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Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies

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A special issue of Agronomy (ISSN 2073-4395). This special issue belongs to the section "Water Use and Irrigation".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 July 2025 | Viewed by 8229

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Dr. Fernando França da Cunha

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Department of Agricultural Engineering, Federal University of Viçosa, Viçosa-MG 36570-900, Brazil
Interests: soil-water-plant-atmosphere system; irrigation management; precision irrigation
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

We would like to invite you to contribute to a Special Issue of Agronomy (MDPI).

The constant search for higher yields and lower production costs is a present objective of 21st century agriculture. A fundamental input to guarantee agricultural production and also increase productivity is water. However, it worth bearing in mind that we can achieve plant production even without soil or substrate (e.g., hydroponics), but it is impossible without water.

Efficient water management in agriculture has always been a priority. Over the years, significant advances have been made in understanding and applying irrigation strategies to overcome water deficits in crops. From traditional practices to modern techniques, the evolution of this field has been remarkable.

The fundamental purpose of this Special Issue is to explore and highlight the latest discoveries and innovations related to optimizing water use in crops, with a special focus on irrigation strategies to address water deficits. We seek to deepen our understanding of how recent research is shaping this vital field, aiming for practical and sustainable advances in agriculture.

We seek research that presents innovative research capable of transforming the way we face the challenges associated with water scarcity in agricultural activities. This may include technological advances, new irrigation methods, forecasting models, or interdisciplinary approaches that integrate science, technology, and agricultural practices.

We encourage the submission of original scientific articles that address the proposed topic. Documents that demonstrate the application of irrigation strategies in conditions of water deficit. We are excited to welcome contributions that drive innovation in this vital field, enabling the scientific and agricultural community to address the growing challenges related to the sustainable use of water in crops. Your participation is crucial for moving towards more efficient and resilient agricultural practices.

Dr. Fernando França da Cunha
Guest Editor

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Agronomy is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

deficit irrigation
evapotranspiration
innovations in water management
irrigation management
precision irrigation
sustainable irrigation strategies
water optimization
water productivity
water use efficiency

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Published Papers (9 papers)

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Research

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14 pages, 3932 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Water Application Frequency and Water Use Efficiency Under Deficit Irrigation on Maize Yield in Xinjiang

by Tianjiang Duan, Licun Zhang, Guodong Wang and Fei Liang

Agronomy 2025, 15(5), 1110; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051110 - 30 Apr 2025

Viewed by 237

Abstract

Water conservation is critical for global maize production, particularly in arid regions where water scarcity, exacerbated by climate change, threatens conventional irrigation sustainability. Optimizing irrigation strategies to reconcile water productivity and yield remains a key scientific challenge in water-limited agriculture. This four-year study (2018–2021) evaluated integrated irrigation management that combined frequency and volume adjustments. A field experiment compared three strategies: high-frequency limited irrigation (HL: 2400 m³·hm⁻²), low-frequency conventional irrigation (LC: 2400 m³·hm⁻²), and high-frequency conventional irrigation (HC: 4800 m³·hm⁻²). The four-year mean yield showed that HL (10,793.78 kg·hm⁻²) had a non-significant 18.2% numerical advantage over LC (9129.11 kg·hm⁻², p > 0.05). The WUE for HL reached 3.63 kg·m⁻³, representing an 18.6% numerical increase compared to LC (3.06 kg·m⁻³; p > 0.05). Physiological parameters (plant height + 2.6%, leaf area + 9.9%, SPAD + 1.5%) showed marginal improvements in HL, yet lacked both statistical significance (p > 0.05) and strong yield correlation. Multi-year analyses confirmed no statistically distinguishable differences between strategies (p > 0.05), demonstrating that irrigation frequency adjustments alone cannot reliably enhance drought resilience. These findings caution against advocating for HL as a superior practice, given the statistical equivalence between HL and LC despite water savings, and the non-significant yield gap between HL and HC. Future research must establish causality through models integrating real-time soil–crop–climate feedback prior to recommending altered irrigation regimes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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19 pages, 1755 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Optimizing Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) Yield and Water Productivity with Deficit Irrigation in Semi-Arid Climates

by Ali Kaan Yetik and Burak Şen

Agronomy 2025, 15(5), 1009; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15051009 - 22 Apr 2025

Viewed by 382

Abstract

Irrigation optimization is critical for sustainable agriculture in water-scarce regions, particularly for drought-tolerant crops like lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.), where strategic water management can enhance productivity. This study evaluated the impact of different irrigation regimes on yield, yield components, essential oil content, water productivity, and irrigation water productivity of drip-irrigated lavender under the semi-arid conditions of Niğde, Turkey, over five growing seasons (2020–2024). Treatments included full irrigation (T₁), moderate deficit irrigation (T₂, 33% water deficit), severe deficit irrigation (T₃, 66% water deficit), and rainfed conditions (T₄). Results demonstrated that T₂ achieved fresh yields (144–227 kg da⁻¹) and oil yields (2.7–6.9 kg da⁻¹) comparable to T₁, with crop water consumption ranging 781.5–923.6 mm. Rainfed conditions significantly reduced yields but maximized water productivity, highlighting the potential for efficient water use even under substantial water deficits. Essential oil content remained stable (1.88–3.04%) across treatments, except in 2022 (p < 0.05). Lavender exhibited low drought sensitivity, with a yield response factor (k_y) of 0.25, indicating adaptability to controlled water deficits. Regression analyses revealed significant positive linear relationships between crop water consumption and fresh yield. Overall, the findings emphasize that improving water productivity through moderate-to-severe deficit irrigation strategies can support sustainable lavender production under semi-arid conditions, even when absolute yields are partially compromised. Results indicated that T₂ is recommended for optimizing water productivity with minimal yield reduction. However, in water-limited regions, T₃ provided viable productivity, offering a suitable balance for sustainable lavender production in semi-arid climates. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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23 pages, 5648 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Two Irrigation Regimes on Yield and Water Use Efficiency of Rice Varieties in Eastern China

by Qinghao Meng, Wenjiang Jing, Nan Zhang, Rumeng Sun, Jia Yin, Ying Zhang, Junyao Shi, Feng He, Lijun Liu, Jianhua Zhang and Hao Zhang

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 978; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040978 - 18 Apr 2025

Viewed by 358

Abstract

The way in which alternate wetting and drying irrigation (AWD), as a water-saving practice promoted in rice (Oryza sativa L.) production systems, could enhance the productivity and water use efficiency (WUE) attracts broad attention. This study selected six mid-season indica rice varieties to investigate the impacts of AWD and conventional irrigation (CI) on grain yield, WUE, grain filling, and root traits. A two-year field experiment demonstrated that grain yields and WUE were significantly increased with varietal improvements. With the improvement of varieties, the maximum grain filling rate and mean grain filling rate for both apical superior and basal inferior spikelets were progressively enhanced during the grain filling stage. Compared to CI, AWD significantly enhanced grain yield and WUE. Flag leaf photosynthetic rate and root characteristics, including root weight, root length, root absorbing surface area, root oxidation activity, and zeatin (Z) + zeatin riboside (ZR) contents in panicles, roots, and root bleeding, were superior under AWD across early, mid, and late grain filling stages. Correlation and path analysis showed that improved grain filling in basal inferior spikelets was attributed to delayed root senescence during the grain filling stage under AWD. These results indicated that AWD would be a better irrigation regime to improve yield and WUE by optimizing grain filling and root growth for modern varieties. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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20 pages, 20507 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Agronomic Performance of Irrigated and Rainfed Arabica Coffee Cultivars in the Cerrado Mineiro Region

by Giovani Belutti Voltolini, Gladyston Rodrigues Carvalho, Vinícius Teixeira Andrade, André Dominghetti Ferreira, Francislei Vitti Raposo, João Paulo Felicori Carvalho, Diego Junior Martins Vilela, Cleidson Alves da Silva, Jéfferson de Oliveira Costa, Guilherme Barbosa Abreu, Juliana Costa de Rezende Abrahão, César Elias Botelho, Denis Henrique Silva Nadaleti, Marcelo Ribeiro Malta, Vânia Aparecida Silva, Sônia Maria de Lima Salgado, Reginério Soares de Faria, Antônio Carlos Baião de Oliveira and Antônio Alves Pereira

Agronomy 2025, 15(1), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15010222 - 17 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 911

Abstract

Coffee genetic improvement programs have been evolving very quickly, with frequent launches of new cultivars. The adoption of these new genetic materials by rural producers requires knowledge of agronomic performance in different production systems. Thus, this research aimed to evaluate the agronomic performance of irrigated and rainfed Arabica coffee (Coffea arabica L.) cultivars in the Cerrado Mineiro region. Evaluations were conducted in experimental fields across 22 farms of Arabica coffee producers, and 11 used an irrigated production system and 11 used a rainfed system. Twelve cultivars were evaluated as follows: Catuaí Vermelho IAC 144, Bourbon Amarelo IAC J10, Topázio MG 1190, MGS Epamig 1194, Catiguá MG2, MGS Catiguá 3, MGS Ametista, Pau Brasil MG1, MGS Paraíso 2, MGS Aranãs, Sarchimor MG 8840, and IAC 125 RN. Based on grain yield, processing yield, seed density, grain size, and cup quality, agronomic performance evaluations were conducted annually for the 2019, 2020, 2021, and 2022 harvests. The results showed that the grain yield was higher in the irrigated system compared to the rainfed system. In irrigated fields, the average increases in grain yield were 38%. Irrigation improved the performance of the cultivars in terms of processing yield, although it reduced cup quality. MGS Paraíso 2 cultivar showed the best productive performance, with an average of over four harvests of 52 and 42 bags ha⁻¹ (1 bag = 60 kg) in irrigated and rainfed systems, respectively. The cultivars least responsive to irrigation were IAC 125 RN, MGS Catiguá 3, MGS Ametista, and MGS Paraíso 2, with grain yield increases of 24%, 26%, 27%, and 28%, respectively. The most responsive cultivars were MGS EPAMIG 1194, Sarchimor MG 8840, and Pau Brasil MG1, with grain yield increases of 33%, 35%, and 39%, respectively. The agronomic performance results of coffee cultivars in irrigated and rainfed production systems will allow rural producers to adopt cultivars that are more suitable for the Cerrado Mineiro region. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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12 pages, 2020 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Spatial Analysis of Coffee Plant Temperature and Its Relationship with Water Potential and Stomatal Conductance Using a Thermal Camera Embedded in a Remotely Piloted Aircraft

by Luana Mendes dos Santos, Gabriel Araújo e Silva Ferraz, Milene Alves de Figueiredo Carvalho, Alisson André Vicente Campos, Pedro Menicucci Neto, Letícia Aparecida Gonçalves Xavier, Alessio Mattia, Valentina Becciolini and Giuseppe Rossi

Agronomy 2024, 14(10), 2414; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14102414 - 18 Oct 2024

Viewed by 935

Abstract

Coffee is a key agricultural product in national and international markets. Physiological parameters, such as plant growth indicators, can signal interruptions in these processes. This study aimed to characterize the temperature obtained by a thermal camera embedded in a remotely piloted aircraft (RPA) and evaluate its relationship with the water potential (WP) and stomatal conductance (gs) of an experimental coffee plantation using geostatistical techniques. The experiment was conducted at the Federal University of Lavras, Minas Gerais, Brazil. A rotary-wing RPA with an embedded thermal camera flew autonomously at a height of 10 m and speed of 10 m/s. Images were collected on 26 November 2019 (rainy season), and 11 August 2020 (dry season), between 9:30 am and 11:30 am. Data on gs and WP were collected in the field. The thermal images were processed using FLIR Tools 5.13, and temperature analysis and spatialization were undertaken using geostatistical tools and isocolor maps by Kriging interpolation in R 4.3.2 software. Field data were superimposed on final crop temperature maps using QuantumGIS version 3.10 software. The study found that with decreasing WP, stomatal closure and reduction in gs occurred, increasing the temperature due to water deficit. The temperature distribution maps identified areas of climatic variations indicating water deficit. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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12 pages, 1758 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Supplemental Irrigation with Recycled Drainage Water: Outcomes for Corn and Soybean in a Fine-Textured Soil

by Ali R. Niaghi, Axel Garcia y Garcia and Jeffrey S. Strock

Agronomy 2024, 14(9), 1948; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14091948 - 29 Aug 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1180

Abstract

Drought and heavier spring storms from climate change will increase crop water stress and affect productivity. A study was conducted to determine whether supplemental irrigation on fine-textured soils with recycled drainage and surface runoff water, combined with nitrogen (N) management, could mitigate these effects. This study was set as a randomized complete block design in a split-plot arrangement with three replicates. The main plots, which were individually drained, corresponded to three water management strategies (full irrigation, limited irrigation, and rainfed), and the subplots corresponded to six N rates (0, 90, 134, 179, 224, and 269 kg/ha) in the corn phase of the rotation. In the soybean phase, the same water management strategies were uniformly applied across the subplots. Irrigation and drainage water, volumetric soil water content (SWC), and grain yield data were collected. The full irrigation significantly increased the SWC in the top 60 cm of the soil across crops during the driest year, where it increased by an average of 30% compared with the rainfed conditions. The limited irrigation increased the SWC in the top 20 cm only for the soybean during the driest year, where it increased by as much as 25%. As a result, the supplemental irrigation prevented yield reduction in one year. While the irrigation alone did not significantly affect the grain yield of either crop, the irrigation × N interaction for the corn was consistently significant, which suggests that the N effectively enhanced the corn productivity. The results suggest that reusing drainage water could be a valuable practice for reducing the effects of limited soil water on crops in fine-textured soils. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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19 pages, 4167 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Effects of Restricted Irrigation and Straw Mulching on Corn Quality, Soil Enzyme Activity, and Water Use Efficiency in West Ordos

by Ying Zhang, Guoshuai Wang, Yanwei Liu, Bing Xu, Hexiang Zheng, Delong Tian, Jinjin Guo, Jianzhong Su, Zhiwei Ma, Feixing Zhou and Xueyi Jiang

Agronomy 2024, 14(8), 1691; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14081691 - 31 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1272

Abstract

Groundwater overexploitation in West Ordos necessitates sustainable irrigation practices. This study evaluated three irrigation levels—W1 (3300 m³ · ha⁻¹), W2 (2850 m³ · ha⁻¹), and W3 (2400 m³ · ha⁻¹)—by modifying the wide-width planting pattern of maize. Additionally, two levels of straw mulch were analyzed: F1 (9000 kg · ha⁻¹) and F2 (no mulch). The study aimed to investigate the effects of these treatments on corn growth dynamics, soil water temperature, soil enzyme activity, yield, grain quality, and water use efficiency. The results indicated a decline in growth indices, enzyme activities, grain quality, and yield under the limited irrigation levels W2 and W3 compared to W1. The highest corn yields were observed with W1F1 (6642.54 kg · ha⁻¹) and W2F1 (6602.38 kg · ha⁻¹), with the latter showing only a 0.6% decrease. Notably, water use efficiency in the W2F1 treatment improved by 4.69%, 12.08%, 10.27%, 12.59%, and 12.96% compared to W1F1, W3F1, W1F2, W2F2, and W3F2, respectively. Straw mulch (F1) significantly elevated the soil temperature, increasing the effective accumulated temperature during the growth period by 10.11~85.79 °C, and boosted the soil enzyme activity by 10–25%. Under limited irrigation, the W2 (2850 m³ · ha⁻¹) and F1 (9000 kg · ha⁻¹ straw) treatments achieved the highest water productivity of 2.48 kg·m⁻³, maintaining a high yield of 6602.38 kg · ha⁻¹ while preserving nutrients essential to the corn’s quality. This approach presents a viable strategy for wide-width corn planting in groundwater-depleted regions, offering a scientifically grounded and sustainable water management solution for efficient corn production in West Ordos. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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18 pages, 1433 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Germination Performance of Physalis peruviana L. Seeds under Thermal and Water Stress Conditions

by Elis Marina de Freitas, Carlos Nick Gomes, Laércio Junio da Silva and Fernando França da Cunha

Agronomy 2024, 14(6), 1213; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy14061213 - 4 Jun 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1564

Abstract

Physalis peruviana holds significant economic value, making it crucial to determine optimal cultivation conditions, particularly concerning seed germination under varying water and temperature conditions. Therefore, this study aimed to assess the impacts of heat and water stress on the germination and vigor of P. peruviana seeds. The study was divided into two trials: the first examined the effect of constant temperatures of 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 °C and alternating temperatures of 20 °C during the dark period and 30 °C during the light period (control) on seed germination and vigor. The second trial investigated germination and vigor under different water and thermal conditions using various osmotic potentials (0; −0.3; −0.6; and −0.9 MPa) and two temperatures (constant 30 °C and alternating 20 °C during the dark period and 30 °C during the light period). Both trials used a 16 h photoperiod. The germination tests revealed optimal (30 °C), moderate (20/30 °C), minimal (20 °C), and inhibited (40 °C) temperatures for the species’ germination. It was found that the first germination count could be conducted on the seventh day after sowing. Low water availability had negative effects on seed germination and vigor, especially at osmotic potentials below −0.45 and −0.61 MPa, combined with temperatures of 30 and 20/30 °C, respectively. Severe water stress, with osmotic potentials equal to or below −0.9 MPa, completely inhibited seed germination and vigor. Reduction in water potential and increased temperature resulted in a significant decrease in the percentage, speed, and quality of P. peruviana germination. These findings indicate that the species does not tolerate extreme temperatures, whether low (less than 15 °C) or high (greater than 35 °C), nor water stress with osmotic potentials lower than −0.45 MPa, much less the combination of these factors. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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Review

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19 pages, 4368 KiB

Open AccessReview

Drought–Rewatering Dynamics in Chinese Cropping Systems: A Meta-Analysis of Yield Loss Mitigation, Water Use Efficiency, and Compensatory Physiological Response

by Zhitao Li, Zhen Liu, Jinyong Zhu, Weilu Wang, Chengwei Gao, Jiangpeng Qi, Xiaoqiang Qiu, Minmin Bao, Hongyu Luo, Yuanming Li and Yuhui Liu

Agronomy 2025, 15(4), 911; https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy15040911 - 7 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 492

Abstract

Drought stress, being a crucial abiotic stress factor, and its recovery mechanism after rehydration are important in regulating crop production. This meta-analysis investigates the effects of drought stress followed by rewatering (DSRW) on crop productivity and water use efficiency (WUE) in Chinese cropping systems, synthesizing data from 90 studies (1997–2023) encompassing 2606 experimental observations. Results indicate that DSRW significantly reduced crop yield (CY) across plant types, with monocots (20.31% decline) outperforming dicots (23.64%) and woody plants (19.98% decline) showing greater resilience than herbaceous species (21.52%). WUE improved in woody plants (+7.81%) but declined in herbaceous crops (−9.44%), with notable increases in Chenopodiaceae (+59.39%) and Malvaceae (+11.35%). Mild drought stress (>65% field capacity) followed by short-term rewatering during early growth stages minimized CY losses (−19.60%) and WUE reduction (−6.89%), outperforming moderate or severe stress. Physiological analyses revealed DSRW-induced declines in photosynthetic parameters (e.g., net photosynthetic rate: −11.54%) but enhanced antioxidant enzyme activities (CAT: +18.21%, SOD: +10.23%) and osmoregulatory substance accumulation (proline: +16.22%). The study highlights the compensatory potential of strategic rewatering timing and intensity, advocating for early-stage, mild drought interventions to mitigate yield losses, which provide a practical value for promoting the sustainable development of water-saving agriculture. Future research should address regional climatic variability and crop quality responses to DSRW, advancing climate-resilient agricultural practices. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimizing Crop Water Use: Advances and Applications in Deficit Irrigation Strategies)

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