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A special issue of Waste (ISSN 2813-0391).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 October 2023) | Viewed by 43344

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Dr. Vassilis Athanasiadis

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Guest Editor

Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Thessaly, Terma N. Temponera Str., 43100 Karditsa, Greece
Interests: functional foods; polyphenols; antioxidants; public health; nutritional evaluation; natural product extracts
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Dr. Dimitris P. Makris

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Guest Editor

Department of Food Science & Nutrition, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, N. Temponera Street, 43100 Karditsa, Greece
Interests: natural antioxidants; polyphenol extraction; food and beverage polyphenols; valorization of beverage industry waste; green extraction
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Agricultural practices, industrial manufacturing, and household consumption are just a few of the activities that contribute to the production of food waste biomass. Modern environmental theories, like the circular economy, are thought to be the impulse behind the implementation of zero-waste policies. A huge percentage of this residual biomass has significant potential to be used as a raw material to produce novel products and specialty feedstock through biorefining procedures, even though the high volume of waste originating from the food industry raises serious concerns regarding both economic and environmental aspects.

Given that many plant parts that are rejected during fruit and vegetable processing (e.g., leaves, branches, peels, roots, stems, and seeds) carry a sizable load of such phytochemicals, including polyphenols, the recovery of valuable secondary metabolites from waste plant tissues is an appealing prospect in this regard. This specific group of substances includes a wide range of chemical compositions with diverse biological characteristics and functions, including antioxidant and antibacterial activities as well as chemoprotective effects against cancer and other degenerative diseases.

As a result, the purpose of this Special Issue of Waste is to provide a collection of scientific papers focusing on agri-food waste and biomass valorization, natural product extraction applications, and the health potential of bioactive compounds.

Dr. Vassilis Athanasiadis
Dr. Dimitris P. Makris
Guest Editors

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Waste is an international peer-reviewed open access quarterly journal published by MDPI.

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Keywords

agri-food wastes
antioxidants
bioactive compounds
biomass
biorefinery
by-products
green extraction
health potentials
polyphenols
valorization

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Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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9 pages, 1240 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Extraction of Bioactive Compounds via Solid-State Fermentation Using Aspergillus niger GH1 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae from Pomegranate Peel

by Ana L. Izábal-Carvajal, Leonardo Sepúlveda, Mónica L. Chávez-González, Cristian Torres-León, Cristóbal N. Aguilar and Juan A. Ascacio-Valdés

Waste 2023, 1(3), 806-814; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1030047 - 8 Sep 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1984

Abstract

This study investigated the recovery of polyphenolic compounds such as punicalagin, punicalin, and ellagic acid via solid-state fermentation (SSF)-assisted extraction from pomegranate peel (Punica granatum L.) using Aspergillus niger GH1 and Saccharomhyces cerevisiae. Food processing has contributed to the increase in agroindustrial wastes, which has become a global concern due to environmental protection. However, these wastes can be valorized via the extraction of high-value components such as bioactive compounds. Ellagitannins extracted during the bioprocesses were identified via the HPLC–MS technique and quantified via total polyphenols (hydrolyzable and condensed assays). Enzymatic activities were tested. HPLC–MS analysis showed a decrease in the levels of punicalagin, the formation of punicaline, and the accumulation of ellagic acid during fermentation kinetics. The present study compares two different bioprocesses in order to obtain, from agroindustrial wastes, high-added-value compounds using SSF-. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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21 pages, 30191 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Mechanical Properties of a Bio-Composite Produced from Two Biomaterials: Polylactic Acid and Brown Eggshell Waste Fillers

by Duncan Cree, Stephen Owuamanam and Majid Soleimani

Waste 2023, 1(3), 740-760; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1030044 - 1 Sep 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2150

Abstract

An option to reduce the exploitation and depletion of natural mineral resources is to repurpose current waste materials. Fillers are often added to polymers to improve the properties and lower the overall cost of the final product. Very few studies have assessed the use of waste brown eggshell powder (BESP) as filler in polylactic acid (PLA). The addition of mineral fillers in a polymer matrix can play an important role in the performance of a composite under load. Therefore, tailoring the amount of filler content can be a deciding factor as to which filler amount is best. The goal of this study was to investigate the effect of brown eggshells compared to conventional limestone (LS) powder on the mechanical properties of PLA composites. One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to carry out the statistical analysis on the average values of each composite mechanical property tested. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to view if there were any differences in the fractured surfaces. Overall, the LS performed marginally better than the BESP fillers. The highest ultimate tensile and ultimate flexural strengths for eggshell composites containing 32 µm fillers had values of 48 MPa (5–10 wt.% BESP) and 67 MPa (10 wt.%. BESP), respectively. Both the tensile and flexural modulus improved with filler contents and were highest at 20 wt.% with values of 4.5 GPa and 3.4 GPa, respectively. The Charpy impact strength decreased for all filler amounts. SEM micrographs identified changes in the fractured surfaces due to the additions of the filler materials. The ANOVA results showed statistically significant differences for the composite materials. After five weeks of soaking in distilled water, the composites containing 20 wt.% BESP fillers had the highest weight gain. The study demonstrated that waste brown eggshells in powdered form can be used as a filler in PLA composites. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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13 pages, 1568 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Establishing Experimental Conditions to Produce Lignin-Degrading Enzymes on Wheat Bran by Trametes versicolor CM13 Using Solid State Fermentation

by Paul W. Baker and Adam Charlton

Waste 2023, 1(3), 711-723; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1030042 - 18 Aug 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1790

Abstract

Valorisation of wheat bran can be achieved by solid state fermentation (SSF), through application of this material as a growth substrate for a natural white rot fungal isolate, Trametes versicolor CM13, to produce lignin-degrading enzymes. One of the main challenges in optimising and upscaling (SSF) processes is the accurate adjustment and maintenance of moisture conditions. This factor was assessed in the scale up of microcosms and was evaluated over 28 days, under two slightly different moisture contents, reflecting minor differences in experimental conditions during set up and operation of the SSF process. In addition, the microcosms were processed differently from the initial trial using homogenisation of whole microcosms to create a homogeneous mixture prior to sampling. This appeared to result in less variation among the collected samples from the microcosms. Variation of measured parameters as a percentage of actual values measured ranged from 1.33% to 144% in the unmixed microcosms and from 0.77% to 36.0% in the pre-mixed microcosms. Decomposition in the more saturated microcosms progressed more quickly as hemicellulose content decreased and reached a steady state after 14 days, whereas hemicellulose content continued to decrease until 21 days in the less saturated microcosms. Lignin-degrading enzyme activities were not significantly different between either sets of experiments except for laccase on day 7. Laccase and manganese peroxidase activities were highest on day 21 and were similar in both sets of experiments. Enzyme activities on day 21 in the microcosms at moisture content of 42.9% and at 54.6% for laccase activities were 750 ± 30.5 and 820 ± 30.8 units, and for manganese peroxidase, activities were 23.3 ± 6.45 and 21.4 ± 21.4 units, respectively. These results revealed different decomposition rates during the early stage of solid-state fermentation as a function of the initial moisture content, whereas final enzyme activities and fibre content during the later stage were similar in microcosms having different moisture contents at the start. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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17 pages, 2072 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Acidogenesis of Pentose Liquor to Produce Biohydrogen and Organic Acids Integrated with 1G–2G Ethanol Production in Sugarcane Biorefineries

by Guilherme Peixoto, Gustavo Mockaitis, Wojtyla Kmiecik Moreira, Daniel Moureira Fontes Lima, Marisa Aparecida de Lima, Filipe Vasconcelos Ferreira, Lucas Tadeu Fuess, Igor Polikarpov and Marcelo Zaiat

Waste 2023, 1(3), 672-688; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1030040 - 5 Aug 2023

Viewed by 1817

Abstract

Second-generation (2G) ethanol production has been increasingly evaluated, and the use of sugarcane bagasse as feedstock has enabled the integration of this process with first-generation (1G) ethanol production from sugarcane. The pretreatment of bagasse generates pentose liquor as a by-product, which can be anaerobically processed to recover energy and value-added chemicals. The potential to produce biohydrogen and organic acids from pentose liquor was assessed using a mesophilic (25 °C) upflow anaerobic packed-bed bioreactor in this study. An average organic loading rate of 11.1 g COD·L⁻¹·d⁻¹ was applied in the reactor, resulting in a low biohydrogen production rate of 120 mL·L⁻¹ d⁻¹. Meanwhile, high lactate (38.6 g·d⁻¹), acetate (31.4 g·d⁻¹), propionate (50.1 g·d⁻¹), and butyrate (50.3 g·d⁻¹) production rates were concomitantly obtained. Preliminary analyses indicated that the full-scale application of this anaerobic acidogenic technology for hydrogen production in a medium-sized 2G ethanol distillery would have the potential to completely fuel 56 hydrogen-powered vehicles per day. An increase of 24.3% was estimated over the economic potential by means of chemical production, whereas an 8.1% increase was calculated if organic acids were converted into methane for cogeneration (806.73 MWh). In addition, 62.7 and 74.7% of excess organic matter from the 2G ethanol waste stream could be removed with the extraction of organic acid as chemical commodities or their utilization as a substrate for biomethane generation, respectively. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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20 pages, 11708 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Rosaceae Nut-Shells as Sustainable Aggregate for Potential Use in Non-Structural Lightweight Concrete

by Veronica D’Eusanio, Lucia Bertacchini, Andrea Marchetti, Mattia Mariani, Stefano Pastorelli, Michele Silvestri and Lorenzo Tassi

Waste 2023, 1(2), 549-568; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1020033 - 6 Jun 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1889

Abstract

Apricot (AS), peach (PS), and plum shells (PlS) were examined as sustainable aggregates for non-structural lightweight concrete. The extraction of natural resources has a significant environmental impact and is not in line with the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of Agenda 2030. Recycling agri-food waste, such as fruit shells, fully respects circular economy principles and SDGs. The chemical and physical properties of the shells were investigated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for microstructure analysis and TG-MS-EGA for thermal stress behavior. Two binding mixtures were used to prepare the concrete samples, one containing lime only (mixture “a”) and one containing both lime and cement (mixture “b”). Lime is a more sustainable building material but it compromises mechanical strength and durability. The performance of lightweight concrete was determined based on the type of aggregate used. PS had a high-water absorption capacity due to numerous micropores, resulting in lower density (1000–1200 kg/m³), compressive strength (1–4 MPa), and thermal conductivity (0.15–0.20 W/mK) of PS concrete. AS concrete showed the opposite trend (1120–1260 kg/m³; 2.8–7.0 MPa; 0.2–0.4 W/mK) due to AS microporosity-free and denser structure. PlS has intermediate characteristics in terms of porosity, density, and water absorption, resulting in concrete with intermediate characteristics (1050–1240 kg/m³; 1.9–5.2 MPa; 0.15–0.3 W/mK). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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17 pages, 1993 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Promoting Sustainable Fruit and Vegetable Biowaste Management and Industrial Symbiosis through an Innovative Web Platform

by Ioannis Varvaringos, Eva Skourtanioti, Georgios Letsos, Evgenia Rizoudi, Ektoras Makras, Margarita Panagiotopoulou, Sofia Papadaki and Katerina Valta

Waste 2023, 1(2), 532-548; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1020032 - 5 Jun 2023

Viewed by 2825

Abstract

Sustainable bioeconomy is a promising pathway towards the transition to a circular and climate-neutral economy. The valorization of biowaste is a key player in this direction. This paper presents the design and development of the AgriPLaCE Platform, which aims to promote synergies that enable the utilization of biowaste from the fruit and vegetable supply chain. The platform consists of the AgriPLaCE Waste Management Database, which provides users with an extended list of potential utilization methods for various types of fruit and vegetable biowaste streams, and the AgriPLaCE Synergies Tool, which facilitates synergies between different actors involved in the biowaste-to-resource value chain from agricultural waste production to waste treatment and new valuable products’ exploitation. Initially, the conceptual design of both tools took place based on analysis of user needs and services alongside the system architecture. Following this, the AgriPLaCE Platform was developed with the implementation of all the necessary subsystems. The results of the platform’s implementation demonstrated its potential to generate multiple collaborations and synergies while users can also deepen their knowledge about alternative and emerging treatment technologies and valuable products from a wide range of fruit and vegetable biowaste streams. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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18 pages, 2173 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Twin-Screw Extrusion Mechanical Pretreatment for Enhancing Biomethane Production from Agro-Industrial, Agricultural and Catch Crop Biomasses

by Arthur Chevalier, Philippe Evon, Florian Monlau, Virginie Vandenbossche and Cecilia Sambusiti

Waste 2023, 1(2), 497-514; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1020030 - 22 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2302

Abstract

This study aimed to evaluate the effects of mechanical treatment through twin-screw extrusion for the enhancement of biomethane production. Four lignocellulosic biomasses (i.e., sweetcorn by-products, whole triticale, corn stover and wheat straw) were evaluated, and two different shear stress screw profiles were tested. Chemical composition, particle size reduction, tapped density and cellulose crystallinity were assessed to show the effect of extrusion pretreatment on substrate physico-chemical properties and their biochemical methane production (BMP) capacities. Both mechanical pretreatments allowed an increase in the proportion of particles with a diameter size less than 1 mm (from 3.7% to 72.7%). The most restrictive profile also allowed a significant solubilization of water soluble coumpounds, from 5.5% to 13%. This high-shear extrusion also revealed a reduction in cellulose crystallinity for corn stover (i.e., 8.6% reduction). Sweetcorn by-products revealed the highest BMP values (338–345 NmL/gVS), followed by corn stover (264–286 NmL/gVS), wheat straw (247–270 NmL/gVS) and whole triticale (233–247 NmL/gVS). However, no statistical improvement in maximal BMP production was provided by twin-screw extrusion. Nevertheless, BMP kinetic analysis proved that both extrusion pretreatments were able to increase the specific rate constant (from 13% to 56% for soft extrusion and from 66% to 107% for the high-shear one). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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33 pages, 2303 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Detailed Database of the Chemical Properties and Methane Potential of Biomasses Covering a Large Range of Common Agricultural Biogas Plant Feedstocks

by Audrey Lallement, Christine Peyrelasse, Camille Lagnet, Abdellatif Barakat, Blandine Schraauwers, Samuel Maunas and Florian Monlau

Waste 2023, 1(1), 195-227; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1010014 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 3321

Abstract

Agricultural biogas plants are increasingly being used in Europe as an alternative source of energy. To optimize the sizing and operation of existing or future biogas plants, a better knowledge of different feedstocks is needed. Our aim is to characterize 132 common agricultural feedstocks in terms of their chemical composition (proteins, fibers, elemental analysis, etc.) and biochemical methane potential shared in five families: agro-industrial products, silage and energy crops, lignocellulosic biomass, manure, and slurries. Among the families investigated, manures and slurries exhibited the highest ash and protein contents (10.3–13.7% DM). High variabilities in C/N were observed among the various families (19.5% DM for slurries and 131.7% DM for lignocellulosic biomass). Methane potentials have been reported to range from 63 Nm³ CH₄/t VS (green waste) to 551 Nm3 CH₄/t VS (duck slurry), with a mean value of 284 Nm³ CH₄/t VS. In terms of biodegradability, lower values of 52% and 57% were reported for lignocelluloses biomasses and manures, respectively, due to their high fiber content, especially lignin. By contrast, animal slurries, silage, and energy crops exhibited a higher biodegradability of 70%. This database will be useful for project owners during the pre-study phases and during the operation of future agricultural biogas plants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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10 pages, 1773 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Washing Methods for Remove Sodium Chloride from Oyster Shell Waste: A Comparative Study

by Jung Eun Park, Sang Eun Lee and Seokhwi Kim

Waste 2023, 1(1), 166-175; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1010012 - 10 Jan 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3645

Abstract

The oyster shell is a valuable calcium resource; however, its application is limited by its high NaCl content. Therefore, to establish the use of oyster shells as a viable resource, conditional experiments were conducted to select optimum parameters for NaCl removal. For this purpose, we compared leaching methods with batch and sequential procedures, determined the volume of water used for washing, and evaluated the mixing speed. The batch system removed NaCl when washed for >24 h over a shell to water ratio of 1:5. Results from the batch experiments confirmed that washing twice can completely remove NaCl from the shells on a like-for-like basis. Additionally, the efficiency of washing was sequentially evaluated in terms of the number of washing cycles. Compared to batch experiments, continuous washing could remove NaCl in approximately 10 min at a shell to water ratio of 1:4. We found that regardless of the washing methods, the volume of water used for washing is key for enhancing NaCl removal. Consequently, increasing the volume of water used for washing coupled with a proper sorting of fine particles can help enhance the purity of calcium, which will enable the use of oyster shell as an alternate Ca-resource. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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Review

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19 pages, 1541 KiB

Open AccessReview

Overview of the Biotransformation of Limonene and α-Pinene from Wood and Citrus Residues by Microorganisms

by Adama Ndao and Kokou Adjallé

Waste 2023, 1(4), 841-859; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1040049 - 4 Oct 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4405

Abstract

This review provides an overview of the biotransformation of limonene and α-pinene, which are commonly found in wood residues and citrus fruit by-products, to produce high-value-added products. Essential oils derived from various plant parts contain monoterpene hydrocarbons, such as limonene and pinenes which are often considered waste due to their low sensory activity, poor water solubility, and tendency to autoxidize and polymerise. However, these terpene hydrocarbons serve as ideal starting materials for microbial transformations. Moreover, agro-industrial byproducts can be employed as nutrient and substrate sources, reducing fermentation costs, and enhancing industrial viability. Terpenes, being secondary metabolites of plants, are abundant in byproducts generated during fruit and plant processing. Microbial cells offer advantages over enzymes due to their higher stability, rapid growth rates, and genetic engineering potential. Fermentation parameters can be easily manipulated to enhance strain performance in large-scale processes. The economic advantages of biotransformation are highlighted by comparing the prices of substrates and products. For instance, R-limonene, priced at US$ 34/L, can be transformed into carveol, valued at around US$ 530/L. This review emphasises the potential of biotransformation to produce high-value products from limonene and α-pinene molecules, particularly present in wood residues and citrus fruit by-products. The utilisation of microbial transformations, along with agro-industrial byproducts, presents a promising approach to extract value from waste materials and enhance the sustainability of the antimicrobial, the fragrance and flavour industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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37 pages, 6504 KiB

Open AccessReview

Value Chain Analysis of Rice Industry by Products in a Circular Economy Context: A Review

by W. A. M. A. N. Illankoon, Chiara Milanese, Maria Cristina Collivignarelli and Sabrina Sorlini

Waste 2023, 1(2), 333-369; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1020022 - 4 Apr 2023

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 7511

Abstract

The quantity of organic waste generated by agricultural sectors is continually increasing due to population growth and rising food demand. Rice is the primary consumable food in Asia. However, many stakeholders follow a linear economic model such as the “take–make–waste” concept. This linear model leads to a substantial environmental burden and the destruction of valuable resources without gaining their actual value. Because these by-products can be converted into energy generating and storage materials, and into bio-based products by cascading transformation processes within the circular economy concept, waste should be considered a central material. This review examines the composition of rice straw, bran, and husks, and the procedures involved in manufacturing value-added goods, from these wastes. Moreover, starting with an extensive literature analysis on the rice value chains, this work systematizes and displays a variety of strategies for using these by-products. The future development of agricultural waste management is desirable to capitalize on the multi-functional product by circulating all the by-products in the economy. According to the analysis of relevant research, rice straw has considerable potential as a renewable energy source. However, there is a significant research gap in using rice bran as an energy storage material. Additionally, modified rice husk has increased its promise as an adsorbent in the bio-based water treatment industry. Furthermore, the case study of Sri Lanka revealed that developing countries have a huge potential to value these by-products in various sectors of the economy. Finally, this paper provides suggestions for researchers and policymakers to improve the current agriculture waste management system with the best option and integrated approach for economic sustainability and eco- and environmental solution, considering some case studies to develop sustainable waste management processes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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17 pages, 2832 KiB

Open AccessReview

Review on Aquatic Weeds as Potential Source for Compost Production to Meet Sustainable Plant Nutrient Management Needs

by D. M. N. S. Dissanayaka, S. S. Udumann, D. K. R. P. L. Dissanayake, T. D. Nuwarapaksha and Anjana J. Atapattu

Waste 2023, 1(1), 264-280; https://doi.org/10.3390/waste1010017 - 25 Jan 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 7443

Abstract

As a result of the increase in agricultural production and environmental pollution, waste management and disposal are becoming vital. Proper treatments, such as converting abundant bio-mass wastes into beneficial materials, might mitigate the negative effects and convert waste into reusable resources. Aquatic weeds are a significant concern in the majority of water bodies. Their quick growth, rapid ecological adaptations, and lack of natural enemies make these plants invasive, problematic, and challenging to manage over time. Although there are many methods to manage aquatic weeds, composting has been identified as one of the easily adapted and eco-friendly methods for transferring nutrients to the cropping cycle. Their short life cycle, higher biomass yield, higher nutrient compositions, and allelopathic and phytoremediation properties confirm their suitability as raw materials for composting. Most aquatic ecosystems can be maintained in optimum conditions while facilitating maximum benefits for life by identifying and developing proper composting techniques. Studying the ecology and morphological features of aquatic weeds is essential for this purpose. This is an overview of identifying the potential of aquatic weeds as a source of composting, targeting sustainable plant nutrient management while managing weeds. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Agri-Food Wastes and Biomass Valorization)

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