11(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010015 - 14 Jan 2026
Viewed by 233
Abstract
Background/Objectives: The first step in learning an alphabetic writing system is to establish letter–sound associations. This process is more difficult for children with dyslexia (DYS) than for typically developing (TD) children. Cerebral mechanisms underlying these associations are not fully understood and are [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: The first step in learning an alphabetic writing system is to establish letter–sound associations. This process is more difficult for children with dyslexia (DYS) than for typically developing (TD) children. Cerebral mechanisms underlying these associations are not fully understood and are expected to change during the training course. This study aimed to identify the neurophysiological correlates and developmental changes of visual letter processing in children with DYS compared to TD children, using event-related potentials (ERPs) during a letter/non-letter classification task. Methods: A total of 71 Russian-speaking children aged 7–11 years participated in the study, including 38 with dyslexia and 33 TD children. The participants were divided into younger (7–8 y.o.) and older (9–11 y.o.) subgroups. EEG recordings were taken while participants classified letters and non-letter characters. We analyzed ERP components (N/P150, N170, P260, P300, N320, and P600) in left-hemisphere regions of interest related to reading: the ventral occipito-temporal cortex (VWFA ROI) and the inferior frontal cortex (frontal ROI). Results: Behavioral differences, specifically lower accuracy in children with dyslexia, were observed only in the younger subgroup. ERP analysis indicated that both groups displayed common stimulus effects, such as a larger N170 for letters in younger children. However, their developmental trajectories diverged. The DYS group showed an age-related increase in the amplitude of early components (N/P150 in VWFA ROI), which contrasts with the typical decrease observed in TD children. In contrast, the late P600 component in the frontal ROI revealed an age-related decrease in the DYS group, along with overall reduced amplitudes compared to their TD peers. Additionally, the N320 component differentiated stimuli exclusively in the DYS group. Conclusions: The data obtained in this study confirmed that the mechanisms of letter recognition in children with dyslexia differ in some ways from those of their TD peers. This atypical developmental pattern involves a failure to efficiently specialize early visual processing, as evidenced by the increasing N/P150. Additionally, there is a progressive reduction in the cognitive resources available for higher-order reanalysis and control, indicated by the decreasing frontal P600. This disruption in neural specialization and automation ultimately hinders the development of fluent reading. Full article
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22 pages, 8745 KB  
Article
From Vision to Discourse: The Grammaticalization of the Perception Verb Thấy in Vietnamese (13–20th C.)
by Trang Phan
Languages 2026, 11(1), 14; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010014 - 13 Jan 2026
Viewed by 170
Abstract
This paper offers the first long-range account of the grammaticalization of the Vietnamese perception verb thấy ‘see’ from the 13th to the mid-20th century. Using a balanced diachronic corpus of ten representative texts (1345 tokens), we combine frequency profiling with constructional analysis to [...] Read more.
This paper offers the first long-range account of the grammaticalization of the Vietnamese perception verb thấy ‘see’ from the 13th to the mid-20th century. Using a balanced diachronic corpus of ten representative texts (1345 tokens), we combine frequency profiling with constructional analysis to trace thấy’s shift from a literal visual predicate to a high-frequency resource for epistemic stance, evidentiality, evaluation, and discourse management. The results reveal a robust progression aligned with the sensory hierarchy and canonical event-schema pathways: early literal uses and multimodal bundling (13–14th c.) provide bridging contexts; the 15th century introduces raising (thấy + VP/Adj) and clausal complementation (thấy (rằng/là) + CP); the 16–17th centuries expand resultative perception complexes (e.g., xem/chiêm bao/nghe + thấy) and reportative frames; the 18th century brings evaluative and speaker-anchored uses (chúng tôi thấy); the 19–20th centuries stabilize discourse-pivot (thấy… thì…), epistemic (thấy cần phải…), and exclamative/affective (thấy ghét) readings. We argue that Vietnamese clause-linking options and optional complementizers facilitate constructionalization via loose complementation and subjectification, while retaining perceptual residues that motivate evidential and interactional meanings. The study contributes: (i) a comprehensive diachrony of thấy; (ii) diagnostics separating perceptual, experiential, propositional, and discourse layers; and (iii) a case study bearing on the relationship between grammaticalization and constructional change in an isolating language. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Recent Developments on the Semantics of Perception Verbs)
20 pages, 8857 KB  
Article
Attention Shift, Information Structure, and Interaction: Atypicality in Non-Verbal Predication in Mano (Mande)
by Pavel Ozerov and Maria Khachaturyan
Languages 2026, 11(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010009 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 344
Abstract
This study, based on naturalistic discourse in Mano and on both morphosyntactic and prosodic characteristics, analyses the Mano constructions formed with the marker lɛ́, including the identifying construction, referent introduction, focus, relativization, and hanging topic. While the identifying construction can be treated [...] Read more.
This study, based on naturalistic discourse in Mano and on both morphosyntactic and prosodic characteristics, analyses the Mano constructions formed with the marker lɛ́, including the identifying construction, referent introduction, focus, relativization, and hanging topic. While the identifying construction can be treated as a separate predication, and lɛ́ within it as a predicator, in all the other constructions lɛ́ does not have a predicative function. For Mano lɛ́, we suggest an invariant function instead, that of attention shift. Depending on both the structural and the pragmatic grounds, attention shift can be interpreted as having a predicative or a non-predicative function. We finally suggest that mapping recurrent constructions on interactants’ actions requires no definition of the notion of “clausehood”: NP-based constructions can be deployed for performing a communicatively self-sufficient action of an attention shift. This would present them as “clausal” in a speech-act-based analysis, and non-clausal from the perspective that defines clauses as subject–predicate structures—but this question does not arise in our approach that links syntactic structures to communicative action. The analysis is nested in the approach to polysemy as a “family of constructions” and to information structure as diverse interpretive effects, rather than a closed set of discrete universal categories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue (A)typical Clauses across Languages)
24 pages, 578 KB  
Article
The Evolution of Spanish Ver ‘to See’ in Constructions with a Predicate Participle or Adjective
by Chantal Melis, María Isabel Jiménez Martínez and Milagros Alfonso Vega
Languages 2026, 11(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010013 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 411
Abstract
The focus in this corpus-based study is on a set of Spanish constructions formed with the verb of visual perception, ver ‘to See’, and a predicate adjective or participle. In addition to a clearly recognizable transitive schema, the set includes various instances featuring [...] Read more.
The focus in this corpus-based study is on a set of Spanish constructions formed with the verb of visual perception, ver ‘to See’, and a predicate adjective or participle. In addition to a clearly recognizable transitive schema, the set includes various instances featuring a reflexive clitic pronoun coreferential with the subject, some of which have been argued to evidence the grammaticalization of lexical ver into a univerbated semicopular verb (pronominal verse), meaning little more than ‘be’ in some examples, and proximate to the intransitive sense of English look in other cases. We trace the evolution of these constructions in data spanning the history of the Spanish language, from its recorded beginnings to the present. We establish the need to distinguish two constructional sources of change, namely, an old middle-reflexive and a younger reflexive passive. We draw attention to the “renewal” of the Latin deponent videri ‘appear, look, seem’, which can be said to have taken place in Spanish as a product of the passive-derived process of grammaticalization undergone by ver. And throughout the paper we address problems of analyzability, attributable to the superficially identical strings of words that characterize the constructional patterns with a reflexive morpheme. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Romance Historical Syntax: Special Issue on Syntactic Analyzability in Diachrony)
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28 pages, 742 KB  
Article
L2 Pragmatics Instruction in the Greek EFL Classroom: Teachers’ Competence, Beliefs, and Classroom Challenges
by Despoina Tosounidou and Marina Terkourafi
Languages 2026, 11(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010012 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 645
Abstract
While Greek EFL learners’ pragmatic competence has been frequently investigated, few studies have focused on Greek EFL teachers’ pragmatic knowledge. Complementing these earlier studies based on semi-structured interviews, we employed an extended online questionnaire and discourse completion tasks (DCTs) to explore the pragmatic [...] Read more.
While Greek EFL learners’ pragmatic competence has been frequently investigated, few studies have focused on Greek EFL teachers’ pragmatic knowledge. Complementing these earlier studies based on semi-structured interviews, we employed an extended online questionnaire and discourse completion tasks (DCTs) to explore the pragmatic competence of 72 Greek EFL teachers. Pragmatic comprehension was evaluated using scenarios that required participants to assess speech acts, while their ability to produce pragmatically appropriate responses was also assessed. Likert-scale items explored teachers’ perceptions about L2 instruction and their own abilities in this regard. Findings suggest that Greek EFL teachers possess an above average level of pragmatic competence, which nevertheless has not led to them systematically integrating L2 pragmatics instruction in their classrooms. Additional qualitative data collected through semi-structured interviews suggest that teachers’ lack of integration of explicit pragmatics instruction is not due to their not recognizing its importance, but rather to feeling inadequately prepared to implement this, which in turn points to the lack of emphasis on L2 pragmatics in teacher education programs. We catalog the most significant challenges in incorporating L2 pragmatics instruction in Greek EFL classrooms in terms of teacher and learner factors, as well as the Greek EFL context itself. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)
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22 pages, 350 KB  
Article
Pragmatics or Syntax: The Nature of Adjunct-Inclusive Interpretations
by Yoshiki Fujiwara
Languages 2026, 11(1), 11; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010011 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 440
Abstract
This paper investigates the nature of adjunct-inclusive interpretations in Japanese, which has long been debated in the literature. Previous studies have disagreed on whether these interpretations arise from V-stranding VP-ellipsis or adjunct ellipsis. This study argues that adjunct-inclusive interpretations fall into two distinct [...] Read more.
This paper investigates the nature of adjunct-inclusive interpretations in Japanese, which has long been debated in the literature. Previous studies have disagreed on whether these interpretations arise from V-stranding VP-ellipsis or adjunct ellipsis. This study argues that adjunct-inclusive interpretations fall into two distinct types: one semantically encoded and structurally represented, and another pragmatically inferred, depending on context beyond sentence structure. Using anaphoric expressions and negation as diagnostics, this study shows that adjunct-inclusive interpretations involving (i) omission of both adjunct and object in transitive sentences and (ii) adjunct omission in intransitive sentences are syntactically represented, supporting the existence of V-stranding VP-ellipsis. By contrast, adjunct-inclusive interpretations where only the adjunct is omitted and the object is contrastively focused are derived from pragmatic inference via free pragmatic enrichment, rather than from syntactic structure. These findings provide empirical and theoretical support for the view that Japanese does not allow syntactic adjunct ellipsis but does allow V-stranding VP-ellipsis. More broadly, this study contributes to the understanding of the syntax–pragmatics interface in ellipsis, showing that not all implicit interpretations reflect syntactic structure and highlighting the importance of carefully distinguishing between semantic and pragmatic sources in analyzing ellipsis phenomena. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Current Issues in Ellipsis and Ellipsis Mismatch: Studies in Japanese and Beyond)
27 pages, 4272 KB  
Article
The Acquisition of Verb-Echo Answers: Evidence from Child Japanese
by Miwa Isobe and Reiko Okabe
Languages 2026, 11(1), 10; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010010 - 31 Dec 2025
Viewed by 380
Abstract
The present study investigates Japanese-speaking children’s interpretation of verb-echo answers (VEAs) to yes/no questions. Previous syntactic research suggests that VEAs are derived via ellipsis, with Japanese VEAs specifically analyzed as being derived by TP ellipsis involving verb movement. This study assumes that parameter [...] Read more.
The present study investigates Japanese-speaking children’s interpretation of verb-echo answers (VEAs) to yes/no questions. Previous syntactic research suggests that VEAs are derived via ellipsis, with Japanese VEAs specifically analyzed as being derived by TP ellipsis involving verb movement. This study assumes that parameter settings for pro-drop and verb movement are prerequisites, and that the knowledge of both the possibility of VEAs being answers to questions with existential indefinite subjects and the possibility of the adverb-inclusive interpretation are required for acquiring Japanese VEAs. We conducted a series of three experiments with 4- to 6-year-olds acquiring Japanese to test whether they have knowledge of these factors relevant to Japanese VEAs. The results of the experiments indicate that most children correctly assigned adult-like interpretations to VEAs for questions involving existential indefinite subjects and adverbs. These findings support the hypothesis that children’s VEAs in Japanese are derived through verb movement and TP ellipsis, and suggest that parameters for pro-drop and verb movement, together with evidence regarding the possibility of VEAs to questions with existential indefinite subjects and the possibility of the adverb-inclusive reading, may determine the adult-like interpretation of Japanese VEAs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Parametric Approaches to Cross-Linguistic Variation and Child Language Acquisition)
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28 pages, 576 KB  
Article
Romanian DOM and Loss of Analyzability
by Virginia Hill and Monica Alexandrina Irimia
Languages 2026, 11(1), 8; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010008 - 30 Dec 2025
Viewed by 245
Abstract
This paper revisits the diachronic changes to Romanian DOM by focusing on the emergence of the DOM particle pe: the prenominal preposition pe is shown to undergo loss of analyzability when (i) the adjacent noun phrase is the direct object of the [...] Read more.
This paper revisits the diachronic changes to Romanian DOM by focusing on the emergence of the DOM particle pe: the prenominal preposition pe is shown to undergo loss of analyzability when (i) the adjacent noun phrase is the direct object of the verb; and (ii) pe-DP falls under a certain pragmatic treatment. In other contexts, pe continues as a preposition. Loss of analyzability entails modification of the feature bundle associated with pe, as well as chunking and sensitivity of pe-noun phrases to discourse related priming factors. Briefly, the chunk consisting of two segments (i.e., prepositional phrase and nominal phrase: PP > DP) is gradually reduced to one segment (i.e., DP). This transition is context dependent; that is, it intensifies when the DPs receive a reading that involves discourse salience and animacy. The loss of analyzability regarding the properties of pe and the structural consequences it implied provide the basis for assessing the advent of animacy and definiteness/specificity as priming factors for DOM in Modern Romanian. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Romance Historical Syntax: Special Issue on Syntactic Analyzability in Diachrony)
35 pages, 1614 KB  
Article
Requests in Greek as a Foreign Language by Spanish/Catalan Bilinguals: The Role of Proficiency
by Javier Cañas, Maria Andria and María-Luz Celaya
Languages 2026, 11(1), 7; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010007 - 30 Dec 2025
Viewed by 442
Abstract
This study explores how Spanish/Catalan bilinguals acquire requests in Greek as a Foreign Language (FL), focusing on the role of proficiency in different communicative contexts. Fifty-four learners of Greek from different proficiency levels and fifty-three native Greek speakers participated in this study. Data [...] Read more.
This study explores how Spanish/Catalan bilinguals acquire requests in Greek as a Foreign Language (FL), focusing on the role of proficiency in different communicative contexts. Fifty-four learners of Greek from different proficiency levels and fifty-three native Greek speakers participated in this study. Data was collected via role plays featuring varied social parameters (+/−Power, +/−Social Distance, +/−Imposition). Retrospective verbal reports were also employed to gain insights into learners’ use of requests, providing an overall view of their self-perceptions and pragmatic concerns across different proficiency levels. The findings revealed differences between native and non-native speakers in request types and the number of modifications, highlighting that increased proficiency does not necessarily result in target-like pragmatic performance. Additionally, social parameters clearly influenced learners’ requesting behavior, although their ability to interpret and appropriately respond to these variables developed inconsistently across different contexts and proficiency levels. Ultimately, the findings of this study may contribute to a better understanding of L2 pragmatic development in Greek as an FL and, in turn, inform pedagogical practices aimed at enhancing learners’ pragmatic competence. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Greek Speakers and Pragmatics)
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40 pages, 486 KB  
Article
‘For We Take Our Homeland with Us, However We Change Our Sky’ — Loss, Maintenance and Identity in Early Scottish Immigrants’ Correspondence from New Zealand
by Sarah van Eyndhoven
Languages 2026, 11(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010006 - 29 Dec 2025
Viewed by 368
Abstract
This contribution explores transgenerational language change in a historical migrant community by qualitatively examining the correspondence of first- and second-generation Scottish immigrants coming to New Zealand in the nineteenth century. Taking a microsocial approach, the letters of a migrant family and one other [...] Read more.
This contribution explores transgenerational language change in a historical migrant community by qualitatively examining the correspondence of first- and second-generation Scottish immigrants coming to New Zealand in the nineteenth century. Taking a microsocial approach, the letters of a migrant family and one other migrant are explored for language maintenance and shift, to identify whether Scots language features were lost altogether or continued to be utilised for specific social, personal and stylistic goals, despite the English-dominant space that the migrants operated in. In tandem, the adoption of early New Zealand English (NZE) and te reo Māori lexis is analysed, to identify differences in usage patterns that might point to different degrees of integration and mobility. Finally, inter-writer and inter-generational differences are examined in relation to the mobility and social networks of the correspondents, to consider how this might contribute to any variation observed. For the investigation, manuscript letters were digitised, and relevant features identified, extracted and discursively analysed. Results show the continuation of heritage features through a combination of style-oriented goals and learned letter-writing practices, while the adoption of new lexis is shown to occur within specific semantic domains that reflect the social mobility of the migrants. However, language maintenance and shift are not uniform between the writers, elucidating the highly variable experiences of migrants, even within the same family. Rather, contact-induced language changes are sensitive to minute differences across individuals, underpinning the value of nuanced explorations of historical migration and language change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue From Migrant to Heritage Languages: Transgenerational Language Change in Diasporic Communities)
62 pages, 797 KB  
Article
The Relation of Slavic Verb Prefixes to Perfective Aspect
by Hana Filip
Languages 2026, 11(1), 5; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010005 - 26 Dec 2025
Viewed by 537
Abstract
This paper advances two main theses: The first overarching thesis is that the Slavic perfective/imperfective distinction is predominantly of a lexical-derivational nature. Among the categories of the tense–modality–aspect (TMA) system, Slavic aspect systems represent marginal categories, rather than core ones, which are realized [...] Read more.
This paper advances two main theses: The first overarching thesis is that the Slavic perfective/imperfective distinction is predominantly of a lexical-derivational nature. Among the categories of the tense–modality–aspect (TMA) system, Slavic aspect systems represent marginal categories, rather than core ones, which are realized by means of inflectional morphology. The second, and related, thesis concerns the status of Slavic verb prefixes in Slavic aspect systems, given that prefixed verbs constitute the bulk of their perfective verbs. I will provide some arguments, also defended elsewhere, that Slavic verb prefixes are not perfective markers, e.g., do not spell out a functional head/feature in the dedicated aspect structure, as is often assumed in syntactic theories of aspect, and neither do they carry a uniform semantic function for the interpretation of perfective aspect. Instead, Slavic verb prefixes are best treated as separate from perfectivity, on both formal and semantic grounds. This separation, however, does not mean that the two are unrelated. Here, the semantics of perfectivity is represented by means of the maximalization operator (maxe). The most fundamental requirement for its application, and for any maximalization operator for that matter, is that it respect some ordering criterion. It is the role of Slavic verb prefixes to contribute to its specification. They do so by virtue of having common uses/meanings that can be analyzed as extensive or intensive measure functions or vague quantifiers over arguments of verbs to which they are attached. Such meanings are reducible to a uniform scalar-based representation, from which the requisite ordering criterion can be extracted. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Aspectual Architecture of the Slavic Verb: Analogies in Different Languages and Other Grammatical Domains)
24 pages, 1119 KB  
Article
Challenging Misconceptions About Studying Moroccan Arabic: Beliefs of L2 Multidialectal Learners Beginning a Year-Long Study Abroad in Morocco
by Joseph Garcia and Khaled Al Masaeed
Languages 2026, 11(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010004 - 26 Dec 2025
Viewed by 1099
Abstract
Morocco has recently been cited by the Institute of International Education as a leading destination for Arabic study abroad. However, research has shown that ideologies of language purism and unintelligibility position Eastern varieties of Arabic as more prestigious than Western. Yet, how these [...] Read more.
Morocco has recently been cited by the Institute of International Education as a leading destination for Arabic study abroad. However, research has shown that ideologies of language purism and unintelligibility position Eastern varieties of Arabic as more prestigious than Western. Yet, how these beliefs affect learners studying abroad remains an understudied topic, with few studies specifically investigating learners going to Morocco. This study utilizes language learning questionnaires and one-on-one interviews to explore learner beliefs about varieties of Arabic, with particular focus on Moroccan Arabic. Specifically, it looks at four advanced L2 Arabic learners who just started their one-year-long study abroad sojourn in Morocco. Findings show that due to negative stereotypes and misconceptions from native speakers, instructors, and colleagues, learners reported not wanting to learn Darija, the Moroccan variety of Arabic, before studying abroad. However, due to the immediate need of studying and living in Morocco, participants gained interest in Darija and started challenging stereotypes and misconceptions related to this variety of Arabic. These findings highlight the impact of standard language ideology and prestige on learners’ beliefs about what language varieties to study, and how these beliefs may change once learners prepare to and go abroad. Findings from this study support pedagogical and research suggestions to prepare learners for the sociolinguistic realities of the Arabic-speaking world, including critical awareness of ideologies and developing agency in dialect choice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistic Studies)
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21 pages, 455 KB  
Article
Generational Variation in Language Convergence: Lexical and Syntactic Change in Dai Lue Under Chinese Influence
by Nuola Yan, Sumittra Suraratdecha and Chingduang Yurayong
Languages 2026, 11(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010003 - 24 Dec 2025
Viewed by 916
Abstract
This study examines lexical and syntactic convergence between Dai Lue and Chinese in the multilingual environment of Sipsongpanna, employing an apparent-time approach across three generational cohorts (N = 90, balanced gender). Through mixed-methods analysis (structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews), significant diachronic variation was [...] Read more.
This study examines lexical and syntactic convergence between Dai Lue and Chinese in the multilingual environment of Sipsongpanna, employing an apparent-time approach across three generational cohorts (N = 90, balanced gender). Through mixed-methods analysis (structured questionnaires and semi-structured interviews), significant diachronic variation was observed. Younger speakers exhibited pronounced convergence, adopting Chinese-derived syntactic patterns (e.g., prenominal quantifiers and preverbal adjunct phrases) and borrowing Chinese lexical elements (e.g., an adverb sɛn55 ‘first’ ← Chinese 先 xiān, and a superlative marker tsui35 ‘most/best’ ← Chinese 最 zuì). Middle-aged speakers use transitional hybrid structures, while older speakers more consistently maintain native Dai Lue features. The results conform with Labov’s age-grading model in contact linguistics and refine Thomason’s borrowing hierarchy by revealing two factors: First, the prestige of the Chinese language drives convergence among youth. Second, syntactic compatibility with Chinese is mediated not merely by language structure, but by discourse-pragmatic needs, functional load redistribution, and the social indexicality of borrowed structures. This underscores the interplay between sociolinguistic motivations and structural-adaptive constraints in language change. The findings provide critical insights into language contact mechanisms among ethnic minorities of China, with implications for sociolinguistic theory, language revitalization efforts, and bilingual education policy implementation in linguistically diverse communities. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Chinese Languages and Their Neighbours in Southeast Asia)
23 pages, 546 KB  
Article
On the Evolution of Old Portuguese Indefinite jamais ‘Never’—Syntactic Analyzability and Polarity
by Clara Pinto
Languages 2026, 11(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010002 - 24 Dec 2025
Viewed by 401
Abstract
In Contemporary Portuguese, jamais ‘never’ is a negative indefinite that encodes temporal semantics and belongs to the set of strong Negative Polarity Items, being able to express negation on its own, in preverbal position. However, it originates from the merger of two non-negative [...] Read more.
In Contemporary Portuguese, jamais ‘never’ is a negative indefinite that encodes temporal semantics and belongs to the set of strong Negative Polarity Items, being able to express negation on its own, in preverbal position. However, it originates from the merger of two non-negative Latin adverbs—iam ‘now/already’ and magis ‘more’—starting as a construction and later becoming an independent lexical unit, with different features. Data from the 13th century onwards shows that, in early attestations, jamais still preserved some level of internal syntactic analyzability, with the possibility of inverse word order and interpolation. The meaning of the construction could be obtained through the sum of its parts, but its occurrence in negative and modal contexts shows that its interpretation became context-sensitive. This independence was eventually lost, with the emergence of an intrinsic negative reading, favoured in negative contexts through the combination of inchoative and comparative strategies in no-longer expressions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Romance Historical Syntax: Special Issue on Syntactic Analyzability in Diachrony)
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16 pages, 5040 KB  
Article
Phonetic Training and Talker Variability in the Perception of Spanish Stop Consonants
by Iván Andreu Rascón
Languages 2026, 11(1), 1; https://doi.org/10.3390/languages11010001 - 23 Dec 2025
Viewed by 588
Abstract
This study examined how variability in phonetic training input (high vs. low) influences the perception and acquisition of Spanish stop consonants by English-speaking beginners. A total of 128 participants completed 20 online identification sessions targeting /p, t, k, b, d, g/. In the [...] Read more.
This study examined how variability in phonetic training input (high vs. low) influences the perception and acquisition of Spanish stop consonants by English-speaking beginners. A total of 128 participants completed 20 online identification sessions targeting /p, t, k, b, d, g/. In the high-variability condition (HVPT), learners heard tokens from six speakers, and in the low-variability condition (LVPT), all input came from a single speaker. Training followed an interleaved-talker design with immediate feedback, and perceptual learning was evaluated using a Bayesian hierarchical logistic regression analysis. Results showed improvement across sessions for both groups, with identification accuracy reaching ceiling by the end of the training sessions. Differences between HVPT and LVPT were small: LVPT showed steeper categorization trajectories in some cases due to slightly lower baselines, but neither condition yielded a measurable advantage. The pattern observed suggests that for boundary-shift contrasts such as Spanish stops, perceptual improvements are driven primarily by input quantity rather than variability. This interpretation aligns with input-based models of L2 speech learning (SLM-r, L2LP) and underscores the role of repeated exposure in restructuring phonological categories. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue The Impacts of Phonetically Variable Input on Language Learning)
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