Agronomy

14 pages, 8444 KiB

Open AccessEssay

Phytolith Characteristics in Leaves and Culm Sheaths of Three Sympodial Bamboo Genera (Bambusoideae) in the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden, China

by Taiyang Zhao, Mengsi Duan, Guomi Luo, Kemei Gao, Tingxuan Fu, Xiao Wang, Rui Xu and Changming Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 999; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040999 - 21 Apr 2025

Viewed by 129

Abstract

This study focused on the phytolith characteristics of leaves and culm sheaths from nine bamboo species across three genera (Bambusa Schreb., Gigantochloa Nees, and Dendrocalamus Kurz ex Munro) in the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden. By analyzing phytolith content, concentration, particle size distribution, [...] Read more.

This study focused on the phytolith characteristics of leaves and culm sheaths from nine bamboo species across three genera (Bambusa Schreb., Gigantochloa Nees, and Dendrocalamus Kurz ex Munro) in the Xishuangbanna Tropical Botanical Garden. By analyzing phytolith content, concentration, particle size distribution, morphometric parameters of elongated saddle-type phytoliths, and phytolith–assemblage composition, we aimed to elucidate the distribution patterns and morphological features of phytoliths in clumping bamboos, thereby providing morphological evidence for genus-level classification within the Bambusoideae. The results demonstrated the following. (1) Leaves exhibited significantly higher phytolith content and concentration than did culm sheaths across all genera, with Dendrocalamus being the sole exception, showing no significant intrageneric differences. (2) Distinct particle size distribution patterns were observed—leaves consistently peaked at 10–20 μm, whereas culm sheaths displayed triple peaks at 10–20 μm, 20–30 μm, and 900–1000 μm. (3) Morphometric analysis revealed that culm sheaths contained larger elongated saddle-type phytoliths (length, width, and area) compared to leaves across all genera. (4) Among the 37 identified phytolith morphotypes, culm sheaths exhibited greater diversity, with 35 types (dominated by rondel and elongate), while leaves contained 31 types primarily characterized by saddle and stomatal phytoliths, with elongated saddles being the most abundant. Collectively, our findings demonstrate significant morphological disparities between foliar and culm sheath phytoliths in sympodial bamboos (Bambusa), with culm sheath phytoliths exhibiting greater taxonomic potential for generic-level classification within the subfamily Bambusoideae. Full article

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15 pages, 5360 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Relationship of Oedaleus decorus asiaticus Densities with Soil Moisture and Land Surface Temperature in Inner Mongolia, China

by Bobo Du, Yanmin Shan, Wenjiang Huang, Yingying Dong, Shujing Gao, Yuchao Yue, Jing Guo, Liwa Ga, Yan Zhang and Haibin Han

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 998; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040998 - 21 Apr 2025

Viewed by 184

Abstract

Oedaleus decorus asiaticus (O. decorus) is a significant pest in the grasslands of Inner Mongolia, posing considerable challenges to the development of animal husbandry. To understand the key factors influencing the population distribution of O. decorus, field surveys were conducted [...] Read more.

Oedaleus decorus asiaticus (O. decorus) is a significant pest in the grasslands of Inner Mongolia, posing considerable challenges to the development of animal husbandry. To understand the key factors influencing the population distribution of O. decorus, field surveys were conducted from 2018 to 2020, during which the population count, growth stage, and location information of O. decorus were recorded. Daily soil moisture (SM) data and daily land surface temperature (LST) data were obtained from the National Tibetan Plateau Data Center, and a Generalized Additive Model (GAM) was constructed. Our findings indicate that the SM (S8) in August of the previous year is the most critical factor, with an F-value of 27.422, followed by the LST (L10) in October of the previous year, the LST (L6) in June of the survey year, the SM (S9) in September of the previous year, the LST (L3) in March of the survey year, and the LST (L5) in May of the survey year, with F-values of 7.848, 7.223, 5.823, 4.919, and 3.547, respectively. S8 and S9 can be regarded as vital indicators for predicting and monitoring the occurrence of O. decorus. However, the contributions of S8 and S9 to O. decorus density differ considerably. S8 is negatively correlated with O. decorus density, while S9 values below 0.29 m³/m³ can promote the growth of O. decorus. A higher LST during early overwintering correlates with increased O. decorus density. During the survey year, LST emerged as the primary factor affecting grasshopper density. Additionally, it plays a more complex role during incubation periods. This study clearly identifies SM and LST as the major factors influencing the occurrence of O. decorus, which will aid in predicting and monitoring its density. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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17 pages, 5303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological Characteristics and Identification of Key Genes Regulating Distyly Morph in Primula vulgaris

by Xuan Wang, Hantao Sun, Yan Xu, Feng Cao, Yanlong Wang, Jianbin Ma, Jinfeng Li, Liu Liu, Ping Li and Xiaoman Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 997; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040997 - 21 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The Primula vulgaris, belonging to the genus Primula, is a typical distyly. The distyly is an important morphological feature in nature. However, there is a shortage of research on the causes of distyly formation and the associated genes that control this [...] Read more.

The Primula vulgaris, belonging to the genus Primula, is a typical distyly. The distyly is an important morphological feature in nature. However, there is a shortage of research on the causes of distyly formation and the associated genes that control this trait. In this study, we took P. vulgaris as the experimental material, observed the floral morphological features, made paraffin sections, and performed transcriptome analysis of the styles. The results of morphological observations indicated that the L-morph and S-morph showed dimorphism in flower characteristics, the stigma height was 1.35 cm and the anther height was 0.72 cm for the L-morph and 0.71 cm and 1.50 cm for the S-morph. From the paraffin sections, it can be observed that the papillocytes and stylocytes of the L-morph are longer than those of the S-morph. A total of 2822 DEGs were obtained in the analysis of DEGs, among which 2038 genes were up-regulated and 786 genes were down-regulated. The DEGs of the two morphs were mainly enriched in biological processes such as phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and plant hormone signal transduction. BACOVA_02659 was highly expressed in the L-morph and might hydrolyze and activate growth factors, which were present in the phenylpropane biosynthetic pathway. DEGs such as BoGH3B, SAUR21, and SAUR50 may be involved in the development of long and short styles, which in turn leads to the presentation of differences between long and short morphs. These results provide new insights into the molecular mechanism of Primula. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanism of Flower Growth in Ornamental Plants: From Floral Induction to Development)

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22 pages, 118441 KiB

Open AccessArticle

CBLN-YOLO: An Improved YOLO11n-Seg Network for Cotton Topping in Fields

by Yufei Xie and Liping Chen

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 996; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040996 - 21 Apr 2025

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Abstract

The positioning of the top bud by the topping machine in the cotton topping operation depends on the recognition algorithm. The detection results of the traditional target detection algorithm contain a lot of useless information, which is not conducive to the positioning of [...] Read more.

The positioning of the top bud by the topping machine in the cotton topping operation depends on the recognition algorithm. The detection results of the traditional target detection algorithm contain a lot of useless information, which is not conducive to the positioning of the top bud. In order to obtain a more efficient recognition algorithm, we propose a top bud segmentation algorithm CBLN-YOLO based on the YOLO11n-seg model. Firstly, the standard convolution and multihead self-attention (MHSA) mechanisms in YOLO11n-seg are replaced by linear deformable convolution (LDConv) and coordinate attention (CA) mechanisms to reduce the parameter growth rate of the original model and better mine detailed features of the top buds. In the neck, the feature pyramid network (FPN) is reconstructed using an enhanced interlayer feature correlation (EFC) module, and regression loss is calculated using the Inner CIoU loss function. When tested on a self-built dataset, the mAP@0.5 values of CBLN-YOLO for detection and segmentation are 98.3% and 95.8%, respectively, which are higher than traditional segmentation models. At the same time, CBLN-YOLO also shows strong robustness under different weather and time periods, and its recognition speed reaches 135 frames per second, which provides strong support for cotton top bud positioning in the field environment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection AI, Sensors and Robotics for Smart Agriculture)

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13 pages, 1119 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Long-Term Low-Rate Biochar Application Enhances Soil Organic Carbon Without Affecting Sorghum Yield in a Calcaric Cambisol

by Qiuxia Liu, Jinsong Wang, Anqi Sun, Erwei Dong, Yuan Wang, Xiaolei Huang, Hang-Wei Hu and Xiaoyan Jiao

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 995; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040995 - 21 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Biochar has gained significant attention for its potential in carbon sequestration, soil health improvement, and crop production sustainability. However, the existing studies predominantly focus on short-term experiments conducted in acidic or neutral soils. This study investigates the long-term effects of biochar application in [...] Read more.

Biochar has gained significant attention for its potential in carbon sequestration, soil health improvement, and crop production sustainability. However, the existing studies predominantly focus on short-term experiments conducted in acidic or neutral soils. This study investigates the long-term effects of biochar application in a calcaric cambisol in a field experiment with four treatments: CK (no fertilizer or biochar), B (only biochar), NPK (chemical fertilizer), and NPKB (combination of chemical fertilizer and biochar). This study assessed soil organic carbon (SOC), sorghum yield, soil bacteria, plant nutrient accumulation in 2020 and 2022, and soil chemical properties after 12 years of consecutive application in 2022. The results revealed a significant increase in SOC due to biochar application in both 2020 and 2022 compared to the treatments without biochar. The 12-year biochar application also significantly enhanced soil total nitrogen (N), available phosphorus (P), and available potassium (K), irrespective of chemical fertilizer application. Notably, sorghum plant N and P accumulation remained unaffected by biochar, and plant N accumulation induced by NPKB was even lower than that of the NPK treatment in 2022. Furthermore, soil bacterial diversity and composition, as well as sorghum yield, showed no significant alterations due to biochar application in both years, despite increased soil nutrient content. These findings affirmed the benefits of carbon accumulation through long-term biochar application in calcaric cambisols, but the positive effects on crop production were found to be negligible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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20 pages, 5327 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Comprehensive Evaluation and Screening of Autumn-Sown Oat (Avena sativa L.) Germplasm in Different Agropastoral Regions

by Yongjie Zhang, Xinyue Wu, Qinkun Li, Xiaotian Liang, Yuzhen Zhang, Xingjia Zhang, Xiaolong Dong, Kaiquan Yu, Zilin Zhao, Xiaoling Luo, Ruizhen Yang and Yuanying Peng

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 994; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040994 - 21 Apr 2025

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Abstract

In light of current global challenges of climate change, the over-exploitation of natural resources, and increasing demand for livestock products, the exploration of excellent forage crop resources holds great potential for development. Therefore, selecting forage crops that are high-yield, high-quality, and have excellent [...] Read more.

In light of current global challenges of climate change, the over-exploitation of natural resources, and increasing demand for livestock products, the exploration of excellent forage crop resources holds great potential for development. Therefore, selecting forage crops that are high-yield, high-quality, and have excellent resistance to pests and diseases can greatly promote the development of the livestock industry. Oat (Avena sativa L.), a dual-purpose crop for grain and forage, plays a vital role in the development of animal husbandry. Autumn-sown oats have a significantly longer growth cycle than spring-sown oats, ensuring a year-round forage supply and achieving higher yields. The agropastoral transitional zone in southwest China is a key region for autumn-sown oats, but the systematic evaluation of oat germplasm there is still limited. Therefore, we conducted a two-growing-season (2022–2024) field experiment across four locations to evaluate nine oat genotypes for growth phenotypes, forage productivity, and nutritional quality through 11 agronomic traits and nutritional parameters during the filling stage (Zadok’s 75). The results revealed the following: (1) agronomic performance: dry matter yield (DMY) ranged from 10.72 to 14.58 t/ha, with line ‘WC109’ achieving the highest DMY (14.58 t/ha) and crude protein (CP, 9.66%); (2) nutritional quality: CP exhibited a significant negative correlation with fiber content (NDF: r = −0.72, p < 0.01; ADF: r = −0.68, p < 0.01), highlighting a yield–quality trade-off; ‘WC109’ demonstrated superior forage value, with the highest relative forage quality (RFQ: 115.45) and grading index (GI: 19.30); (3) environmental adaptation: location-specific climatic conditions significantly influenced productivity, with Wenjiang (WJ) showing optimal performance due to favorable temperature and precipitation. These results position ‘WC109’ as a promising candidate for autumn-sown cultivation in southwest China, addressing winter forage shortages while enhancing livestock nutrition. Our findings further elucidate the mechanisms linking yield and feeding value to growth performance indicators, providing references for trait-based measures to enhance forage oat productivity and quality. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Characterisation, Protection and Development of Minor Crops Adapted to Challenging New Climatic Conditions)

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26 pages, 7740 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simulation of Soil Water Transport and Utilization in an Apple–Soybean Alley Cropping System Under Different Irrigation Methods Based on HYDRUS-2D

by Xueying Zhang, Ruoshui Wang, Houshuai Dai, Lisha Wang, Li Chen, Huiying Zheng and Feiyang Yu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 993; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040993 - 21 Apr 2025

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Abstract

This study employed the HYDRUS-2D model to simulate soil water movement and water productivity (WP) in an apple–soybean alley cropping system in the Loess Plateau region, Shanxi Province, China, under four irrigation methods: mulched drip irrigation, subsurface drip irrigation, bubbler irrigation, and rainwater-harvesting [...] Read more.

This study employed the HYDRUS-2D model to simulate soil water movement and water productivity (WP) in an apple–soybean alley cropping system in the Loess Plateau region, Shanxi Province, China, under four irrigation methods: mulched drip irrigation, subsurface drip irrigation, bubbler irrigation, and rainwater-harvesting ditch irrigation, with varying water management treatments. Field experiments provided 2022 data for model calibration and 2023 data for validation using soil water content (SWC) measurements, achieving R² = 0.80–0.87 and RMSE = 0.011–0.017 cm³·cm⁻³, confirming robust simulation accuracy. The simulation results indicated that different irrigation methods had a significant impact on the soil water distribution. Mulched drip irrigation enhanced the water content in the surface layer (0–20 cm), while subsurface drip irrigation increased the moisture in the middle soil layer (20–40 cm). Bubbler irrigation was most effective in replenishing both the surface (0–20 cm) and middle (20–40 cm) layers. Rainwater-harvesting ditch irrigation significantly improved the soil water content in both the surface (0–20 cm) and middle (20–40 cm) layers, with minimal changes observed in the deep layer (40–120 cm). Furthermore, soil water variations were significantly influenced by the water uptake of tree roots. In 2022, soil moisture initially increased with distance, then decreased, and subsequently increased again, while in 2023, it increased initially and then stabilized. When the irrigation amount was limited to 75% of the field capacity in the 0–60 cm soil layer, water productivity (WP) reached its optimum, with values of 4.79 kg/m³ (2022) and 5.56 kg/m³ (2023). Based on the simulation results, it is recommended that young apple trees be irrigated using subsurface drip irrigation with a soil layer depth of 30 cm, while soybeans should be irrigated with mulched drip irrigation. Both crops should be irrigated at the podding and filling stages of soybeans, and the irrigation amount should be limited to 75% of the field water capacity in the 0–60 cm soil layer. This study was designed to aid orchard growers in precision irrigation and water optimization. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Water Use and Irrigation)

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14 pages, 1690 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Impact of Fulvic Acids on Cotton Growth, Yield and Phosphorus Fertilizer Use Efficiency Under Different Phosphorus Fertilization Rates in Xinjiang, China

by Kai Zhang, Xiaopeng Gao, Chao Ma, Bing Chen, Fang Yuan and Jiandong Sheng

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 992; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040992 - 21 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Chemical phosphorus (P) fertilizer is often overused in arid regions with alkaline soils due to soil fixation. Fulvic acid (FA) can increase soil P availability, enhancing crop yield and P use efficiency, but its interaction with P fertilization rates and potential to reduce [...] Read more.

Chemical phosphorus (P) fertilizer is often overused in arid regions with alkaline soils due to soil fixation. Fulvic acid (FA) can increase soil P availability, enhancing crop yield and P use efficiency, but its interaction with P fertilization rates and potential to reduce P fertilizer application remains unclear. A 2-year (2019–2020) field experiment was conducted in Xinjiang, China, to study the impact of FA addition (45 kg ha⁻¹) on cotton yield and P use efficiency under different P fertilization rates (0, 50, 100 and 150 kg P₂O₅ ha⁻¹). Our results showed that P fertilization significantly enhanced cotton biomass, P uptake and seed cotton yields by 17–37%, but the partial nutrient balance (PNB), agronomic efficiency (AE) and partial factor productivity (PFP) decreased with increasing P fertilization rates. FA addition did not change cotton biomass and P uptake, but significantly enhanced seed cotton yield, AE and PFP by increasing bolls per plant. No significant interactions between FA addition and P fertilization rates were observed for cotton biomass, P uptake, seed cotton yield and P use efficiencies. These findings suggest that FA can improve cotton productivity, AE and PPF of P fertilizers, helping to keep the P balance in the cotton field. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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27 pages, 7356 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Garlic Extracts Nanoliposome as an Enhancer of Bioavailability of ABA and Thiamine Content and as an Antifungal Agent Against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. pisi Infecting Pisum sativum

by Barbara Kutasy, Géza Hegedűs, Márta Kiniczky, József Péter Pallos, Ágnes Nagy, István Pócsi, Klaudia Pákozdi, Máté Kállai, Csaba Weingart, Katalin Andor, Bettina Kovács and Eszter Virág

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 991; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040991 - 21 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Fusarium infections in Pisum sativum L. crops present a major constraint to cultivation, leading to substantial yield losses. However, effective disease management strategies, particularly the implementation of biological control methods, offer promising approaches for mitigating infection severity and limiting pathogen spread. In P. [...] Read more.

Fusarium infections in Pisum sativum L. crops present a major constraint to cultivation, leading to substantial yield losses. However, effective disease management strategies, particularly the implementation of biological control methods, offer promising approaches for mitigating infection severity and limiting pathogen spread. In P. sativum cultivation, pathogen control is particularly challenging due to the limited penetration of pesticides into the leaves. This is attributed to the dense crystalline plate structure within the leaf cuticle, which acts as a barrier, reducing the efficacy of conventional chemical treatments. Therefore, optimizing the formulation of biopesticides and plant conditioning agents is essential to improve the absorption and bioavailability of active ingredients, ensuring more effective disease management in P. sativum cultivation. This study examined the exogenous effects of garlic extracts in different formulations, including EliceVakcina (liposomal formulation), Garlic-lipo (liposomal formulation), and Garlic-oil (oil-based formulation), which contained high concentrations of abscisic acid (ABA) at 6.3, 81, and 80.4 µg g⁻¹, respectively. Transcriptomic profiling, including the identification of Differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and KEGG pathway analysis of EliceVakcina-treated field samples, revealed a significant upregulation of stress- and defence-related genes, as well as pathways associated with thiamine metabolism and ABA signalling. Notably, key defence genes, including pathogenesis-related (PR1, PR2, PR4, PR5) and SnRK2, were overexpressed, indicating an enhanced stress response. HPLC-DAD analytical investigations confirmed the activation of the thiamine biosynthesis pathway, demonstrating a 14.3% increase in vitamin B1 content. Furthermore, the absence of Fusarium infection in the treated small-plot field cultures suggests that the tested garlic extracts formulation functions as a promising preventive biostimulant against plant fungal diseases. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Enhancing Agricultural Practices: Novel Nature-Derived Plant Growth Stimulators)

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21 pages, 3593 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Dosages of Biodegradable Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) Microplastics Affect Soil Microbial Community, Function, and Metabolome in Plant–Soil System

by Yu Fang, Chenqiang Lin, Jie Zhao, Yuting Gao and Xianbo Jia

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 990; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040990 - 21 Apr 2025

Viewed by 269

Abstract

As a substitute for conventional plastic mulch, biodegradable mulch film (BDM) has been popular in agricultural systems in recent years. However, studies focusing on the systematic effect of BDM residues on the soil microbiome and metabolome remain obscure. Thus, a mesocosm experiment was [...] Read more.

As a substitute for conventional plastic mulch, biodegradable mulch film (BDM) has been popular in agricultural systems in recent years. However, studies focusing on the systematic effect of BDM residues on the soil microbiome and metabolome remain obscure. Thus, a mesocosm experiment was established, and it aimed to investigate the effects of concentrations of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) microplastics (MPs) on soil microbial ecology and plant (Lactuca sativa) fitness. Metagenomics and metabolomics analyses were deployed to explore the response of soil microbial communities, functional shifts, and metabolites under different dosages of PBAT MPs (CK, 0.1%, 1%, and 5% w/w). The results showed that PBAT MPs did not significantly affect the morphological traits (shoot length and leaf dry weight) of the plant. Regarding plant biochemical indicators, the highest concentration of PBAT could increase the proline and soluble protein contents compared to low- and medium-dosage PBAT treatments with high malonaldehyde (MDA) or soluble sugar contents. Soil physicochemical properties like the available phosphorus and potassium, ammonium N and nitrate N contents were decreased in a dose-dependent manner. Metagenomics analysis revealed that only a high concentration of PBAT had more profound effects on the soil microbial community composition, diversity, and function when compared to the control (CK). In particular, a 5% PBAT treatment could result in the development of some microbial biomarkers, such as Paraburkholderia and Rhizobium, which had beneficial functions. Moreover, metabolomics analysis showed that 5% PBAT differentially affected the soil metabolites, with a high abundance of bioactives like peptides, organic acid, and nepetaside. This work underscores that soil could recruit certain microbes and bioactive substances to resist external high-PBAT stress. PBAT might pose little threat to the soil ecosystem, and its application is beneficial for soil health management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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15 pages, 2675 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Bacillus velezensis GHt-q6 on Cucumber Root Soil Microecology and Root-Knot Nematodes

by Yuanyuan Liu, Luwei Wang, Jiale Peng, Chunwei Wang and Meiqin Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 1000; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15041000 - 21 Apr 2025

Viewed by 166

Abstract

Root-knot nematode (RKN) causes severe yield loss in cucumber. Understanding the interactions of biocontrol agent–soil microbiomes and RKNs is essential for enhancing the efficacy of biocontrol agents and nematicides to curb RKN damage to cucumber. The field experiment in this work was conducted [...] Read more.

Root-knot nematode (RKN) causes severe yield loss in cucumber. Understanding the interactions of biocontrol agent–soil microbiomes and RKNs is essential for enhancing the efficacy of biocontrol agents and nematicides to curb RKN damage to cucumber. The field experiment in this work was conducted to determine the ability of Bacillus velezensis GHt-q6 to colonize cucumber plants, investigate its effect on the control of RKNs, and assess its influence on soil microbiology in the inter-root zone of cucumber plants. After 10 days post-treatment (DPT), GHt-q6-Rif could stably colonize the roots (4.55 × 10⁴ cfu·g⁻¹), stems (3.60 × 10³ cfu·g⁻¹), and leaves (3.60 × 10² cfu·g⁻¹) of cucumber. The high-throughput sequencing results suggested that the bacterial community diversity increased at the late development phase (p > 0.05). The strain GHt-q6 increased the relative abundance of beneficial bacteria (Gemmatimonadaceae, Sphingomonadaceae, Pseudomonadaceae). Throughout the complete cucumber growth period, strain GHt-q6 significantly increased soil urease, sucrase, accessible potassium, and phosphorus (p < 0.05). However, strain GHt-q6 had a minimal effect on catalase activity. At the pulling stage, strain GHt-q6 exhibited 43.35% control effect on cucumber RKNs, which was 7.54% higher than that of Bacillus subtilis. The results highlighted the significant potential of the strain GHt-q6 to manage cucumber RKNs and improve soil microecology. Hence, the applications of B. velezensis GHt-q6 can enhance the nematicidal action to curb RKN infecting cucumber. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research Progress on Pathogenicity of Fungi in Crops—2nd Edition)

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22 pages, 8285 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effect of Variety and Site on the Allometry Distribution of Seed Cotton Composition

by Lei Shi, Zenghui Sun, Lirong He, Guobin Liu and Chutao Liang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 989; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040989 - 20 Apr 2025

Viewed by 98

Abstract

As the area of land being reclaimed for cotton cultivation in the inland cotton region of Northwest China continues to expand, new requirements for variety selection and promotion have emerged. Therefore, research on the effects of cotton varieties and the environment is becoming [...] Read more.

As the area of land being reclaimed for cotton cultivation in the inland cotton region of Northwest China continues to expand, new requirements for variety selection and promotion have emerged. Therefore, research on the effects of cotton varieties and the environment is becoming increasingly essential. This study focuses on the role of variety and site factors in cotton production, specifically examining the impact of these factors on lint, seed cotton, and lint percentage. The research extends the application of the allometry allocation model by analyzing long-term experimental data from ecological network sites and national regional trials of cotton varieties. The results indicated that between 2012 and 2018, the average seed cotton yield in the regional trials in the inland northwest cotton region ranged from 44,667.8 kg/ha to 5462.7 kg/ha, while lint yield ranged from 2044.4 kg/ha to 2261.5 kg/ha. The fluctuations in seed cotton and lint yields were not consistent. Using the GGE model to evaluate the zoning of sites, it was found that cotton performance in the inland northwest cotton region showed considerable variation between subzones, with most sites exhibiting significant differentiation across years or indicators. At the site scale, lint yield and seed weight generally aligned with the allometry distribution model. For example, the allometry distribution index fluctuated year-to-year in sites like Shihezi, Tahe, and Aksu, while interannual fluctuations were smaller at sites like Kuqa and Shache. The results from the GGE model analysis of lint percentage differentiation were consistent with the allometry distribution index. These findings suggest that the allometry distribution model can effectively assess interannual variations in varietal differences across sites. These research findings provide a theoretical foundation for future crop variety selection, habitat selection, and variety structure development in the inland cotton region of Northwest China and similar regions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Farming Sustainability)

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28 pages, 5599 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multi-Source Feature Fusion Network for LAI Estimation from UAV Multispectral Imagery

by Lulu Zhang, Bo Zhang, Huanhuan Zhang, Wanting Yang, Xinkang Hu, Jianrong Cai, Chundu Wu and Xiaowen Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 988; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040988 - 20 Apr 2025

Viewed by 107

Abstract

The leaf area index (LAI) is a critical biophysical parameter that reflects crop growth conditions and the canopy photosynthetic potential, serving as a cornerstone in precision agriculture and dynamic crop monitoring. However, traditional LAI estimation methods relying on single-source remote sensing data and [...] Read more.

The leaf area index (LAI) is a critical biophysical parameter that reflects crop growth conditions and the canopy photosynthetic potential, serving as a cornerstone in precision agriculture and dynamic crop monitoring. However, traditional LAI estimation methods relying on single-source remote sensing data and often suffer from insufficient accuracy in high-density vegetation scenarios, limiting their capacity to reflect crop growth variability comprehensively. To overcome these limitations, this study introduces an innovative multi-source feature fusion framework utilizing unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) multispectral imagery for precise LAI estimation in winter wheat. RGB and multispectral datasets were collected across seven different growth stages (from regreening to grain filling) in 2024. Through the extraction of color attributes, spatial structural information, and eight representative vegetation indices (VIs), a robust multi-source dataset was developed to integrate diverse data types. A convolutional neural network (CNN)-based feature extraction backbone, paired with a multi-source feature fusion network (MSF-FusionNet), was designed to effectively combine spectral and spatial information from both RGB and multispectral imagery. The experimental results revealed that the proposed method achieved superior estimation performance compared to single-source models, with an R² of 0.8745 and RMSE of 0.5461, improving the R² by 36.67% and 5.54% over the RGB and VI models, respectively. Notably, the fusion method enhanced the accuracy during critical growth phases, such as the regreening and jointing stages. Compared to traditional machine learning techniques, the proposed framework exceeded the performance of the XGBoost model, with the R² rising by 4.51% and the RMSE dropping by 12.24%. Furthermore, our method facilitated the creation of LAI spatial distribution maps across key growth stages, accurately depicting the spatial heterogeneity and temporal dynamics in the field. These results highlight the efficacy and potential of integrating UAV multi-source data fusion with deep learning for precise LAI estimation in winter wheat, offering significant insights for crop growth evaluation and precision agricultural management. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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16 pages, 1775 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluating Directed Acyclic Graphs with DAGMetrics: Insights from Tuber and Soil Microbiome Data

by Pavel Averin, Ifigeneia Mellidou, Maria Ganopoulou, Aliki Xanthopoulou and Theodoros Moysiadis

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 987; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040987 - 20 Apr 2025

Viewed by 78

Abstract

Understanding and evaluating directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) is crucial for causal discovery, particularly in high-dimensional and small-sample datasets such as microbial abundance data. This study introduces DAGMetrics, an R package designed to comprehensively evaluate and compare DAGs. The package provides descriptive and comparative [...] Read more.

Understanding and evaluating directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) is crucial for causal discovery, particularly in high-dimensional and small-sample datasets such as microbial abundance data. This study introduces DAGMetrics, an R package designed to comprehensively evaluate and compare DAGs. The package provides descriptive and comparative metrics, streamlining the assessment of outputs from various structure learning algorithms. It was applied to datasets generated for potato tubers and soils from different terroirs (continental and island) and stages (at harvest and post-harvest). Using a comprehensive set of descriptive and comparative metrics, DAGMetrics facilitated model selection by identifying balanced and robust DAGs. The PC algorithm with Spearman correlation produced DAGs with moderate complexity and high stability across scaling and transformation setups. Additionally, the package enabled detailed exploration of the Markov blanket space, revealing small Markov blankets (up to seven nodes) and numerous isolated nodes. Identified matching edges between Markov blankets across different terroirs and stages aligned with known microbial interactions, highlighting the package’s utility in facilitating the discovery of biologically meaningful relationships. This study illustrates the utility of DAGMetrics in providing objective and reproducible tools for DAG evaluation along with its potential application in agronomic and other domains involving complex structured data. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advanced Machine Learning in Agriculture)

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15 pages, 1431 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Sunflower and Sunn Hemp Potential as Summer Cover Crops in Southern Texas

by Dileep Kumar Alapati, Veronica Ancona, Mamoudou Sétamou, Consuelo Donato, Shad D. Nelson and Joel Reyes-Cabrera

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 986; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040986 - 20 Apr 2025

Viewed by 73

Abstract

The strategic incorporation of low-cost management practices, such as cover crops (CCs), to citrus production in southern Texas could add valuable ecosystem services that increase trees’ resilience to changing climatic conditions. To provide insight into how producers can manage CCs to optimize ecosystem [...] Read more.

The strategic incorporation of low-cost management practices, such as cover crops (CCs), to citrus production in southern Texas could add valuable ecosystem services that increase trees’ resilience to changing climatic conditions. To provide insight into how producers can manage CCs to optimize ecosystem services, we conducted a study in controlled conditions to examine the potential of adding three annual summer CCs species: common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), and sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) as monocultures growing in two representative soil types of the citrus region in Texas, and receiving one of these irrigation volumes based on calculated daily water losses [i.e., evapotranspiration (ET)] corresponding to 100, 75, 50, and 25% field capacity replenishment. Sunflower and sunn hemp produced the highest aboveground dry matter, which was on average 338 and 342% greater than buckwheat. Sunn hemp emerged faster than the other CCs, and mortality was relatively uniform across CCs, but buckwheat exhibited the highest sensitivity to drought and heat distress. Sunn hemp exhibited superior aboveground biomass accumulation, height, and chlorophyll content. All CCs performed similarly in both experimental soils, under native fertility conditions, and without the addition of mineral fertilizers. Irrigation at 75 and 100% ET levels were conducive to enhanced plant growth, which indicates that a minimum of 86.4 mm (75% ET) is required during CCs lifespan, but sunn hemp and sunflower were also capable of tolerating medium (50% ET) drought stress. Overall, our findings suggest that sunflower and sunn hemp exhibited traits desirable for incorporation as CCs to a perennial citrus production system. The primary benefit was the addition of organic matter with minimum management; however, both CCs’ performance was dependent on planting timing, successful early establishment, and favorable environmental conditions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Innovative Cropping Systems)

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13 pages, 9471 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Nozzle Arrangement Strategies on Spray Uniformity in Soybean–Maize Intercropping

by Wei Zhong, Wanting Yang, Yalong Li, Guanqun Wang, Xiang Dong, Mingxiong Ou, Weidong Jia and Xiaowen Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 985; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040985 - 19 Apr 2025

Viewed by 179

Abstract

Soybean–maize intercropping involves the simultaneous planting of maize and soybean. Compound planting sprayers are equipped with a dual-spraying system, particularly for herbicide application, where isolation between crops is essential. To isolate the spraying, it is necessary to select appropriate nozzles that minimize the [...] Read more.

Soybean–maize intercropping involves the simultaneous planting of maize and soybean. Compound planting sprayers are equipped with a dual-spraying system, particularly for herbicide application, where isolation between crops is essential. To isolate the spraying, it is necessary to select appropriate nozzles that minimize the interference between spray boundaries while ensuring spray uniformity. This study focuses on soybean–maize intercropping systems and investigates the variation patterns of spray boundary under different nozzle arrangement types. Eccentric nozzles (i.e., spray pattern is asymmetric fan-shaped) and fan-shaped nozzles (i.e., spray pattern is symmetric fan-shaped) were evaluated at a working pressure of 0.3 MPa. The results showed that the eccentric nozzle achieved a coefficient of variation (CV) of 0.57 and a compactness of 0.43, while the fan-shaped nozzle had a CV of 0.50 and a compactness of 0.52. This indicates the eccentric nozzle maintains uniformity with a narrower boundary. In addition, this validation was conducted at 0.4 MPa, having similar observations. In soybean–maize intercropping, the maize row width ranges from 40 to 80 cm and where the maize plants exceed 2 m in height, two-eccentric nozzles are required, tested at spacing intervals of 50 cm, 70 cm, and 90 cm. At 0.3 MPa, the CV reached its minimum value (0.3) at a spacing of 70 cm. Additionally, the spray volume on the eccentric nozzle side decreased as the spacing increased. The soybean row width ranges from 160 to 240 cm, requiring eccentric nozzles on both sides and a fan-shaped nozzle in the middle. The spacing between the eccentric and fan-shaped nozzles is chosen to be 50, 70, and 90 cm. A combination of eccentric and fan-shaped nozzles was tested at the same spacing intervals. The results showed that the CV consistently decreased with increasing spacing, and the spray volume on the eccentric nozzle side also declined. Overall, the optimal nozzle configuration for maize zones is two eccentric nozzles at a spacing of 70 cm, while for soybean zones, combining an eccentric nozzle with a fan-shaped nozzle at a spacing of 90 cm effectively ensures both spray uniformity and boundary compactness when variation in windspeed and direction are ignored. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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20 pages, 2807 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Morphological Diversity and Crop Mimicry Strategies of Weedy Rice Under the Transplanting Cultivation System

by Yi-Ting Hsu, Yuan-Chun Wang, Pei-Rong Du, Charng-Pei Li and Dong-Hong Wu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 984; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040984 - 19 Apr 2025

Viewed by 116

Abstract

The continued emergence of weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Taiwan poses serious challenges to seed purity and commercial rice cultivation, particularly under transplanting systems. These off-type individuals, often marked by a red pericarp, reduce varietal integrity and complicate seed propagation. This [...] Read more.

The continued emergence of weedy rice (Oryza sativa L.) in Taiwan poses serious challenges to seed purity and commercial rice cultivation, particularly under transplanting systems. These off-type individuals, often marked by a red pericarp, reduce varietal integrity and complicate seed propagation. This study evaluated the morphological variation among 117 Taiwan weedy rice (TWR) accessions and 55 control cultivars, which include 24 temperate japonica cultivars (TEJ), 24 indica cultivars, and seven U.S. weedy rice (UWR) types. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that TWR shares vegetative traits with modern cultivars but exhibits grain morphology resembling indica landraces—indicating weak artificial selection pressure on grain traits during nursery propagation. TWR was also found to possess a suite of adaptive weedy traits, including semi-dwarfism, delayed heading, high shattering, and superior seed storability, facilitating its persistence in field conditions. These findings provide critical insights for integrated weed management and cultivar purity strategies, emphasizing the importance of certified seed use, stringent field hygiene, and disruption of weedy rice reproductive cycles. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Weed Biology and Ecology: Importance to Integrated Weed Management)

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15 pages, 3113 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Response of Agronomic Traits and Phosphorus Uptake to Soil P Deficiency During Rice Cultivars Improvement

by Chunqin Li, Xu Mo, Shuwei Li, Yuxi Liu, Rongxin Chen, Shuying Yu, Wenqiang Lin, Yifeng Wang and Yajun Hu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 983; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040983 - 19 Apr 2025

Viewed by 185

Abstract

Developing high phosphorus (P) efficient rice varieties is essential for sustainable phosphate resource conservation. This study evaluated 16 rice cultivars from four breeding eras: ancient (<1940), early conventional (1940–2000), modern conventional (2000–2020), and hybrid rice (2000–2020). Using pot experiments in low-P soil, we [...] Read more.

Developing high phosphorus (P) efficient rice varieties is essential for sustainable phosphate resource conservation. This study evaluated 16 rice cultivars from four breeding eras: ancient (<1940), early conventional (1940–2000), modern conventional (2000–2020), and hybrid rice (2000–2020). Using pot experiments in low-P soil, we examined two P treatments: P0 (no P application, simulating low-P stress) and P50 (50 kg hm⁻¹ P application, normal P input). We systematically compared agronomic traits, P distribution patterns, and P uptake efficiency across breeding generations. The result showed that modern breeding significantly increased root biomass, shoot biomass, and grain yield while reducing plant height. Low-P stress (P0) had minimal impact on growth traits but negatively affected P uptake, particularly plant P content and accumulation patterns. Under P0 treatment, modern conventional varieties maintained a higher stem P concentration (0.47–0.65 g·kg⁻¹ vs. 0.27–0.49 g·kg⁻¹ in hybrid varieties; 0.47–0.65 g·kg⁻¹ vs. 0.18–0.28 g·kg⁻¹ in ancient varieties, p < 0.05). P allocation strategies varied significantly across breeding eras. Root P accumulation ratios decreased from ancient to modern varieties, while modern conventional rice had the highest stem P storage (24.1–30.5%), and hybrid rice allocated the largest partition of 76.4–78.1% P to grains. Additionally, P uptake efficiency and P fertilizer productivity increased by 131.09% and 91.21% (p < 0.01) from ancient to modern conventional rice, with hybrids exhibiting the highest values for both parameters. Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed distinct trait clusters separating ancient, conventional, and hybrid rice based on the agronomic traits, P uptake, and rhizosphere soil parameters. Random forest analysis identified that, under low-P conditions, root P content was the strongest predictor of grain yield, whereas under normal P conditions, rhizosphere pH had the highest relationship to grain yield. These findings demonstrate that modern breeding has enhanced P adaptation through optimized root architecture and organ-specific P allocation strategies, which providing valuable insights for developing future P-efficient rice varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Keeping Nutrients in the Soil: The Challenges, Benefits and Trade-Offs)

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12 pages, 7085 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hidden Stigmas Enhance Heat Resilience: A Novel Breeding Trait for Sustaining Rice Spikelet Fertility Under Nocturnal Heat Stress

by Beibei Qi, Simin Cheng, Youjin Song, Chao Wu and Meng Yang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 982; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040982 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 226

Abstract

Heat stress during the flowering stage induces a remarkable decrease in rice spikelet fertility, mainly due to poor pollination manifesting as insufficient pollen deposited on the stigma. It is hypothesized that stigma exsertion, which confers a pollination advantage, may enhance pollen reception and [...] Read more.

Heat stress during the flowering stage induces a remarkable decrease in rice spikelet fertility, mainly due to poor pollination manifesting as insufficient pollen deposited on the stigma. It is hypothesized that stigma exsertion, which confers a pollination advantage, may enhance pollen reception and improve female reproductive success under heat stress. The present study aimed to investigate the role of stigma exsertion in spikelet fertility under nocturnal heat. Four rice cultivars exhibiting distinct heat tolerance and twenty rice cultivars with varying degrees of stigma exsertion were grown and subjected to high nighttime temperature treatment at anthesis, in 2023 and 2019, respectively. Heat-tolerant rice cultivars had a relatively low percentage of spikelets with exserted stigmas, and vice versa. Under nocturnal heat stress, rice cultivars exhibiting higher stigma exsertion showed significantly greater reductions in spikelet fertility compared to lower stigma exsertion cultivars. The spikelet fertility of rice cultivars with a higher degree of stigma exsertion was reduced more seriously than that of cultivars with a lower degree of stigma exsertion. Rice spikelet fertility positively correlated with the percentage of hidden stigmas, and exogenous substance-induced increased stigma exsertion led to reduced spikelet fertility under nocturnal heat. These results indicate that a hidden stigma contributes to higher spikelet fertility, while increased stigma exsertion aggravates spikelet sterility in rice cultivars under nocturnal heat conditions. It is proposed that hidden stigmas could serve as a novel breeding trait for sustaining rice spikelet fertility against nocturnal heat stress. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Ecophysiology Under Anthropogenic and Natural Stresses)

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25 pages, 17131 KiB

Open AccessArticle

DSW-YOLO-Based Green Pepper Detection Method Under Complex Environments

by Yukuan Han, Gaifeng Ren, Jiarui Zhang, Yuxin Du, Guoqiang Bao, Lijun Cheng and Hongwen Yan

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 981; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040981 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 167

Abstract

In this paper, a lightweight detection model DSW-YOLO based on improved YOLOv10n is proposed. After comparing mainstream lightweight models (YOLOv5n, YOLOv6n, YOLOv8n, YOLOv9t and YOLOv10n), YOLOv10n with the best performance was selected as the baseline. The DWRR block [...] Read more.

In this paper, a lightweight detection model DSW-YOLO based on improved YOLOv10n is proposed. After comparing mainstream lightweight models (YOLOv5n, YOLOv6n, YOLOv8n, YOLOv9t and YOLOv10n), YOLOv10n with the best performance was selected as the baseline. The DWRR block was then designed and integrated with the C2f module to form C2f-DWRR, replacing the original C2f blocks in the backbone. Consequently, the model’s P, R, mAP50, and mAP50-95 increased by 2.3%, 2.1%, 1.8%, and 3.4%, respectively, while the parameter count dropped by 0.16 M and the model size was reduced by 0.25 MB. A SimAM parameter-free attention mechanism was added to the last layer of the backbone, boosting P, R, mAP50, and mAP50-95 to 90.6%, 84.0%, 91.8%, and 68.5%, and reducing average detection time to 1.1 ms. The CIOU function was replaced with WIOUv3 to accelerate convergence, decrease loss, and significantly enhance detection performance. Experimental results show that on a custom green pepper dataset, DSW-YOLO outperformed the baseline by achieving gains of 2.9%, 2.7%, 2.2%, and 3.4% in P, R, mAP50, and mAP50-95, reducing parameters by 1.6 M, cutting inference time by 0.7 ms, and shrinking the model size to 5.31 MB. DSW-YOLO efficiently and accurately detects green peppers in complex field conditions, significantly improving detection accuracy while remaining lightweight, and provides theoretical and technical support for designing and optimizing pepper-picking robot vision systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Precision and Digital Agriculture)

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18 pages, 2961 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Genetic Dissection of the Powdery Mildew Resistance in a Cultivated Emmer Wheat Accession

by Ruishan Liu, Yuli Jin, Ningning Yu, Hongxing Xu, Xusheng Sun, Jiangchun Wang, Xueqing Liu, Jiadong Zhang, Jiatong Li, Yaoxue Li and Pengtao Ma

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040980 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 181

Abstract

Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici (Bgt), the causal agent of wheat powdery mildew, poses a significant threat to global wheat production. In this study, we identified and characterized a broad-spectrum powdery mildew resistance gene, PmL709, in a resistant cultivated emmer [...] Read more.

Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici (Bgt), the causal agent of wheat powdery mildew, poses a significant threat to global wheat production. In this study, we identified and characterized a broad-spectrum powdery mildew resistance gene, PmL709, in a resistant cultivated emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) accession: L709. Using bulked segregant RNA sequencing (BSR-Seq) analysis and molecular markers, PmL709 was mapped to a 1.7 cM interval on chromosome arm 2BS, flanked by markers Xdw05/YTU95-04/YTU95-06/YTU95-08/Xdw10/Xdw11 and YTU692B-094, corresponding to a 21.82–25.94 Mb physical interval (cv. Svevo), using the segregated population crossed by L709 and a susceptible durum wheat cultivar, Langdon. Referring to the origin, the resistance spectra, and the physical position with known resistance genes on chromosome arm 2BS, PmL709 was likely to be an allele of Pm68. Transcriptomic analysis revealed 3923 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between resistant and susceptible bulks, enriched in pathways such as phenylpropanoid biosynthesis, MAPK signaling, and plant–pathogen interactions. qRT-PCR validated the differential expression of nine candidate genes within the PmL709 interval, highlighting their potential roles in disease resistance. The flanking markers could accurately trace the presence of PmL709 from resistant accession L709 in a survey of 46 susceptible wheat accessions. These findings provide valuable insights into the genetic and molecular mechanisms of powdery mildew resistance in wheat and offer practical tools for marker-assisted breeding to develop resistant cultivars. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanism and Sustainable Control of Crop Diseases)

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16 pages, 10141 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Pesticide Formulation on the Characteristics of Air-Induction Sprays

by Mingzhi Yan, Fujun Chen, Chen Gong and Can Kang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 979; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040979 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 177

Abstract

Air-induction sprays are widely used for drift control; however, their disintegration mechanism is not yet fully understood. After exiting the nozzle, the liquid typically first forms a liquid sheet, which then breaks up into droplets. Therefore, a deep understanding of the liquid sheet [...] Read more.

Air-induction sprays are widely used for drift control; however, their disintegration mechanism is not yet fully understood. After exiting the nozzle, the liquid typically first forms a liquid sheet, which then breaks up into droplets. Therefore, a deep understanding of the liquid sheet of air-induction sprays is essential for elucidating its disintegration mechanism. In this study, high-speed photography and image processing methods were employed to capture and measure the structure of the liquid sheet of air-induction sprays under different pesticide formulations. The effects of different pesticide formulations on the liquid sheet’s spreading angle, breakup length, and the behavior of bubbles within the liquid sheet were analyzed. The results indicate that compared to pure water, pesticide solutions significantly alter the liquid sheet’s spreading angle, length, and bubble size. Under oil-based emulsion conditions, the sheet length and bubble size decrease with increasing concentration, while the spreading angle is less affected. The oil phase in emulsions exhibits defoaming properties, reducing the number of large bubbles. Additionally, oil droplets contribute to the formation of perforations in the liquid sheet, leading to earlier breakup and shortening the sheet length. For suspensions, the variation in liquid sheet behavior is similar to that observed in oil-based emulsions, but its effect on bubble size is less pronounced. In aqueous solutions, bubble size decreases with increasing concentration, but the number of bubbles significantly increases. Moreover, the liquid sheet length and spreading angle increase markedly with concentration. Unlike oil-based emulsions and suspensions, which contain hydrophobic dispersed phases, aqueous solutions do not exhibit significant defoaming properties. Our work can provide a theoretical reference for the applications of air-induction sprays. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Precision Pesticide Spraying Technology and Equipment)

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23 pages, 5648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Two Irrigation Regimes on Yield and Water Use Efficiency of Rice Varieties in Eastern China

by Qinghao Meng, Wenjiang Jing, Nan Zhang, Rumeng Sun, Jia Yin, Ying Zhang, Junyao Shi, Feng He, Lijun Liu, Jianhua Zhang and Hao Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040978 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 226

Abstract

The way in which alternate wetting and drying irrigation (AWD), as a water-saving practice promoted in rice (Oryza sativa L.) production systems, could enhance the productivity and water use efficiency (WUE) attracts broad attention. This study selected six mid-season indica rice varieties [...] Read more.

The way in which alternate wetting and drying irrigation (AWD), as a water-saving practice promoted in rice (Oryza sativa L.) production systems, could enhance the productivity and water use efficiency (WUE) attracts broad attention. This study selected six mid-season indica rice varieties to investigate the impacts of AWD and conventional irrigation (CI) on grain yield, WUE, grain filling, and root traits. A two-year field experiment demonstrated that grain yields and WUE were significantly increased with varietal improvements. With the improvement of varieties, the maximum grain filling rate and mean grain filling rate for both apical superior and basal inferior spikelets were progressively enhanced during the grain filling stage. Compared to CI, AWD significantly enhanced grain yield and WUE. Flag leaf photosynthetic rate and root characteristics, including root weight, root length, root absorbing surface area, root oxidation activity, and zeatin (Z) + zeatin riboside (ZR) contents in panicles, roots, and root bleeding, were superior under AWD across early, mid, and late grain filling stages. Correlation and path analysis showed that improved grain filling in basal inferior spikelets was attributed to delayed root senescence during the grain filling stage under AWD. These results indicated that AWD would be a better irrigation regime to improve yield and WUE by optimizing grain filling and root growth for modern varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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17 pages, 6826 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Reduced Precipitation Frequency Decreases the Stability of the Soil Organic Carbon Pool by Altering Microbial Communities in Degraded Grasslands

by Junda Chen, Yifan Gao, Yizhu Zeng, Muping Huang, Xuechen Yang, Raúl Ochoa-Hueso, Wei Sun and Tianxue Yang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 977; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040977 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 301

Abstract

Decreasing precipitation frequency (DPF) has the potential to alter soil microbial community structure, enzyme activity, and the stoichiometry of microbial biomass in grassland ecosystems. Grasslands have undergone degradation, often driven by anthropogenic activities such as overgrazing, which further intensifies their sensitivity to environmental [...] Read more.

Decreasing precipitation frequency (DPF) has the potential to alter soil microbial community structure, enzyme activity, and the stoichiometry of microbial biomass in grassland ecosystems. Grasslands have undergone degradation, often driven by anthropogenic activities such as overgrazing, which further intensifies their sensitivity to environmental changes such as altered precipitation. Changes in soil microbial communities can in turn impact the soil organic carbon pool (SOCP) and its stability, particularly in degraded grasslands shaped by agricultural practices. Here, we evaluated how DPF affects different types of soil carbon pools, soil microbial community structure, the stoichiometry of microbial biomass, and the potential activity of exoenzymes related to microbial nutrient acquisition in three steppe grasslands representing a degradation gradient (from light to moderate to severe degradation). We also developed a systematic model linking microbial stoichiometry, community structure, enzyme activity, and the SOCP and its stability. Our results showed that DPF significantly reduced the soil total carbon pool (STCP), SOCP, and dissolved organic carbon pool (DOCP) in all degraded grasslands, while it increased the DOCP/SOCP ratio in the grasslands with light to moderate degradation, indicating lower stability of the SOCP. Decreased precipitation frequency reduced microbial biomass in grasslands with light to moderate degradation but had the opposite effect on grasslands with severe degradation. Additionally, the promoting effects of DPF on the fungi/bacteria ratio and β-1,4-xylosidase activity diminished with increasing grassland degradation. The fungi/bacteria ratio, microbial biomass carbon/nitrogen ratio, and β-1,4-xylosidase activity were identified as the main predictors for the SOCP and its stability. In lightly and moderately degraded grasslands, decreased soil water content (SWC) and increased soil moisture variation induced by lower precipitation frequency promoted β-1,4-xylosidase activity by decreasing the microbial biomass carbon/nitrogen ratio. The lower stability of the SOCP in degraded grasslands under altered precipitation frequency highlights the challenges posed by climate change regarding soil carbon sequestration in these fragile ecosystems. Our results also stress the importance of targeted water management for soil carbon sequestration in agriculture and livestock management, which could be achieved by altering soil microbial activity and stoichiometry, For example, fertilization increases nutrient availability, enhances microbial growth, and shifts C/N/P ratios, promoting carbon allocation to biomass over respiration and thus enhancing soil carbon retention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Soil and Plant Nutrition)

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22 pages, 10128 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Soil Conservation and Influencing Factors in Xiangyang City, Hanjiang River Basin

by Xiaojing Liu, Xuanhui Li, Xiaohuang Liu, Wei Zhang, Songhang Liu, Jiaqi Xu and Guanzhong Zeng

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 976; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040976 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 123

Abstract

Xiangyang City is the core area of soil erosion in the Han River Basin, with serious problems of soil erosion and a weak soil conservation capacity. The spatiotemporal evolution characteristics and influencing factors of soil conservation in Xiangyang City, Han River Basin, from [...] Read more.

Xiangyang City is the core area of soil erosion in the Han River Basin, with serious problems of soil erosion and a weak soil conservation capacity. The spatiotemporal evolution characteristics and influencing factors of soil conservation in Xiangyang City, Han River Basin, from 2000 to 2020 were analyzed using the InVEST-SDR model and the PLUS contribution methodology. The results show the following: (1) The amount of soil conservation per unit area in Xiangyang in 2000, 2010, and 2020 was 1.84 × 10⁵ t/km², 1.59 × 10⁵ t/km², and 1.96 × 10⁵ t/km². This was concentrated in some areas, such as Baokang County, Nanzhang County, and Gucheng County. The soil conservation in Zaoyang, Xiangzhou, Yicheng, and Laohekou was relatively low, while the soil conservation capacity in the Xiangcheng and Fancheng areas was weakest. (2) The areas with the highest value of soil conservation were mainly concentrated in the forest areas in the southwest and northwest of Xiangyang, where the vegetation coverage is high and the altitude is low. The areas with low soil conservation were mainly concentrated in the eastern central part of Xiangyang, which is mainly farmland, with less vegetation and relatively flat terrain. (3) The amount of soil conservation is mainly influenced by two factors—vegetation coverage and terrain—indicating that vegetation management strategies should be tailored to local conditions. This article differs from previous watershed research areas by exploring the influencing factors of soil conservation in Xiangyang City and deeply analyzing the changes in importance and the spatiotemporal differentiation of ecosystem service functions. This conclusion can provide data support for environmental management and decision-making in the Xiangyang region, helping to achieve the sustainable development of the regional ecological environment and economic society. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Comparison of Sustainable Approaches in Conservation and Protected Agriculture around the World)

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17 pages, 5783 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Analysis of Spatiotemporal Variation and Driving Forces of Vegetation Net Primary Productivity in the North China Plain over the Past Two Decades

by Mingxuan Yi, Dongming Zhang, Zhiyuan An, Kuan Li, Liwen Shang and Kelin Sui

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 975; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040975 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 145

Abstract

The net primary productivity (NPP) of vegetation—a critical component of ecosystem carbon cycling and a key indicator of the quality and functionality of ecosystems—is jointly influenced by natural and anthropogenic factors. As NPP is a vital agricultural and ecological region in China, understanding [...] Read more.

The net primary productivity (NPP) of vegetation—a critical component of ecosystem carbon cycling and a key indicator of the quality and functionality of ecosystems—is jointly influenced by natural and anthropogenic factors. As NPP is a vital agricultural and ecological region in China, understanding the spatiotemporal dynamics and driving mechanisms of vegetation NPP in the North China Plain (NCP) has significant implications for regional sustainable development. Utilizing MODIS NPP, temperature, precipitation, and human activity data from 2003 to 2023, this study employs univariate linear regression, ArcGIS spatial analysis, and the Hurst index to investigate the spatiotemporal characteristics, driving factors, and future trends in vegetation NPP. The results indicate that vegetation NPP exhibited a fluctuating upward trend over the 21-year period, with an annual increase of 2.60 g C/m². Spatially, NPP displayed a “high in the south, low in the north” pattern. There is significant spatial heterogeneity between temperature, precipitation, and vegetation NPP in the study area, with natural factors generally exerting a greater influence than human activities; however, the coupling of human activities with other factors significantly amplify their impact. The Hurst index (mean: 0.43) revealed an anti-persistent future trend in vegetation NPP, suggesting substantial uncertainties regarding its long-term dynamics. These findings enhance our understanding of the responses of vegetation to global change and provide a scientific basis for balancing food security and ecological conservation in the NCP. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Remote Sensing Applications in Crop Monitoring and Modelling—2nd Edition)

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17 pages, 4310 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Engineered Rhizobia with Trehalose-Producing Genes Enhance Peanut Growth Under Salinity Stress

by Jialin Liu, Dong Wang, Ruiqi Tong, Shengyue Ye, Yanhao Zhao, Jiangwen Wu and Yi Gan

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 974; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040974 - 17 Apr 2025

Viewed by 158

Abstract

The aggravation of soil salinization has become one of the major factors that threaten crop growth and yield. Rhizobia, as an important biological nitrogen-fixing microorganism, can establish symbiotic relationships with legumes to improve their nitrogen-fixing ability and stress tolerance. Trehalose, a non-reducing disaccharide [...] Read more.

The aggravation of soil salinization has become one of the major factors that threaten crop growth and yield. Rhizobia, as an important biological nitrogen-fixing microorganism, can establish symbiotic relationships with legumes to improve their nitrogen-fixing ability and stress tolerance. Trehalose, a non-reducing disaccharide that is widely found in bacteria, fungi, and plants, can protect cellular structures and maintain the viability of cells under stress conditions. However, it remains to be determined whether the endogenous trehalose level in rhizobia could affect its stress tolerance and nitrogen-fixing capabilities. In this study, we constructed four engineered rhizobial strains to examine the effects of the overexpression and knockout of the trehalose synthesis genes otsA/otsB in the rhizobium strain CCBAU25338 on its salt tolerance and nitrogen-fixing capacity. The results indicated that the overexpression of otsA, rather than the otsB gene, significantly enhanced both the stress tolerance and nitrogen-fixing abilities of the strains. Furthermore, the inoculation of otsA-overexpressing recombinant cells leads to greater agronomic traits in the host plant’s peanuts under salinity conditions. We hope our findings may serve as valuable references for the future development of efficient and superior engineered rhizobial strains for peanut cultivation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Plant-Crop Biology and Biochemistry)

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20 pages, 1098 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Biochar Supplementation of Recycled Manure Solids: Impact on Their Characteristics and Greenhouse Gas Emissions During Storage

by Ana José Pires, Catarina Esteves, Ricardo Bexiga, Manuela Oliveira and David Fangueiro

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 973; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040973 - 17 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Recycled manure solids (RMS) are increasingly adopted in dairy farming for their economic advantages and their role in improving nutrient recycling and waste management; however, concerns regarding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during storage persist. This study assessed the effects of biochar supplementation at [...] Read more.

Recycled manure solids (RMS) are increasingly adopted in dairy farming for their economic advantages and their role in improving nutrient recycling and waste management; however, concerns regarding greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions during storage persist. This study assessed the effects of biochar supplementation at 2.5% (2.5B) and 10% (10B) compared to untreated RMS (C−) and acidified RMS (C+) on GHG emissions (measured both continuously and intermittently) and RMS characteristics during a one-month storage period. The results showed that the addition of biochar increased heavy metals concentration (with the exception of molybdenum) and the electrical conductivity of the RMS. Storage of RMS generally led to an increase in its dry matter content, except in the 10B treatment. The results showed that 10% biochar significantly reduced cumulative CO₂ and N₂O emissions, resulting in a 32% GWP reduction compared to untreated RMS. In contrast, the 2.5% dose led to higher CO₂ emissions, possibly due to microbial stimulation. Adding 10% biochar mitigated GHG emissions similarly to H₂SO₄ acidification but with fewer environmental and operational risks, making it a preferable farm-scale option. Continuous monitoring captured transient emission peaks, highlighting the importance of high-resolution assessments. Despite the emissions generated during biochar production, its application in RMS bedding systems offsets these environmental costs by mitigating GHG emissions and increasing nutrient content. Biochar’s mitigation potential, especially at higher doses, presents a safer, multifunctional alternative that aligns with EU climate goals. These findings support the integration of biochar into sustainable manure management strategies, though further research is needed to optimize application rates and assess cost-effectiveness in dairy farming. However, continued assessments at a larger scale and with different biochar addition rates are necessary to fully determine the potential of biochar supplementation to RMS. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effects of Biochar Application on Crop Productivity, Soil Carbon Sequestration, and Others)

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19 pages, 3487 KiB

Open AccessArticle

QTLs Mapping and Identification of Candidate Genes Associated with Stachyose and Sucrose in Soybean (Glycine max L.)

by Chuanrong He, Yipu Wang, Changning Li, Yue Yang, Qian You, Aiqin Yue, Jingping Niu, Lixiang Wang, Weijun Du and Min Wang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 972; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040972 - 17 Apr 2025

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Abstract

Soluble sugars are essential components in the physiology and metabolism of soybeans (Glycine max), playing a critical role in regulating key processes such as development, germination, and flavor formation. The soluble sugar content in soybean seeds is primarily composed of stachyose, [...] Read more.

Soluble sugars are essential components in the physiology and metabolism of soybeans (Glycine max), playing a critical role in regulating key processes such as development, germination, and flavor formation. The soluble sugar content in soybean seeds is primarily composed of stachyose, raffinose, sucrose, and glucose. This study aims to elucidate the genetic mechanisms underlying variation in the composition of soluble sugars in soybean seeds. A 128 recombinant inbred line (RIL) population was used, and concentrations of these four sugars were quantified across three years (2015, 2016, and 2017 in Shanxi). The analysis revealed that Jin Da 53 exhibited significantly higher sucrose and total sugar contents compared to Ping Nan, while stachyose levels were notably elevated in Ping Nan. Except for glucose content in 2017 and 2019, the RIL population’s traits all exhibited a normal distribution, making it suitable for QTL analyses. A total of twenty QTLs were identified for the four sugar components: five for glucose, four for raffinose, four for sucrose, three for stachyose, and four for total sugar, all with LOD > 2.5. Notably, three QTLs located on chromosome 10 (S10_37101443-S10_38298307, S10_38681635-S10_39134900, and S10_36697685-S10_36697916) were found to be associated with stachyose content, identifying one candidate gene, Glyma.10g154400, which was implicated in carbohydrate metabolic processes; a QTL located on chromosome 11 (96.881–105.5 cM) was identified in 2019 as a significant locus influencing sucrose content, identifying another candidate gene, Glyma.11g136200, which was linked to sugar/inositol transporter activity. Expression analysis of these candidate genes demonstrated the Glyma.10g154400 gene exhibited higher expression levels in varieties with lower stachyose content, whereas Glyma.11g136200 showed increased expression in lines with elevated sucrose levels. This study provides an important genetic basis for the breeding of soybean varieties with increased sugar content. Full article

(This article belongs to the Section Crop Breeding and Genetics)

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17 pages, 4281 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Development and Validation of a Discrete Element Simulation Model for Pressing Holes in Sowing Substrates

by Hongmei Xia, Chuheng Deng, Teng Yang, Runxin Huang, Jianhua Ou, Lingjin Dong, Dewen Tao and Long Qi

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 971; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040971 - 17 Apr 2025

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Abstract

To conduct DEM simulation research on the collision characteristics between seeds and pressed substrate holes, a discrete element model of mechanically pressed holes in sowing substrates was developed in this study. The geometric DEM models of sowing substrate particles were established based on [...] Read more.

To conduct DEM simulation research on the collision characteristics between seeds and pressed substrate holes, a discrete element model of mechanically pressed holes in sowing substrates was developed in this study. The geometric DEM models of sowing substrate particles were established based on the sieve test, and the Hertz–Mindlin with JKR contact model was utilized for simulating of the fine, moist, and cohesive substrate particles. The angle of repose measured by the funnel method was served as the target, Plackett–Burman experiments were conducted to screen significant contact mechanical parameters, while steepest ascent and Box–Behnken experiments were employed to define their value ranges. A neural network model for predicting the angle of repose was constructed, and a genetic algorithm was applied to optimize the significant contact mechanical parameters. The cross-sectional profiles of the pressing hole were obtained through image profile feature extraction in simulation and 3D scanning projection methods in the experiment. The calibrated inter-particle dynamic friction coefficient, inter-particle coefficient of restitution, dynamic friction coefficient between particles and stainless steel, and JKR surface energy of the substrate were 0.0349, 0.5448, 0.0233, and 0.4279, respectively. The deviation of the simulated angle of repose utilizing the optimized contact parameters was 0.4°. The shapes of the pressed holes obtained from simulation and experiment showed good consistency. The pressing speed had no significant effect on the mean depth of all sampling points, suggesting that a higher pressing speed should be set to improve the operation efficiency. The pressing depth has a highly significant effect on the mean depth of all sampled points, but no significant effect on the deviation between the simulated and experimental mean depths. The maximum difference in the mean depth deviation between simulated and experimental sampled points is 1.308 mm. It demonstrates that the established discrete element model can efficiently and accurately simulate the deformation of the pressing hole in sowing substrate. It provides an applicable simulation model for fast optimization design of the pressing hole and sowing equipment. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Harnessing Sensing, Artificial Intelligence, and Robotics for Digital Agriculture)

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Agronomy, Volume 15, Issue 4 (April 2025) – 241 articles

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