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Viruses
Volume 17
Issue 2
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Viruses, Volume 17, Issue 2 (February 2025) – 104 articles

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33 pages, 2768 KiB  
Review
Adeno-Associated Virus Vectors: Principles, Practices, and Prospects in Gene Therapy
by Limor Zwi-Dantsis, Saira Mohamed, Giulia Massaro and Emad Moeendarbary
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 239; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020239 (registering DOI) - 9 Feb 2025
Viewed by 150
Abstract
Gene therapy offers promising potential as an efficacious and long-lasting therapeutic option for genetic conditions, by correcting defective mutations using engineered vectors to deliver genetic material to host cells. Among these vectors, adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) stand out for their efficiency, versatility, and safety, [...] Read more.
Gene therapy offers promising potential as an efficacious and long-lasting therapeutic option for genetic conditions, by correcting defective mutations using engineered vectors to deliver genetic material to host cells. Among these vectors, adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) stand out for their efficiency, versatility, and safety, making them one of the leading platforms in gene therapy. The enormous potential of AAVs has been demonstrated through their use in over 225 clinical trials and the FDA’s approval of six AAV-based gene therapy products, positioning these vectors at the forefront of the field. This review highlights the evolution and current applications of AAVs in gene therapy, focusing on their clinical successes, ongoing developments, and the manufacturing processes required for the rapid commercial growth anticipated in the AAV therapy market. It also discusses the broader implications of these advancements for future therapeutic strategies targeting more complex and multi-systemic conditions and biological processes such as aging. Finally, we explore some of the major challenges currently confronting the field. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section General Virology)
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13 pages, 265 KiB  
Article
Neurological, Radiological, Visual, and Auditory Findings in Children with Intrauterine Exposure to the Zika Virus
by Marlos Melo Martins, Andréa Bittencourt Guastavino, Maria Clara de Magalhães-Barbosa, Maria Helena de Magalhães-Barbosa, Cristiane Fregonesi Dutra Garcia, Bárbara Karine Gonet Amaral, Annamaria Ciminelli Barbosa, Halina Cidrini Ferreira, Jaqueline Rodrigues Robaina, Mariana Barros Genuino de Oliveira, Fernanda Freire Tovar-Moll, Roberto de Andrade Medronho, Antonio José Ledo Alves da Cunha, Joffre Amim, Jr. and Arnaldo Prata-Barbosa
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 238; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020238 (registering DOI) - 9 Feb 2025
Viewed by 157
Abstract
This study aims to describe neurological, visual, and auditory findings in children whose mothers had confirmed Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy, with most of these children not presenting congenital microcephaly; Methods: an observational, longitudinal, and prospective study was conducted in Rio de [...] Read more.
This study aims to describe neurological, visual, and auditory findings in children whose mothers had confirmed Zika virus (ZIKV) infection during pregnancy, with most of these children not presenting congenital microcephaly; Methods: an observational, longitudinal, and prospective study was conducted in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from March 2015 to January 2017, involving children with in utero exposure to Zika virus, following from birth up to 30 months of age. Results: Of the 2882 pregnant women admitted, 116 had a suspected ZIKV infection, of whom 33 had laboratory confirmation. Only one child presented with congenital microcephaly. Despite this, neurodevelopment delay was observed in 36.4% of children evaluated, radiological abnormalities in 29.1%, auditory abnormalities in 8.3%, and ophthalmological abnormalities in 10%. Conclusions: Newborns of mothers with confirmed ZIKV infection during pregnancy may present with varying degrees of visual, auditory, and neurological impairment, despite the presence of congenital microcephaly. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Zika Virus and Congenital Zika Syndrome)
16 pages, 2933 KiB  
Article
Vaccinia Virus Vector Bivalent Norovirus Vaccine
by Yunbo Bai, Xi Wu, Yanru Shen, Liangliang Wang, Ziqi Cheng, Yeqing Sun, Hao Wu, Qingfeng Zhang, Ziqi Sun, Chenchen He, Binfan Liao, Weijin Huang and Huanzhang Xia
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020237 (registering DOI) - 9 Feb 2025
Viewed by 157
Abstract
Norovirus is a major etiological agent of nonbacterial gastroenteritis around the world. Due to its in vitro culture complexity, high genome diversity, and the lack of cross-reactive immunity between genogroups, there is an unmet urgent need for polyvalent norovirus vaccines that provide broad-spectrum [...] Read more.
Norovirus is a major etiological agent of nonbacterial gastroenteritis around the world. Due to its in vitro culture complexity, high genome diversity, and the lack of cross-reactive immunity between genogroups, there is an unmet urgent need for polyvalent norovirus vaccines that provide broad-spectrum protection, and no vaccine has gained global approval to date. In this study, we constructed a bivalent norovirus vaccine, based on the highly attenuated poxvirus [strain VG9] vector, expressing the major capsid protein VP1 from genotypes GII.4 and GII.17. VG9-NOR exhibited a comparable replication ability to the authentic virus while preserving good safety. After the intramuscular and intranasal immunization of mice, VG9-NOR induced high IgG- and IgA-binding antibody (Ab) titers against GII.4 and GII.17, increased the secretion of GII.4 and GII.17-specific HGBA-blocking antibodies, and enhanced GII.17-specific mucosal immunity. Furthermore, VG9-NOR also induced a Th1-mediated cellular response. These results demonstrate that the polyvalent poxvirus vector vaccine expressing VP1 variants from different subtypes is able to elicit effective protection. Our study highlights the VG9 vector as a highly promising candidate for the development of polyvalent norovirus vaccines. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals)
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15 pages, 599 KiB  
Article
Prevalence and Risk Factors of Occult HCV Infection in the Adult Population of Mexico City
by Luis Antonio Uribe-Noguez, María Erandhi Prieto-Torres, Luis Octavio Uribe-Noguez, José Antonio Mata-Marín, Carla Ileana Arroyo-Anduiza, Rebeca Paquentín-Jimenez, Alberto Chaparro-Sanchez, Wendy Guadalupe Vazquez-Gonzalez, Andrea Santos Coy-Arechavaleta, Ericka Nelly Pompa-Mera, Jesus Gaytán-Martínez, Julio Elias Alvarado-Yaah, Clara Esperanza Santacruz-Tinoco and Alicia Ocaña-Mondragón
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 236; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020236 (registering DOI) - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 419
Abstract
Occult HCV infection (OCI) is defined by the presence of HCV RNA in hepatocytes and/or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) without detectable HCV RNA or anti-HCV antibodies in plasma. OCI is underrecognized and may contribute to HCV transmission. This study estimated OCI prevalence [...] Read more.
Occult HCV infection (OCI) is defined by the presence of HCV RNA in hepatocytes and/or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) without detectable HCV RNA or anti-HCV antibodies in plasma. OCI is underrecognized and may contribute to HCV transmission. This study estimated OCI prevalence and associated risk factors in adults from Mexico City. Methods: A retrospective cross-sectional study was conducted, analyzing 507 general population volunteers. Demographic data and potential risk factors were collected via questionnaire. Anti-HCV detection was performed using two techniques: immunochromatographic rapid test and chemiluminescent microparticle immunoassay (CMIA). Nested PCR was employed to detect HCV RNA in plasma and PBMCs. Positive samples were genotyped through sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the Core/E1 region. Results: Of 507 participants, four were anti-HCV positive. HCV RNA was found in PBMCs of 27 individuals, while plasma samples tested negative, indicating a 5.3% OCI prevalence. OCI was significantly associated with blood donation (p = 0.015), drug use (p = 0.019), particularly cocaine (p = 0.001), and endoscopy (p = 0.043). Genotypes 1b, 1a, 2b, 3a, and 2j were detected in OCI cases. Conclusions: OCI prevalence in Mexico City’s general population is notable, with significant links to blood donation, cocaine use, and endoscopy. Enhanced diagnostic strategies are crucial to detect OCI and mitigate HCV transmission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viral Hepatitis and Liver Diseases)
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23 pages, 5085 KiB  
Review
Factors Affecting Phage–Bacteria Coevolution Dynamics
by Ghadeer Jdeed, Bogdana Kravchuk and Nina V. Tikunova
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 235; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020235 (registering DOI) - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 203
Abstract
Bacteriophages (phages) have coevolved with their bacterial hosts for billions of years. With the rise of antibiotic resistance, the significance of using phages in therapy is increasing. Investigating the dynamics of phage evolution can provide valuable insights for pre-adapting phages to more challenging [...] Read more.
Bacteriophages (phages) have coevolved with their bacterial hosts for billions of years. With the rise of antibiotic resistance, the significance of using phages in therapy is increasing. Investigating the dynamics of phage evolution can provide valuable insights for pre-adapting phages to more challenging clones of their hosts that may arise during treatment. Two primary models describe interactions in phage–bacteria systems: arms race dynamics and fluctuating selection dynamics. Numerous factors influence which dynamics dominate the interactions between a phage and its host. These dynamics, in turn, affect the coexistence of phages and bacteria, ultimately determining which organism will adapt more effectively to the other, and whether a stable state will be reached. In this review, we summarize key findings from research on phage–bacteria coevolution, focusing on the different concepts that can describe these interactions, the factors that may contribute to the prevalence of one model over others, and the effects of various dynamics on both phages and bacteria. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Phage-Bacteria Interplay in Health and Disease, Second Edition)
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18 pages, 1219 KiB  
Review
REST Is Restless in Neuronal and Non-Neuronal Virus Infections: An In Silico Analysis-Based Perspective
by Vinod Soman Pillai, Shilpa Ravindran, Gayathri Krishna, Chandran S. Abhinand, Shijulal Nelson-Sathi and Mohanan Valiya Veettil
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 234; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020234 (registering DOI) - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 297
Abstract
Repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor or neuron-restrictive silencer factor (REST/NRSF) is an extensively studied neuronal gene regulator both in neuronal cells and non-neuronal cells. Even though the role of REST in host cellular gene regulation is well established, its role in the establishment [...] Read more.
Repressor element-1 silencing transcription factor or neuron-restrictive silencer factor (REST/NRSF) is an extensively studied neuronal gene regulator both in neuronal cells and non-neuronal cells. Even though the role of REST in host cellular gene regulation is well established, its role in the establishment of viral infections and its capability to stabilize and destabilize such viral infections are scarcely studied. Co-repressor and DNA modifiers are involved in REST-mediated repressive action of its target genes. The role of REST and co-repressors together or individually in the regulation of viral as well as host genes has been unraveled in a few viruses such as HIV and influenza as well as two of the herpesvirus family members, namely herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV). Here, we summarize all such virus studies involved with REST to gain a better insight into REST biology in virus infections. We also focus on unraveling the possible RE-1 binding sites in the Epstein–Barr virus (EBV) genome, a well-known human oncogenic herpesvirus that is associated with infectious mononucleosis and neoplasms such as B-cell lymphomas, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, gastric carcinoma, etc. An in silico-based approach was employed towards the prediction of such possible RE-1 binding elements in the EBV genome. This review advances the present knowledge of REST in virus infection which will aid in future efforts towards a better understanding of how REST acts in herpesviruses and other viruses for their infections and pathogenesis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Herpesviruses and Associated Diseases)
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16 pages, 11435 KiB  
Article
Prevalence of Aphid-Transmitted Potyviruses in Pumpkin and Winter Squash in Georgia, USA
by Nirmala Acharya, Manish Kumar, Sudeep Bag, David G. Riley, Juan C. Diaz-Perez, Alvin M. Simmons, Timothy Coolong and Theodore McAvoy
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 233; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020233 (registering DOI) - 8 Feb 2025
Viewed by 272
Abstract
Viruses are a major pathogen challenging the sustainable production of cucurbits worldwide. Pumpkin and winter squash showed severe virus-like symptoms during the fall of 2022 and 2023 in Georgia, USA. Symptomatic leaves were collected from the field and processed for small RNA sequencing [...] Read more.
Viruses are a major pathogen challenging the sustainable production of cucurbits worldwide. Pumpkin and winter squash showed severe virus-like symptoms during the fall of 2022 and 2023 in Georgia, USA. Symptomatic leaves were collected from the field and processed for small RNA sequencing for virus identification using high-throughput sequencing (HTS). HTS analysis revealed the presence of two aphid-transmitted viruses (ATVs), zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) and papaya ringspot virus (PRSV), along with three whitefly-transmitted viruses, cucurbit chlorotic yellows virus, cucurbit yellow stunting disorder virus, and cucurbit leaf crumple virus. The results of our study suggest a significant shift in ATV’s abundance in these two crops between 2022 and 2023. According to the qPCR data in the fall of 2022, pumpkins experience an incidence of 56.25% and 31.25% of PRSV and ZYMV, respectively. Similarly, winter squash shows an incidence of 50% and 32.14% of PRSV and ZYMV, respectively. Mixed infection of both viruses was also observed in these two crops. In 2023, we observed a predominance of ZYMV in pumpkin and winter squash (61.25% and 42.50%, respectively). However, PRSV was not detected in pumpkins, and it was detected at a negligible level (0.62%) in winter squash using qPCR. Phylogenetic analysis of ZYMV-encoded coat protein (CP) and helper component-protease (HC-Pro) from Georgia suggests a close relationship with the European isolates. Conversely, PRSV-encoded CP and NIa-VPg show a more diverse evolutionary history. Overall, this research will provide valuable insights into the dynamics of ZYMV and PRSV in pumpkin and winter squash crops within the southeastern United States. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Plant Viruses and Their Vectors: Epidemiology and Control)
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18 pages, 1201 KiB  
Review
Emerging Arboviral Diseases in Pakistan: Epidemiology and Public Health Implications
by Muhammad Ammar, Muhammad Moaaz, Chaoxiong Yue, Yaohui Fang, Yanfang Zhang, Shu Shen and Fei Deng
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 232; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020232 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 386
Abstract
Arboviruses pose significant public health challenges globally, particularly in Pakistan, where deforestation, climate change, urbanization, inadequate sanitation, and natural disasters have all contributed to the spread of mosquito-borne flavivirus diseases like dengue fever. The lack of a thorough national surveillance system has made [...] Read more.
Arboviruses pose significant public health challenges globally, particularly in Pakistan, where deforestation, climate change, urbanization, inadequate sanitation, and natural disasters have all contributed to the spread of mosquito-borne flavivirus diseases like dengue fever. The lack of a thorough national surveillance system has made it difficult to determine the extent and distribution of these diseases. Concern has been raised by recent outbreaks of West Nile virus (WNV) and chikungunya (CHIKV) epidemics, which may lead to Zika virus (ZIKV) outbreaks in the future. Additionally, hospital-based surveillance has detected the Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) in the region. Evidence also points to the presence of additional arboviruses in healthy populations, such as the Karshi virus (KSV), Tamdy virus (TAMV), Crimean–Congo hemorrhagic fever virus (CCHFV), and severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV). This review aims to address the risk factors linked to these diseases, provide specific policy recommendations for efficient disease prevention and control, and describe the epidemiological trends of these diseases in Pakistan while emphasizing the critical need for improved surveillance and thorough epidemiological investigations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)
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12 pages, 801 KiB  
Article
Cytomegalovirus Antibodies and Coronary Artery Disease in People with HIV: A Cohort Study
by Moises Alberto Suarez-Zdunek, Andreas Dehlbæk Knudsen, Andreas Fuchs, Nikolai Søren Kirkby, Thomas Benfield, Jan Gerstoft, Marius Trøseid, Sisse Rye Ostrowski, Lars Valeur Køber, Klaus Fuglsang Kofoed and Susanne Dam Nielsen
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020231 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 316
Abstract
People with HIV (PWH) have a high risk of coronary artery disease (CAD). Cytomegalovirus (CMV) co-infection is very common in PWH, but little is known about its association with CAD. We aimed to investigate if CMV IgG serostatus and concentrations are associated with [...] Read more.
People with HIV (PWH) have a high risk of coronary artery disease (CAD). Cytomegalovirus (CMV) co-infection is very common in PWH, but little is known about its association with CAD. We aimed to investigate if CMV IgG serostatus and concentrations are associated with CAD in PWH. From the Copenhagen Comorbidity in HIV Infection (COCOMO) Study we included PWH with coronary CT angiography (CCTA) and quantitative CMV IgG concentration measurements. We measured the stenosis grades and plaque volumes in the coronary vessels. Using multivariable regressions adjusted for traditional CAD risk factors, we investigated if CMV IgG serostatus and concentrations were associated with any atherosclerosis, obstructive CAD, or plaque volumes. We included 620 PWH of whom 586 had positive CMV serostatus, which was not associated with any atherosclerosis, obstructive CAD, or plaque volumes. A doubling of CMV IgG concentrations was associated with any atherosclerosis (OR 1.21 [95% CI: 1.06–1.39]), obstructive CAD (OR 1.31 [95% CI: 1.07–1.59]), and higher total plaque volume (1.56 [95% CI: 1.21–2.01] fold increase), but the association did not remain significant after adjustment for traditional CAD risk factors. This indicates that CMV IgG serostatus and concentrations are not independently associated with prevalent CAD in PWH. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)
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24 pages, 4033 KiB  
Article
Influence of Viral Re-Infection on Head Kidney Transcriptome of Nervous Necrosis Virus-Resistant and -Susceptible European Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, L.)
by Dimitra K. Toubanaki, Odysseas-Panagiotis Tzortzatos, Antonia Efstathiou, Vasileios Bakopoulos and Evdokia Karagouni
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020230 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 263
Abstract
Fish viral infections have great environmental and economic implications in aquaculture. Nervous necrosis virus (NNV) is a pathogen affecting more than 120 different species, causing high mortality and morbidity. Herein, we study how NNV re-infection affects the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax [...] Read more.
Fish viral infections have great environmental and economic implications in aquaculture. Nervous necrosis virus (NNV) is a pathogen affecting more than 120 different species, causing high mortality and morbidity. Herein, we study how NNV re-infection affects the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax, L.) head kidney transcriptome in disease-resistant and -susceptible sea bass families. To determine how each family responds to re-infection, we performed the RNA-sequencing analysis of experimentally NNV-infected D. labrax. Fish were experimentally infected in a long-term study, and one month after the last recorded death, all surviving fish were re-infected by the same NNV strain. Fish tissues were sampled 7 days upon re-infection. The transcriptome profiles of infected vs. non-infected fish revealed 103 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) for the resistant family and 336 DEGs for the susceptible family. Only a few pathways were commonly enriched in the two families, further indicating that the resistant and susceptible families utilize completely different mechanisms to fight the NNV re-infection. Protein–protein interaction analysis identified a variety of hub genes for the resistant and the susceptible families, quite distinct in their function on NNV resistance. In conclusion, NNV-resistant and -sensitive sea bass transcriptomes were analyzed following NNV survivors’ viral re-infection, offering a glimpse into how host attempts to control the infection depending on its genetic background in relation with virus resistance. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Aquatic Animal Viruses and Antiviral Immunity)
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17 pages, 2700 KiB  
Article
Glucocorticoid Receptor (GR) and Specificity Protein 1 (Sp1) or Sp3 Transactivate the Bovine Alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1)-Infected Cell Protein 0 Early Promoter
by Sankha Hewawasam, Fouad S. El-Mayet and Clinton Jones
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 229; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020229 - 7 Feb 2025
Viewed by 302
Abstract
Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) acute infection leads to latently infected sensory neurons in trigeminal ganglia. During lytic infection, the immediate early expression of infected cell protein 0 (bICP0) and bICP4 is regulated by an immediate early transcription unit 1 (IEtu1) promoter. A separate [...] Read more.
Bovine alphaherpesvirus 1 (BoHV-1) acute infection leads to latently infected sensory neurons in trigeminal ganglia. During lytic infection, the immediate early expression of infected cell protein 0 (bICP0) and bICP4 is regulated by an immediate early transcription unit 1 (IEtu1) promoter. A separate bICP0 early (E) promoter drives bICP0 as an early viral gene, presumably to sustain high levels during productive infection. Notably, bICP0 protein expression is detected before bICP4 during reactivation from latency, suggesting the bICP0 E promoter drives bICP0 protein expression during the early phases of reactivation from latency. The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) cooperatively transactivate the bICP0 E promoter despite this promoter lacks a consensus GR response element (GRE). KLF and specificity protein (Sp) family members comprise a “super-family” of transcription factors. Consequently, we hypothesized Sp1 and Sp3 transactivated the bICP0 E promoter. These studies revealed GR and Sp3 or Sp1 cooperatively transactivated bICP0 E promoter activity. KLF4 and Sp3, but not Sp1, had an additive effect on bICP0 E promoter activity. Mutating the consensus Sp1 and CACCC binding sites proximal to the TATA box impaired promoter activity more than the Sp1 sites further upstream from the TATA box. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Epigenetic and Transcriptional Regulation of DNA Virus Infections)
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25 pages, 719 KiB  
Review
Diagnostic Assays for Avian Influenza Virus Surveillance and Monitoring in Poultry
by Shahan Azeem and Kyoung-Jin Yoon
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020228 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 408
Abstract
Diagnostic testing plays a key role in a surveillance program as diagnostic testing aims to accurately determine the infection or disease status of an individual animal. Diagnostic assays for AIV can be categorized into four broad types: tests for detecting the virus, its [...] Read more.
Diagnostic testing plays a key role in a surveillance program as diagnostic testing aims to accurately determine the infection or disease status of an individual animal. Diagnostic assays for AIV can be categorized into four broad types: tests for detecting the virus, its antigen, its genomic material, and antibodies to the virus. Virus characterization almost always follows virus detection. The present article surveys the current literature on the goals, principles, test performance, advantages, and disadvantages of these diagnostic assays. Virus isolation can be achieved using embryonating eggs or cell cultures in a lab setting. Virus antigens can be detected by antigen-capturing immunoassays or tissue immunoassays. Viral RNA can be detected by PCR-based assays (gel-based reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), or probe or SYBR® Green-based real-time RT-PCR), loop-mediated isothermal amplification, in situ hybridization, and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification. Antibodies to AIV can be detected by ELISA, agar gel immunodiffusion, hemagglutination inhibition, and microneutralization. Avian influenza virus can be characterized by hemagglutination inhibition, neuraminidase inhibition, sequencing (dideoxynucleotide chain-termination sequencing, next-generation sequencing), genetic sequence-based pathotype prediction, and pathogenicity testing. Novel and variant AIVs can be recognized by DNA microarrays, electron microscopy, mass spectroscopy, and Biological Microelectromechanical Systems. A variety of diagnostic tests are employed in AIV surveillance and monitoring. The choice of their use depends on the goal of testing (fit for purpose), the time of testing during the disease, the assay target, the sample matrix, assay performance, and the advantages and disadvantages of the assay. The article concludes with authors’ perspective of the use of diagnostic assays in the surveillance and monitoring of AIV in poultry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular Epidemiology, Evolution, and Transmission of Avian Influenza Viruses)
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21 pages, 6987 KiB  
Article
In Vitro Evaluation of Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Involvement in Feline Coronavirus Infection
by Luca Del Sorbo, Rosa Giugliano, Claudia Cerracchio, Valentina Iovane, Maria Michela Salvatore, Francesco Serra, Maria Grazia Amoroso, Francesco Pellegrini, Martina Levante, Paolo Capozza, Georgia Diakoudi, Massimiliano Galdiero, Giovanna Fusco, Annamaria Pratelli, Anna Andolfi and Filomena Fiorito
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 227; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020227 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 478
Abstract
Feline coronavirus (FCoV) is an alphacoronavirus (αCoV) that causes moderate or chronic asymptomatic infection in cats. However, in a single infected cat, FCoV can modify its cellular tropism by acquiring the ability to infect macrophages, resulting in the development of feline infectious peritonitis [...] Read more.
Feline coronavirus (FCoV) is an alphacoronavirus (αCoV) that causes moderate or chronic asymptomatic infection in cats. However, in a single infected cat, FCoV can modify its cellular tropism by acquiring the ability to infect macrophages, resulting in the development of feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). In this context, to restrain the impact of FCoV infection, scientific research has focused attention on the development of antiviral therapies involving novel mechanisms of action. Recent studies have demonstrated that aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) signaling regulates the host response to different human and animal CoVs. Hence, the mechanism of action of AhR was evaluated upon FCoV infection in Crandell Feline Kidney (CRFK) and in canine fibrosarcoma (A72) cells. Following infection with feline enteric CoV (FECV), strain “München”, a significant activation of AhR and of its target CYP1A1, was observed. The selective AhR antagonist CH223191 provoked a reduction in FCoV replication and in the levels of viral nucleocapsid protein (NP). Furthermore, the effect of the AhR inhibitor on the acidity of lysosomes in infected cells was observed. Our findings indicate that FCoV acts on viral replication that upregulates AhR. CH223191 repressed virus yield through the inhibition of AhR. In this respect, for counteracting FCoV, AhR represents a new target useful for identifying antiviral drugs. Moreover, in the presence of CH223191, the alkalinization of lysosomes in FCoV-infected CRFK cells was detected, outlining their involvement in antiviral activity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mechanism of Receptor Recognition in Coronavirus)
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14 pages, 1054 KiB  
Article
Elevated Plasma Angiopoietin-like 4 Protein Levels in Adult Patients with Dengue
by Win Khaing, Suk Hiang Lau, Tun-Linn Thein, Nguan Soon Tan, Sylvie Alonso, Shawn Vasoo, Po Ying Chia, David Chien Boon Lye, Yee Sin Leo and Vincent T. K. Chow
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 226; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020226 - 6 Feb 2025
Viewed by 389
Abstract
Dengue virus infection can cause severe complications due to vascular leakage. Angiopoietin-like protein 4 (ANGPTL4) regulates vascular permeability, but its role in dengue pathogenesis is unclear. This study investigated the association between plasma ANGPTL4 levels and dengue severity in Singapore adults. Plasma samples [...] Read more.
Dengue virus infection can cause severe complications due to vascular leakage. Angiopoietin-like protein 4 (ANGPTL4) regulates vascular permeability, but its role in dengue pathogenesis is unclear. This study investigated the association between plasma ANGPTL4 levels and dengue severity in Singapore adults. Plasma samples from 48 dengue patients (24 severe and 24 non-severe) during acute and convalescent phases were selected from the prospective COhort study on progression of DENgue severity in Singapore adults (CODEN) cohort. The CODEN was conducted at the National Centre for Infectious Diseases, Tan Tock Seng Hospital, from June 2016 to January 2020. ANGPTL4 levels were measured and compared to 152 healthy controls. Logistic regression assessed the relationship between plasma ANGPTL4 concentrations and disease severity. There were no statistically significant differences in ANGPTL4 levels between severe and non-severe dengue patients during acute (677.4 vs. 909.1 pg/mL, p = 0.4) or convalescent phases (793.7 vs. 565.6 pg/mL, p = 0.96). Plasma ANGPTL4 levels were significantly elevated during acute dengue (4634.3 pg/mL) versus healthy controls (907.4 pg/mL), declining during convalescence. Compared to the lowest tertile, the adjusted odds ratios for severe dengue were 0.36 (95%CI: 0.08–1.65, p = 0.190) for medium tertile and 0.57 (95%CI: 0.13–2.49, p = 0.456) for high tertile. Among patients with high ANGPTL4 levels (>5000 pg/mL), 36.4% developed severe complications, including significant plasma leakage. Plasma ANGPTL4 levels were significantly higher in dengue patients than controls, suggesting its potential as a biomarker, which warrants future detailed investigations. Larger prospective studies with serial sampling, including pediatric populations, may clarify the role of ANGPTL4 in severe dengue. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Alphavirus and Flavivirus Research, 2nd Edition)
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18 pages, 3551 KiB  
Article
Disparities in Influenza Control and Surveillance in Latin America and the Caribbean
by Tatiana Hoyos-Cerón, Froylán Albarrán-Tamayo, Bernardo Bañuelos-Hernández and María Aurora Londoño-Avendaño
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 225; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020225 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 317
Abstract
To identify measures that mitigate the impact of influenza in Latin America and the Caribbean, we compared the burden and detection capacity in humans and animals after the 2009 pandemic. The incidence rate in people was higher in Chile (23.72 per 100,000 people), [...] Read more.
To identify measures that mitigate the impact of influenza in Latin America and the Caribbean, we compared the burden and detection capacity in humans and animals after the 2009 pandemic. The incidence rate in people was higher in Chile (23.72 per 100,000 people), but the impact was greater for Guatemala (503.78 disability-adjusted life years per 100,000 people). Brazil, Peru, Argentina, and Mexico built better medical testing, with typing being less frequent in Chile and Argentina, where costs for medical care were higher. The positivity rate among avian and nonhuman mammals was 5.8%, with more cases in Mexico, but constant testing in Chile. H5N1, H5N2, and H7N6 are deadly to poultry, whereas H1N1 is common in swine, and H3N8 in equines. By June 2023, H5N1 had caused severe influenza in two persons and killed millions of birds and hundreds of mammals with aquatic lifestyles. An analysis of the efforts in response to this outbreak revealed that handling of outbreaks in animals needs homogeneity and reinforcement of vaccination. Surveillance in exposed individuals requires articulation of medical and animal health authorities, and the region also demands decentralized typing and networks for genomic characterization. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Animal Influenza Virus Research: Third Edition)
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7 pages, 551 KiB  
Communication
Detecting Arboviruses Through Screening Asymptomatic Blood Donors in Rio de Janeiro/Brazil During a Dengue Outbreak
by Marisa de Oliveira Ribeiro, Mônica Barcellos Arruda, Alexandre Rodrigues Calazans, Alexandre Vicente Frederico, Anielly Ferreira Brito, Beatriz Vasconcello de Souza Barreto, Élida Millena de Vasconcelos Brandão, Hamilton Athayde, Kátia Cristina Silva Nascimento, Luiz Paulo de Brito Oliveira Souza, Pedro Henrique Cardoso, Priscilla Lopes da Silva Guimarães, Vanessa Duarte da Costa, Carlos Alexandre da Costa Silva, Alexandra Martins Soares, Josiane Iole, Guilherme Louzada, Luiz Amorim Filho and Patrícia Alvarez
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 224; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020224 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 349
Abstract
Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) dengue (DENV), chikungunya (CHIK), and Zika (ZIKV) have been responsible for a high number of outbreaks worldwide. However, their screening in blood donors is not mandatory, and asymptomatic cases might act as an important cause of virus transmission via transfusion. [...] Read more.
Arthropod-borne viruses (arboviruses) dengue (DENV), chikungunya (CHIK), and Zika (ZIKV) have been responsible for a high number of outbreaks worldwide. However, their screening in blood donors is not mandatory, and asymptomatic cases might act as an important cause of virus transmission via transfusion. A study was conducted to assess the presence of DENV (serotypes 1–4), ZIKV, and CHIKV in pooled samples (pool size: six) from asymptomatic blood donors. A total of 9463 plasma pools, corresponding to 56,778 blood donations from asymptomatic blood donors who attended donor sessions at HEMORIO and other blood centers in Rio de Janeiro and Espírito Santo, was submitted to automated nucleic-acid extraction and PCR amplification using ZC D-Tipagem molecular assay (Bio-Manguinhos). In general, a pool prevalence of 1% (95/9463) and a donor prevalence of 0.17% (95/56,778) were observed. January and February 2024 had a total of 62 positive pools out of 95 (65.3%). Targets DENV-1 and -2 had a higher prevalence in the studied months—early summer—with 24 and 28 positive pools, respectively. ZC D-Tipagem molecular assay was able to detect the best-known arboviruses circulating in asymptomatic blood donors; this study suggested that ZIKV, CHIK, and DENV are circulating in asymptomatic blood donors before blood donations and can be transmitted to blood transfusion recipients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Human Virology and Viral Diseases)
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10 pages, 1755 KiB  
Brief Report
Multi-Province Outbreak of Acute Gastroenteritis Linked to Potential Novel Lineage of GII.17 Norovirus in Argentina in 2024
by Karina A. Gomes, Juan I. Degiuseppe, Paula M. Morón, Karina A. Rivero, Christian Barrios Matthieur, Carolina Paladino, Facundo G. Cuba, María S. Haim, Tomás J. Poklépovich Caride and Juan A. Stupka
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 223; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020223 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 366
Abstract
Noroviruses represent one of the leading causes of outbreaks and sporadic acute gastroenteritis (AGE) cases across all age groups. Although the GII.4 norovirus has been identified as the primary cause of most AGE outbreaks, the transient predominance of other genotypes has been reported [...] Read more.
Noroviruses represent one of the leading causes of outbreaks and sporadic acute gastroenteritis (AGE) cases across all age groups. Although the GII.4 norovirus has been identified as the primary cause of most AGE outbreaks, the transient predominance of other genotypes has been reported globally. In this study, we describe a multi-province AGE outbreak caused by a potential new lineage of norovirus GII.17[P17], which has been recently detected at a high incidence in the United States and Europe. An amino acid analysis of the major viral capsid protein revealed several substitutions in the hypervariable region compared to strains circulating in the mid-2010s, which could play a key role in immune evasion. This is the first report of the detection of these viruses in the Southern Hemisphere, underscoring the importance of maintaining active genomic surveillance in the context of increasing numbers of acute gastroenteritis outbreaks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section General Virology)
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14 pages, 2320 KiB  
Review
Sixty Years at the Rega Institute
by Erik De Clercq
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 222; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020222 - 5 Feb 2025
Viewed by 400
Abstract
I started my research career (in 1965) on interferon by identifying polyacrylic acid (PAA) as an interferon inducer. Poly(I).poly(C), discovered by Maurice Hilleman’s group, proved to be more potent as an interferon inducer, and through its mRNA, we were able to clone and [...] Read more.
I started my research career (in 1965) on interferon by identifying polyacrylic acid (PAA) as an interferon inducer. Poly(I).poly(C), discovered by Maurice Hilleman’s group, proved to be more potent as an interferon inducer, and through its mRNA, we were able to clone and express human β-interferon. The discovery of the reverse transcriptase (RT) by Temin and Baltimore (in 1970) brought me to the detection of suramin as a powerful RT inhibitor and enabled Sam Broder and his colleagues to identify suramin as the first inhibitor of HIV replication. In this capacity, it was subsequently superseded by AZT and other 2′,3′-dideoxynucleoside (ddN) analogs, including d4T. In collaboration with Antonín Holý, we discovered several acyclic nucleoside phosphonates as potent inhibitors of both HIV and HBV (hepatitis B virus) replication. In collaboration with Paul Janssen, we identified various non-nucleoside RT inhibitors (NNRTIs) of HIV-1 replication. Of the nucleotide RT inhibitors (NtRTTs), tenofovir emerged as the most promising congener. It was derivatized to its oral prodrugs TDF and TAF. To enhance their efficacy, they were combined with other anti-HIV drugs, and two of them were pursued (and found efficacious) in the Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) of HIV infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section General Virology)
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22 pages, 972 KiB  
Review
Regulation of Granzymes A and B by High-Risk HPV: Impact on Immune Evasion and Carcinogenesis
by Mashego Nathan Maleka, Zukile Mbita and Vivian Morafo
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 221; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020221 - 3 Feb 2025
Viewed by 575
Abstract
The number of new cancer cases is soaring, and currently, there are 440.5 per 100,000 new cases reported every year. A quarter of these are related to human papillomavirus (HPV) infections, particularly types 16 and 18. These include oropharyngeal, anal, vaginal, and penile [...] Read more.
The number of new cancer cases is soaring, and currently, there are 440.5 per 100,000 new cases reported every year. A quarter of these are related to human papillomavirus (HPV) infections, particularly types 16 and 18. These include oropharyngeal, anal, vaginal, and penile cancers. A critical aspect of their oncogenic potential lies in their ability to manipulate host immune responses, facilitating immune evasion and carcinogenesis. High-risk HPVs target key immune components like granzymes A and B and MHC-I, which are crucial for the elimination of virus-infected and transformed cells, thereby weakening immune surveillance. Evidence suggests that high-risk HPVs downregulate the expression of tumor suppressors, such as p53 and pRB, and the activity of these immune components, weakening CTL and NK cell responses, thus enabling persistent infection and carcinogenesis. We discuss the implications of granzyme and MHC-I dysregulation for immune evasion, tumor progression, and potential therapeutic strategies. This review further explores the regulation of granzyme A, B, and MHC-I by high-risk HPVs, focusing on how viral oncoproteins, E6 and E7, interfere with granzyme-mediated cytotoxicity and antigen presentation. The complex interplay between high-risk HPVs, granzyme A, granzyme B, and MHC-I may provide insights into novel approaches for targeting HPV-associated cancers. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Molecular and Cellular Biology of Human Oncogenic Viruses)
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18 pages, 2580 KiB  
Article
Avermectins Inhibit Replication of Parvovirus B19 by Disrupting the Interaction Between Importin α and Non-Structural Protein 1
by Gualtiero Alvisi, Elisabetta Manaresi, Silvia Pavan, David A. Jans, Kylie M. Wagstaff and Giorgio Gallinella
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 220; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020220 - 3 Feb 2025
Viewed by 598
Abstract
Human parvovirus B19 (B19V) is a major human pathogen in which the ssDNA genome is replicated within the nucleus of infected human erythroid progenitor cells (EPCs) through a process involving both cellular and viral proteins, including the non-structural protein (NS)1. We previously characterized [...] Read more.
Human parvovirus B19 (B19V) is a major human pathogen in which the ssDNA genome is replicated within the nucleus of infected human erythroid progenitor cells (EPCs) through a process involving both cellular and viral proteins, including the non-structural protein (NS)1. We previously characterized the interaction between NS1 classical nuclear localization signal (cNLS: GACHAKKPRIT-182) and host cell importin (IMP)α and proposed it as a potential target for antiviral drug development. Here, we further extend on such findings. First, we demonstrate that NS1 nuclear localization is required for viral production since introducing the K177T substitution in a cloned, infectious viral genome resulted in a non-viable virus. Secondly, we demonstrate that the antiparasitic drug ivermectin (IVM), known to inhibit the IMPα/β dependent nuclear import pathway, could impair the NS1-NLS:IMPα interaction and suppress viral replication in UT7/EpoS1 cells in a dose-dependent manner. We also show that a panel of structurally related avermectins (AVMs) can dissociate the NS1-NLS:IMPα complex with half-maximal inhibitory concentrations in the nanomolar range. Among them, Eprinomectin emerged as the most selective inhibitor of B19V replication, with a selectivity index of c. 5.0. However, when tested in EPCs generated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells, which constitute a cellular population close to the natural target cells in bone marrow, the inhibitory effect of IVM and Eprinomectin was demonstrated to a lesser extent, and both compounds exhibited high toxicity, thus highlighting the need for more specific inhibitors of the NS1-NLS:IMPα interaction. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Parvovirus Research 2024)
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8 pages, 1188 KiB  
Article
The Emergence of Coxsackievirus A16 Subgenotype B1c: A Key Driver of the Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease Epidemic in Guangdong, China
by Huiling Zeng, Biao Zeng, Lina Yi, Lin Qu, Jiadian Cao, Fen Yang, Haiyi Yang, Chunyan Xie, Yuxi Yan, Wenwen Deng, Shuling Li, Yingtao Zhang, Baisheng Li, Jing Lu and Hanri Zeng
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 219; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020219 - 3 Feb 2025
Viewed by 525
Abstract
Background: In 2024, mainland China witnessed a significant upsurge in Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD) cases. Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) is one of the primary causative agents of HFMD. Long-term monitoring of theCVA16 infection rate and genotype changes is crucial for the prevention [...] Read more.
Background: In 2024, mainland China witnessed a significant upsurge in Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD) cases. Coxsackievirus A16 (CVA16) is one of the primary causative agents of HFMD. Long-term monitoring of theCVA16 infection rate and genotype changes is crucial for the prevention and control of HFMD. Methods: A total of 40,673 clinical specimens were collected from suspected HFMD cases in Guangdong province from 2018 to 2024, including rectal swabs (n = 27,954), throat swabs (n = 6791), stool (n = 5923), cerebrospinal fluid (n = 3), and herpes fluid (n = 2). A total of 24,410 samples were detected as EV-positive and further typed by RT-PCR. A total of 872 CVA16-positive samples were isolated and further sequenced to obtain the full-length VP1 sequence. Phylogenetic analysis was performed based on viral protein 1 gene (VP1). Results: In the first 25 weeks of 2024, reported cases of HFMD were 1.36 times higher than the mean rates of 2023. In 2024, CVA16 predominated at 75.42%, contrasting with the past etiological pattern in which the CVA6 was predominant with the detection rate ranging from 32.85 to 77.61% from 2019 to 2023. Phylogenetic analysis based on the VP1 gene revealed that the B1a and B1b subtypes co-circulated in Guangdong from 2018 to 2022. The B1c outbreak clade, detected in Guangdong in 2023, constituted 68.24% of the 148 strains of CVA16 collected in 2024, suggesting a subtype shift in the CVA16 virus. There were three specific amino acid variations (P3S, I235V, and T240A) in the VP1 sequence of B1c. Conclusions: The new emergence of the CVA16 B1c outbreak clade in Guangdong during 2023–2024 highlights the necessity for the enhanced surveillance of the virus evolution epidemiological dynamic in this region. Furthermore, it is imperative to closely monitor the etiological pattern changes in Hand, Foot, and Mouth Disease (HFMD) in other regions as well. Such vigilance will be instrumental in guiding future vaccination strategies for HFMD. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Coxsackieviruses, Polioviruses and Associated Diseases (Second Edition))
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17 pages, 1425 KiB  
Systematic Review
The Use of Plant Viral Nanoparticles in Cancer Biotherapy—A Review
by Mamorake Donty Komane, Prudence Ngalula Kayoka-Kabongo and Daria Anna Rutkowska
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020218 - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 842
Abstract
Cancer is a major global health problem that poses significant challenges. Conventional cancer therapies often have severe side effects, necessitating the development of novel therapeutic approaches that are more effective and less toxic. The utilization of plant viral nanoparticles is one of the [...] Read more.
Cancer is a major global health problem that poses significant challenges. Conventional cancer therapies often have severe side effects, necessitating the development of novel therapeutic approaches that are more effective and less toxic. The utilization of plant viral nanoparticles is one of the more promising strategies for cancer biotherapy. Plant viral nanoparticles exhibit advantageous properties, including safety, high stability, rapid production and scalability, biocompatibility and biodegradability, structural uniformity, inherent immunogenicity, ease of modification and high update efficacy as well as lower cost implications, making them attractive vehicles for health applications. Various studies have demonstrated the efficacy of plant viral nanoparticles in targeted therapeutic drug/molecule delivery, tumor imaging and immunotherapy, highlighting their potential as a versatile platform for cancer biotherapy. The drawbacks of plant viral nanoparticles include their perceived ability to induce a hypersensitive/allergic immune response, non-well-defined regulatory approval processes as well as the reluctance of pharmaceutical companies to adapt their manufacturing processes to facilitate plant-based expression. This review discusses applications of plant virus-derived nanoparticles in cancer therapeutics and prospects for translating these findings into clinical practice. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Viruses and Virus-Like Particles as Nanoplatforms for Vaccines, Diagnostic and Therapeutic Nanomedicine)
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27 pages, 1203 KiB  
Review
The Temperature-Associated Effects of Rift Valley Fever Virus Infections in Mosquitoes and Climate-Driven Epidemics: A Review
by Faustus A. Azerigyik, Shelby M. Cagle, William C. Wilson, Dana N. Mitzel and Rebekah C. Kading
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 217; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020217 - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 544
Abstract
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease within the genus Phlebovirus. Symptoms of the disease in animals range from moderate to severe febrile illness, which significantly impacts the livestock industry and causes severe health complications in humans. Similar to [...] Read more.
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) is a mosquito-borne zoonotic disease within the genus Phlebovirus. Symptoms of the disease in animals range from moderate to severe febrile illness, which significantly impacts the livestock industry and causes severe health complications in humans. Similar to bunyaviruses in the genus Orthobunyavirus transmitted by mosquitoes, RVFV progression is dependent on the susceptibility of the physical, cellular, microbial, and immune response barriers of the vectors. These barriers, shaped by the genetic makeup of the mosquito species and the surrounding environmental temperature, exert strong selective pressure on the virus, affecting its replication, evolution, and spread. The changing climate coupled with the aforementioned bottlenecks are significant drivers of RVF epidemics and expansion into previously nonendemic areas. Despite the link between microclimatic changes and RVF outbreaks, there is still a dearth of knowledge on how these temperature effects impact RVF transmission and vector competence and virus persistence during interepidemic years. This intricate interdependence between the virus, larval habitat temperatures, and vector competence necessitates increased efforts in addressing RVFV disease burden. This review highlights recent advancements made in response to shifting demographics, weather patterns, and conveyance of RVFV. Additionally, ongoing studies related to temperature-sensitive variations in RVFV–vector interactions and knowledge gaps are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Emerging Highlights in the Study of Rift Valley Fever Virus)
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18 pages, 2993 KiB  
Article
New Insights into Antiviral Natural Formulations: Biopolymeric Films for the Prevention and Treatment of a Wide Gamma of Viral Infections
by Victoria Belén Ayala-Peña, Ana Karen Jaimes, Ana Lucía Conesa, Cybele Carina García, Claudia Soledad Sepulveda, Fernando Gaspar Dellatorre, Ezequiel Latour, Nora Marta Andrea Ponce, Vera Alejandra Álvarez and Verónica Leticia Lassalle
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 216; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020216 - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 391
Abstract
Viral infections remain a major concern, as existing treatments often yield inadequate responses or lead to the development of antiviral resistance in some cases. Fucoidan extracted from Undaria pinnatifida (F) is a natural sulphated polysaccharide that exhibits antiviral action. Despite its potential, the [...] Read more.
Viral infections remain a major concern, as existing treatments often yield inadequate responses or lead to the development of antiviral resistance in some cases. Fucoidan extracted from Undaria pinnatifida (F) is a natural sulphated polysaccharide that exhibits antiviral action. Despite its potential, the biomedical application of F is limited due to its difficult administration through trans-mucosal, skin, or oral ingestion. The most effective way to solve these problems is to propose novel methods of administration aiming to ensure better contact between the biopolymers and pathogens, leading to their inactivation. In this work, the synthesis of films based on chitosan (Ch)-coupled F is reported, aiming to generate a synergic effect between both biopolymers in terms of their antiviral and antioxidant capability. Biocomposites were prepared by a sonochemical method. They were characterized to infer structural properties, functionality, and possible F-Ch interactions by using Zeta potential, FTIR, and XRD techniques. The biocomposites showed excellent film-forming ability. They also exhibited improved antioxidant activity with respect to F and Ch individually and proved to be non-cytotoxic. These results demonstrate, for the first time, the antiviral activity of F:Ch biocomposites against bovine coronavirus and human viruses (adenovirus, poliovirus, herpes simplex, and respiratory syncytial virus), which could be applied in film form to prevent or treat viral infections. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Natural, Semisynthetic, and Synthetic Antiviral Drugs Targeting HIV and SARS-CoV-2)
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7 pages, 765 KiB  
Brief Report
Effectiveness and Immunogenicity of the MMR Vaccine Against SARS-CoV-2 Among Healthcare Workers
by Hyeri Seok, Joon-Yong Bae, Jooyun Kim, Won Suk Choi, Heedo Park, Jungmin Lee, Sohyun Lee, Chulwoo Kim, Man-Seong Park and Dae Won Park
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 215; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020215 - 1 Feb 2025
Viewed by 438
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and immunogenicity of the measles–mumps–rubella (MMR) vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare workers at one medical institution. The effectiveness of the MMR vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 was evaluated in overall healthcare workers (HCWs). In addition, [...] Read more.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and immunogenicity of the measles–mumps–rubella (MMR) vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 in healthcare workers at one medical institution. The effectiveness of the MMR vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 was evaluated in overall healthcare workers (HCWs). In addition, neutralizing antibodies to SARS-CoV-2 were measured according to the subjects’ measles immunity status with serum samples collected before the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic period. The effectiveness of the MMR vaccine for SARS-CoV-2 in all HCWs and measles IgG-positive subjects was 34% (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 1.20, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.53–2.70) and 34% (aOR = 0.66, CI = 0.38–18.4), respectively. The neutralizing antibody levels for SARS-CoV-2 were low in all groups regardless of the measles immune status. The MMR vaccine alone may not provide sufficient protection against SARS-CoV-2. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals)
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37 pages, 2508 KiB  
Review
Tobacco Mosaic Virus Movement: From Capsid Disassembly to Transport Through Plasmodesmata
by Amr Ibrahim, Nobumitsu Sasaki, James E. Schoelz and Richard S. Nelson
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 214; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020214 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 638
Abstract
Determining mechanisms to establish an initial infection and form intracellular complexes for accumulation and movement of RNA plant viruses are important areas of study in plant virology. The impact of these findings on the basic understanding of plant molecular virology and its application [...] Read more.
Determining mechanisms to establish an initial infection and form intracellular complexes for accumulation and movement of RNA plant viruses are important areas of study in plant virology. The impact of these findings on the basic understanding of plant molecular virology and its application in agriculture is significant. Studies with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) and related tobamoviruses often provide important foundational knowledge for studies involving other viruses. Topics discussed here include capsid disassembly, establishment of a virus replication complex (VRC), and transport of the VRCs or virus components within the cell to locations at the plasmodesmata for intercellular virus RNA (vRNA) movement. Seminal findings with TMV and related tobamoviruses include detecting co-translational disassembly of the vRNA from the virus rod, full sequencing of genomic vRNA and production of infectious transcript for genetic studies determining virus components necessary for intercellular movement, and biochemical and cell biological studies determining the host factors, protein and membrane, needed for replication and movement. This review highlights many of the studies through the years on TMV and selected tobamoviruses that have impacted not only our understanding of tobamovirus accumulation and movement but also that of other plant viruses. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Tobamoviruses: Molecular Aspects and Resistance Regulation—a Special Issue Commemorating 125 Years of Research on Tobamoviruses)
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11 pages, 1637 KiB  
Brief Report
Molecular Characterization of the Infectious Laryngotracheitis Virus (ILTV) Involved in Poultry Outbreaks Reveals the Virus Origin and Estimated Spreading Route
by Jorge Luis Chacón, Ruy D. Chacón, Henrique Lage Hagemann, Claudete S. Astolfi-Ferreira, Cesar Nunes, Luiz Sesti, Branko Alva and Antonio J. Piantino Ferreira
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 213; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020213 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 492
Abstract
Infectious laryngotracheitis outbreaks have been observed in a short period of time in broiler, layer, and broiler breeder flocks, resulting in clinical signs and high mortality. The affected farms are located in the same geographical area, which is a high-density poultry region of [...] Read more.
Infectious laryngotracheitis outbreaks have been observed in a short period of time in broiler, layer, and broiler breeder flocks, resulting in clinical signs and high mortality. The affected farms are located in the same geographical area, which is a high-density poultry region of Brazil. To estimate the potential origin of the virus or viruses that caused the outbreaks, the ILTVs detected at six companies were molecularly characterized by sequencing two fragments of the ICP4 gene and then compared with previous field and vaccine viruses detected in the country. The sequencing results revealed that all farms investigated were infected with a nonvaccine-origin virus. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all farms were infected by the same virus classified as genotype VI. In addition, the ILTV detected in the present study was compared with that of viruses previously detected in egg-layer poultry regions in the country. The viruses detected in the recent outbreaks were indistinguishable, with one of them (VI-4) suggesting a possible route of transmission. This study describes for the first time severe ILT outbreaks in meat-type poultry in Brazil that spread quickly, and the phylogenetic analysis suggests the potential origin of the virus and route of transmission. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Avian Respiratory Viruses, 4th Edition)
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19 pages, 1043 KiB  
Review
Current Dengue Virus Vaccine Developments and Future Directions
by Govindaraj Anumanthan, Bikash Sahay and Ayalew Mergia
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 212; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020212 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 415
Abstract
Dengue fever (DF), a leading arboviral disease globally, is caused by the Dengue virus (DENV) and represents a significant public health concern, with an estimated 390 million cases reported annually. Due to the complexity of the various dengue variants and the severity of [...] Read more.
Dengue fever (DF), a leading arboviral disease globally, is caused by the Dengue virus (DENV) and represents a significant public health concern, with an estimated 390 million cases reported annually. Due to the complexity of the various dengue variants and the severity of the disease, vaccination emerges as the essential strategy for combating this widespread infectious disease. The absence of specific antiviral medications underscores the critical need for developing a Dengue vaccine. This review aims to present the current status and future prospects of Dengue vaccine development. Further, this review elaborates on the various strategies employed in vaccine development, including attenuated, inactivated, subunit, and viral vector vaccines. Each approach is evaluated based on its immunogenicity, safety, and efficacy, drawing on data from preclinical and clinical studies to highlight the strengths and limitations of each candidate vaccine. The current study sheds light on future directions and research priorities in developing Dengue vaccines. In conclusion, the development of a Dengue vaccine holds significant potential for reducing the global burden of DF. However, challenges remain in terms of vaccine safety, efficacy, delivery, and availability. Overcoming these challenges, coupled with advancements in vaccine technology, could lead to better control and prevention of Dengue, thereby enhancing public health and quality of life. Full article
(This article belongs to the Section Viral Immunology, Vaccines, and Antivirals)
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26 pages, 5920 KiB  
Article
Complete Genome Classification System of Rotavirus alphagastroenteritidis: An Updated Analysis
by Ricardo Gabriel Díaz Alarcón, Karina Salvatierra, Emiliano Gómez Quintero, Domingo Javier Liotta, Viviana Parreño and Samuel Orlando Miño
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 211; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020211 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 483
Abstract
Rotavirus alphagastroenteritidis is the major causative agent of acute gastroenteritis in both children under the age of 5 and young mammals and birds globally. RVAs are non-enveloped viruses with a genome comprising 11 double-stranded RNA segments. In 2008, the Rotavirus Classification Working Group [...] Read more.
Rotavirus alphagastroenteritidis is the major causative agent of acute gastroenteritis in both children under the age of 5 and young mammals and birds globally. RVAs are non-enveloped viruses with a genome comprising 11 double-stranded RNA segments. In 2008, the Rotavirus Classification Working Group pioneered a comprehensive and complete RVA genome classification system, establishing a specific threshold, which measures the genetic distances between homologous genes. The aim of this study was to perform an updated systematic analysis of the genetic variability across all RVA genes. Our investigation involved assessing the established cutoff values for each RVA genome segment and determining the need for any updates. To achieve this objective, multiple sequence alignments were constructed for all 11 genes and one for each genotype with discrepancies. Also, pairwise distances along with their cutoff values were evaluated. The analyses provided insights into the current relevance of cutoff values, which remain applicable for the majority of genotypes. In conclusion, this study fortifies the current classification system by highlighting its robustness and accurate genotyping of Rotavirus alphagastroenteritidis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Virus Bioinformatics 2024)
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15 pages, 2773 KiB  
Case Report
Novel Oronasal Drainage for Long COVID: Proposed Mechanisms—Case Report
by Claudia Lorenz and Roland Frankenberger
Viruses 2025, 17(2), 210; https://doi.org/10.3390/v17020210 - 31 Jan 2025
Viewed by 1563
Abstract
Long COVID, potentially emerging post COVID-19 infection, involves extreme health challenges. Based on current literature in the field, we propose a novel approach to Long COVID treatment based on epipharyngeal abrasive therapy targeting ostia of the oral and nasal mucosa, having been identified [...] Read more.
Long COVID, potentially emerging post COVID-19 infection, involves extreme health challenges. Based on current literature in the field, we propose a novel approach to Long COVID treatment based on epipharyngeal abrasive therapy targeting ostia of the oral and nasal mucosa, having been identified for the first time. The presented case report documents the application of innovative oronasal drainage (OND), a novel treatment integrating physiological, biochemical, and fluid mechanical components simultaneously. OND led to remarkable improvements and even remissions of various symptoms, along with enhanced hand blood circulation. While the case suggests potential efficacy in Long COVID therapy, acknowledging inherent limitations is essential and its impact needs further validation through clinical trials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue COVID-19 Complications and Co-infections)
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