Sports

10 pages, 236 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Gender-Based Analysis of Oral Health Outcomes Among Elite Athletes

by Alejandro Carlos de la Parte-Serna, Francesca Monticelli, Francisco Pradas, Miguel Lecina and Alejandro García-Giménez

Sports 2025, 13(5), 133; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13050133 - 27 Apr 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 634

Abstract

Background: Research in dental science reveals a need for enhanced oral healthcare among elite athletes due to the stress generated by excessive exercise. Consideration of the inherent biological distinctions between men and women is crucial in sports dentistry. Objectives: Thus, this study aims [...] Read more.

Background: Research in dental science reveals a need for enhanced oral healthcare among elite athletes due to the stress generated by excessive exercise. Consideration of the inherent biological distinctions between men and women is crucial in sports dentistry. Objectives: Thus, this study aims to analyse the differences in oral health status among elite athletes based on gender. A total of 186 elite athletes (150 men and 36 women) recognised in the region of Aragon (Spain) participated in this study (mean age 24.99 ± 9.34), all of whom practise individual sports. Methods: Oral health status analysis included: periodontal, malocclusion and tooth status measured using the restoration index (RI) and the decayed, missing and filled teeth (DMFT) index. Results: Women had fewer teeth, a lower restoration index (p < 0.05) and lower DMFT index values (p < 0.001); furthermore, this group showed a greater number of missing teeth (p < 0.001) and decayed teeth (p < 0.05). There were no statistical differences in malocclusion, plaque, gingival bleeding, dental erosion or bruxism values between the genders. Mouthguard usage was low (men = 9.4% vs. women = 14.3%; p = 0.57). Conclusions: This study highlights the need for a multidisciplinary approach to address the high prevalence of oral health issues among elite athletes, despite the differences in health status between men and women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Competition and Sports Training: A Challenge for Public Health)

15 pages, 1542 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Comparison of External and Internal Training Loads in Elite Junior Male Tennis Players During Offensive vs. Defensive Strategy Conditions: A Pilot Study

by Péter János Tóth, Gabriella Trzaskoma-Bicsérdy, Łukasz Trzaskoma, János Négyesi, Károly Dobos, Krisztián Havanecz, Sándor Sáfár and Csaba Ökrös

Sports 2025, 13(4), 101; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040101 - 26 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 962

Abstract

The aim of our pilot study was to investigate the effects of offensive and defensive strategy conditions on external and internal training load factors in male tennis players. This study included six elite junior male tennis players (chronological age: 15.7 ± 1.0; body [...] Read more.

The aim of our pilot study was to investigate the effects of offensive and defensive strategy conditions on external and internal training load factors in male tennis players. This study included six elite junior male tennis players (chronological age: 15.7 ± 1.0; body height: 180.7 ± 6.5 cm; body mass: 71.0 ± 10.8 kg) who had to play two simulated matches. Among the external training load variables, running activities were measured with a GPS sensor operating at 10 Hz and a 100 Hz tri-axial piezoelectric linear accelerometer integrated into it; furthermore, tennis shot activities were measured with a tennis racket-mounted smart sensor. Internal training load was measured subjectively using the RPE method. The results show that players scored significantly higher on the PlayerLoad (p = 0.031; r = 0.90) and IMA CoD low right (p = 0.031; r = 0.90) running variables and on the forehand spin (p = 0.031; r = 0.90) and backhand spin (p = 0.031; r = 0.90) when using a defensive strategy. There were no significant differences between the two strategy conditions in all other external and internal training load parameters. The defensive strategy has more acceleration in all three planes of motion, suggesting that conditioning training should be placed in the intermittent endurance capacities for players who predominantly use this strategy. Full article

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16 pages, 2567 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Fecal Microbiota and Associated Metabolites Are Minimally Affected by Ten Weeks of Resistance Training in Younger and Older Adults

by Anthony Agyin-Birikorang, Sarah Lennon, Kristen S. Smith, William Van Der Pol, Morgan A. Smith, Casey L. Sexton, Donald A. Lamb, Kaelin C. Young, Christopher Brooks Mobley, Kevin W. Huggins, Michael D. Roberts and Andrew Dandridge Frugé

Sports 2025, 13(4), 98; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040098 - 26 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 965

Abstract

Preclinical evidence suggests that short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut microbiota may impact body composition and muscle growth. While aging is implicated in negative alterations to the gut microbiome, exercise may mitigate these changes. Limited human evidence indicates that resistance training [...] Read more.

Preclinical evidence suggests that short chain fatty acids (SCFAs) produced by gut microbiota may impact body composition and muscle growth. While aging is implicated in negative alterations to the gut microbiome, exercise may mitigate these changes. Limited human evidence indicates that resistance training (RT) does not appreciably alter the gut microbiome in older adults, and no human study has examined whether resistance training differentially alters the gut microbiome and associated SCFAs between younger and older individuals. Therefore, we examined whether 10 weeks of RT differentially altered fecal microbiota composition, fecal and circulating SCFAs, and serum markers associated with gastrointestinal integrity in two cohorts of adults. Fecal and serum samples were obtained from untrained younger (22 ± 2 years, n = 12) and older (58 ± 8 years, n = 12) participants prior to and following 10 weeks of supervised twice-weekly full-body RT. Outcome measures immediately before (PRE) and after the intervention (POST) included dual X-ray absorptiometry for body composition, ultrasound for vastus lateralis (VL) thickness, 16S rRNA gene sequencing fecal microbiome data, serum and fecal SCFAs measured by gas chromatography, and serum intestinal fatty acid-binding protein 2 (FABP2), lipopolysaccharide-binding protein (LBP), and leucine-rich alpha-2 glycoprotein (LRG-1) quantified by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. Main effects and interactions were measured by repeated measures analysis of variance (group × time; G × T) for all dependent variables, and Spearman correlations were used to explore relationships among changes in relevant outcomes. The intervention significantly increased VL thickness and lean body mass (p < 0.05) equally in both groups. Although group differences in microbiome beta diversity were identified, no effects of age, time, or their interaction were observed for the alpha diversity measures. Seven SCFAs were detected in the fecal samples, albeit no significant age, time, or interaction effects were evident. In serum, acetic acid was the only SCFA detected, with no significant age, time, or interaction effects. Serum LRG1 decreased for all participants (p = 0.007) with higher levels in younger adults (p = 0.015), but no G × T interactions were observed for this marker, serum FABP2, or LBP. No significant correlations were observed among RT-induced changes in muscle mass-related outcomes and changes in fecal microbiome diversity, total or individual SCFAs, or serum FABP2/LBP/LRG-1. These results highlight that 10 weeks of RT largely does not affect fecal microbiota, associated SCFAs, or select markers of gastrointestinal integrity in untrained younger or older adults. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strategies to Improve Modifiable Factors of Athletic Success)

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16 pages, 463 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Relationship Between Motivation for Physical Activity, Physical Activity Level, and Body Mass Index for University Students

by Stefan Alecu, Gheorghe Adrian Onea and Dana Badau

Sports 2025, 13(4), 96; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13040096 - 25 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1847

Abstract

The object of the study was to identify the relationship between the motivation for physical activity, the physical activity index (PAI), and the body mass index (BMI) for a sample of university students, taking into consideration the gender difference. The study subjects were [...] Read more.

The object of the study was to identify the relationship between the motivation for physical activity, the physical activity index (PAI), and the body mass index (BMI) for a sample of university students, taking into consideration the gender difference. The study subjects were 813 (340 men and 473 women), and the age range of the participants varied between 18 and 25 years. The RM 4-FM (Motivation for Physical Activity and Exercise) and PAI online questionnaires were applied to measure the motivation and the physical activity level. The study’s novelty focused on analyzing how intrinsic and extrinsic motivation interact and correlate BMI and physical activity levels (PAI). Regarding gender, we approached the identification of motivational differences and the level of physical activity of students from non-sports faculties to identify relevant aspects for promoting proactive behaviors. Results revealed significant gender differences: men had a higher PAI (53.48 ± 28.11) than women (36.67 ± 23.92, p < 0.01); BMI (23.25 vs. 21.69, p < 0.01). The Cohen’s value of RAI of RM 4-FM, BMI, and PAI were > 0.5, indicating a large effect size. The analysis presents a unique perspective of the interactions between psychological factors, motivation, and physical characteristics, providing insight into developing strategies to improve and promote a proactive lifestyle. Full article

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14 pages, 3028 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Efficacy of Soleus Push-Up in Individuals with Prediabetes: A Pilot Study

by Dávid Elek, Miklós Tóth, Balázs Sonkodi, Pongrác Ács, Gábor L. Kovács, Péter Tardi and Csaba Melczer

Sports 2025, 13(3), 81; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13030081 - 10 Mar 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6200

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Hamilton and colleagues invented the soleus push-up exercise and showed that this exercise method was successful in reducing postprandial blood glucose levels in sedentary individuals. The objective of the current pilot study was to assess the efficacy of the soleus push-up in [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Hamilton and colleagues invented the soleus push-up exercise and showed that this exercise method was successful in reducing postprandial blood glucose levels in sedentary individuals. The objective of the current pilot study was to assess the efficacy of the soleus push-up in individuals with prediabetes and to evaluate the feasibility of incorporating this exercise method into their daily routine. Methods: Ten participants (mean age: 53.3 ± 2.7 years; four females, six males) with prediabetes were included in the study. Initially, participants underwent an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT) while being sedentary to establish baseline postprandial blood glucose measurements. During a subsequent OGTT, participants concurrently performed the soleus push-up (SPU) exercise either with or without electromyographic (EMG) feedback. Blood glucose levels were measured at 15 min intervals over the two-hour duration of both OGTTs. Results: We observed that performing the SPU in a sitting position during the oral glucose tolerance test resulted in approximately a 32% reduction in postprandial glucose excursion compared to the sedentary baseline results. This effect was also present in the absence of EMG feedback. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that this repetitive, prolonged contractile muscle activity can improve metabolic regulation in prediabetic individuals without the need for a laboratory setting. SPU may be a viable and effective exercise to support metabolic health in home or work environments. However, further validation is needed with a larger sample size. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Muscle Metabolism, Fatigue and Recovery During Exercise Training)

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18 pages, 445 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effect of Task-Oriented Basketball Training on Motor Skill-Related Fitness in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder

by Faiçal Farhat, Achraf Ammar, Nourhen Mezghani, Mohamed Moncef Kammoun, Khaled Trabelsi, Adnene Gharbi, Lassad Sallemi, Haithem Rebai, Wassim Moalla and Bouwien Smits-Engelsman

Sports 2025, 13(3), 62; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13030062 - 20 Feb 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2190

Abstract

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood. DCD is classified as a motor learning deficit because it interferes with the ability to learn and automate movement skills. There is a lack of information on how these [...] Read more.

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is one of the most prevalent neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood. DCD is classified as a motor learning deficit because it interferes with the ability to learn and automate movement skills. There is a lack of information on how these children acquire complex motor skills relevant to their daily recreational or sports activities. Evidence to guide physical trainers, educators, and health professionals to select an effective type of training to improve physical fitness for children with poor motor coordination is scarce. The purpose of this study was to analyze the effect of an 8-week task-oriented basketball training program on motor coordination and motor skill-related fitness for DCD children in the school context. Motor performance and motor skill-related fitness were evaluated before and after the intervention using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2 (MABC-2) and Performance and Fitness Test Battery (PERF-FIT). A total of 52 children with DCD aged 8 to 9 were invited to join the intervention. Parents of 18 children accepted for their child to participate in the training program. In the remaining children, 20 identified as the most similar based on the diagnostic criteria for DCD (DSM-5) and anthropometric features (age, BMI) and were asked to participate as the usual care group. The difference in improvement on the MABC-2 and the PERF-FIT between the two groups on the two test occasions was compared using Mann–Whitney U tests. Within-group pre-post comparison on these test items was performed using the Wilcoxon signed rank test. Significant differences in all performance scores were found in favor of the training group. Post-hoc analysis revealed that the DCD training group improved significantly on MABC-2 total and subscores (p < 0.001) and on all PERF-FIT items (p < 0.001). No significant changes were found on any of the test items in the DCD usual care group. Group-based training in a more natural environment (playing games with peers in school) might help children with DCD as an adjunct to or before individual therapy. Based on our findings, we believe it is possible to work in large groups (n = 18), led by trained physical education teachers and special educators, to lessen the impact of motor coordination and physical fitness problems in children with neurodevelopmental disorders so that they can participate more easily in active games. Results of the usual care group showed that extra instruction and practice are needed for children with DCD. Full article

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14 pages, 249 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Study of the Load During Official Competition in Professional Women’s Basketball—A Case Study

by Pablo López-Sierra, Sergio L. Jiménez-Sáiz, Javier García-Rubio, María Isabel Piñar and Sergio J. Ibáñez

Sports 2025, 13(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020059 - 17 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 739

Abstract

Background: Basketball matches involve numerous conditioning factors which, when put together, make for a complex prediction event. However, unraveling all these elements in different studies allows the control of certain conditioning factors of the game, giving rise to more stable and controlled games. [...] Read more.

Background: Basketball matches involve numerous conditioning factors which, when put together, make for a complex prediction event. However, unraveling all these elements in different studies allows the control of certain conditioning factors of the game, giving rise to more stable and controlled games. Objectives: Due to the absence of studies that analyze professional matches in women’s basketball, the aim of the present research is to analyze the influence of the result, partial result and specific positions on the load in official competition between two women’s teams that play a match simultaneously. Methods: Using an ex post facto design, 19 professional players were measured in an official match of the Spanish second division of women’s basketball, monitoring both opponents simultaneously, obtaining at all times the contrast of loads between both teams. Inertial devices were used to measure the external and internal load of each player. Parametric and non-parametric statistical difference analyses were performed, as well as two linear mixed models. Results: The results reveal significant differences in external loading when loads are analyzed as a function of match outcome. Differences between external and internal load are found when taking into account specific positions, and when including several comparisons in the analysis. The team that obtained the highest kinematic and neuromuscular load demands was the one that won the match. The specific position of guard obtained a greater physical load at the end of the match than the centers. Conclusions: Coaches should prioritize high-intensity training that replicates match demands, considering positional differences in workload to optimize player conditioning and recovery strategies for sustained performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

30 pages, 1368 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Exercise Modalities for Improving Frontal Plane Knee and Foot Posture in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review

by Gülsüm Mandir Cömert and Markus Gruber

Sports 2025, 13(2), 52; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020052 - 11 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2761

Abstract

Lower extremity misalignments increase the risk of chronic overload and acute injuries during sports and daily activities. Medial positioning of the knee and foot in the frontal plane is one of the key biomechanical risk factors associated with lower extremity injuries and pain. [...] Read more.

Lower extremity misalignments increase the risk of chronic overload and acute injuries during sports and daily activities. Medial positioning of the knee and foot in the frontal plane is one of the key biomechanical risk factors associated with lower extremity injuries and pain. Different exercise interventions have been implemented to counteract misalignments. However, most studies have been conducted on clinical populations. Therefore, in this review, we aimed to assess the preventive effects of exercise interventions on frontal plane knee and foot posture in healthy individuals. Electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, PEDro) were systematically searched for original articles published between 2008 and 2024. This review included clinical trials on healthy adults (18–45 years) with or without lower extremity biomechanical misalignments, examining the effects of exercise interventions alone on knee and foot frontal plane biomechanics. Eligible studies reported at least one relevant frontal plane foot and knee biomechanical measure, such as knee valgus/abduction, medial knee displacement, foot pronation/eversion, or navicular drop. Studies involving non-exercise interventions, single-session protocols, and participants with neurological or spinal disorders, pain, or injury were excluded. A total of 35 articles with 1095 participants were included in this review. A total of 20 studies included individuals without a biomechanical misalignment, and 15 studies focused on individuals with a biomechanical misalignment. Mean values, standard deviations, and p-values were extracted from the included studies. Effect sizes and confidence intervals were then calculated to provide a quantitative presentation of the data. In conclusion, in healthy individuals without biomechanical misalignment, technique training and core muscles strengthening were most effective for improving knee valgus. Hip, core, and foot muscle strengthening reduced foot pronation in those with pronated feet, while short foot exercises improved foot positioning in individuals with flat feet. Combining lower extremity strengthening with knee position control training may reduce knee valgus in individuals with increased knee valgus. Full article

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12 pages, 857 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Correlations Between Body Composition and Aerobic Fitness in Elite Female Youth Water Polo Players

by Mark Zamodics, Mate Babity, Gusztav Schay, Tamas Leel-Ossy, Agnes Bucsko-Varga, Panka Kulcsar, Regina Benko, Dora Boroncsok, Alexandra Fabian, Adrienn Ujvari, Zsuzsanna Ladanyi, Dorottya Balla, Hajnalka Vago, Attila Kovacs, Eva Hosszu, Szilvia Meszaros, Csaba Horvath, Bela Merkely and Orsolya Kiss

Sports 2025, 13(2), 51; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020051 - 10 Feb 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1651

Abstract

Body composition and cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) are vital for optimizing sports performance, but the correlations between them are still underexplored. Our study aimed to investigate the relationships between body composition and specific CPET variables describing physical fitness in young athletes, also adjusting [...] Read more.

Body composition and cardiopulmonary exercise testing (CPET) are vital for optimizing sports performance, but the correlations between them are still underexplored. Our study aimed to investigate the relationships between body composition and specific CPET variables describing physical fitness in young athletes, also adjusting for age and height, in a less-studied, female population. Seventy players participated in our study (age: 16.10 ± 1.63 y). After determining body composition using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry, we conducted treadmill-based maximal-intensity CPET. Data were analyzed in R using multivariate linear regression, accounting for age and height as confounders. Lean body mass (LBM), body fat mass (BFM), and bone mineral content (BMC) showed no effect on resting, maximum, or recovery heart rates and no correlation with resting or maximal lactate values. LBM positively correlated with maximum ventilation (VE-max) (Est: 1.3 × 10⁻³; SE: 6.1 × 10⁻⁴; p < 0.05) and maximum absolute oxygen consumption (VO2_abs-max) (Est: 7.710⁻⁵; SE: 6.9 × 10⁻⁶; p < 0.001)—with age as an influencing factor for VE-max and height as an influencing factor for VO2_abs-max. Conversely, BFM showed a negative correlation with maximum relative oxygen consumption (VO2_rel-max) (Est: −4.8 × 10⁻⁴; SE: 1.2 × 10⁻⁴; p < 0.001). Moreover, BFM and BMC were also negatively correlated with maximal exercise duration (Est: −2.2 × 10⁻⁴; SE: 8.0 × 10⁻⁵; p < 0.01; Est: −3.2 × 10⁻³; SE: 1.4 × 10⁻³; p < 0.05) with height as an influencing factor. Our findings indicate complex correlations between body composition and CPET parameters, providing important information for the analysis of individual ergospirometric data. Our results draw attention to the fact that body composition is more precise than weight and height in the evaluation of athletes’ physical fitness. Full article

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32 pages, 1270 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Predictive Utility of the Functional Movement Screen and Y-Balance Test: Current Evidence and Future Directions

by Adam C. Eckart, Pragya Sharma Ghimire, James Stavitz and Stephen Barry

Sports 2025, 13(2), 46; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020046 - 8 Feb 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 4432

Abstract

Musculoskeletal injury (MSI) risk screening has gained significant attention in rehabilitation, sports, and fitness due to its ability to predict injuries and guide preventive interventions. This review analyzes the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) and the Y-Balance Test (YBT) landscape. Although these instruments are [...] Read more.

Musculoskeletal injury (MSI) risk screening has gained significant attention in rehabilitation, sports, and fitness due to its ability to predict injuries and guide preventive interventions. This review analyzes the Functional Movement Screen (FMS) and the Y-Balance Test (YBT) landscape. Although these instruments are widely used because of their simplicity and ease of access, their accuracy in predicting injuries is inconsistent. Significant issues include reliance on broad scoring systems, varying contextual relevance, and neglecting individual characteristics such as age, gender, fitness levels, and past injuries. Meta-analyses reveal that the FMS and YBT overall scores often lack clinical relevance, exhibiting significant variability in sensitivity and specificity among different groups. Findings support the effectiveness of multifactorial models that consider modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors such as workload ratios, injury history, and fitness data for better prediction outcomes. Advances in machine learning (ML) and wearable technology, including inertial measurement units (IMUs) and intelligent monitoring systems, show promise by capturing dynamic and personalized high-dimensional data. Such approaches enhance our understanding of how biomechanical, physiological, and contextual injury aspects interact. This review discusses the problems of conventional movement screens, highlights the necessity for workload monitoring and personalized evaluations, and promotes the integration of technology-driven and data-centered techniques. Adopting tailored, multifactorial models could significantly improve injury prediction and prevention across varied populations. Future research should refine these models to enhance their practical use in clinical and field environments. Full article

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14 pages, 254 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Reasons for the Practice, Abandonment, and Non-Practice of Extracurricular Physical Activity and Sport Among Primary and Secondary School Students in Cantabria: What Can We Do About It?

by Martín Barcala-Furelos, Iván González-Gutiérrez, Josune Rodríguez-Negro, Marcos Mecías-Calvo and Rubén Navarro-Patón

Sports 2025, 13(2), 44; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020044 - 7 Feb 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1120

Abstract

(1) Background: Physical education at school is not able to meet the need for physical activity and sport (PA and S) established by international organizations, making it necessary to implement its practice outside school hours. This study aimed to find out the reasons [...] Read more.

(1) Background: Physical education at school is not able to meet the need for physical activity and sport (PA and S) established by international organizations, making it necessary to implement its practice outside school hours. This study aimed to find out the reasons for practicing, abandoning, and never having practiced PA and S outside school hours among students of Primary Education (PE) and Secondary Education (SE) in Cantabria (Spain). (2) Overall, 1038 students participated (349 from PE and 689 from SE), consisting of 512 boys and 526 girls between 10 and 17 years old (M = 12.92; SD = 1.92). They completed an ad hoc questionnaire with 21 questions about reasons for practicing (12 items), abandoning (3 items), and never having practiced PA and S (6 items) between the months of May and June 2024. (3) Results: As for active students, boys argue that they do so because of the influence of friends (p = 0.024), search for excitement (p = 0.002), liking PA and S (p = 0.022), and entertainment (p = 0.001). In PE, compared to SE, the most important factors are excitement (p < 0.001), health (p = 0.005), and liking PA and S (p = 0.022). Students who abandon PA and S do so because of the competitive environment (p = 0.001), with boys predominating. SE students highlight reluctance and laziness (p < 0.001) and the loss of liking PA and S (p = 0.013). Students who have never practiced PA and S do so because they do not find any sport motivating (p = 0.047) and because of reluctance and laziness (p = 0.018), especially among girls. In SE, the differences appear due to reluctance and laziness (p = 0.009) and because friends do not practice PA and S (p = 0.049). (4) Conclusions: Boys prioritize emotional and competency aspects, while girls focus on social aspects and happiness. PE students tend to participate in sports for fun and to improve their skills, while SE students tend to show reluctance and laziness and a loss of interest in PA and S. Full article

16 pages, 1498 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Identification of Athleticism and Sports Profiles Throughout Machine Learning Applied to Heart Rate Variability

by Tony Estrella and Lluis Capdevila

Sports 2025, 13(2), 30; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13020030 - 22 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2167

Abstract

Heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive health and fitness indicator, and machine learning (ML) has emerged as a powerful tool for analysing large HRV datasets. This study aims to identify athletic characteristics using the HRV test and ML algorithms. Two models were [...] Read more.

Heart rate variability (HRV) is a non-invasive health and fitness indicator, and machine learning (ML) has emerged as a powerful tool for analysing large HRV datasets. This study aims to identify athletic characteristics using the HRV test and ML algorithms. Two models were developed: Model 1 (M1) classified athletes and non-athletes using 856 observations from high-performance athletes and 494 from non-athletes. Model 2 (M2) identified an individual soccer player within a team based on 105 observations from the player and 514 from other team members. Three ML algorithms were applied —Random Forest (RF), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), and Support Vector Machine (SVM)— and SHAP values were used to interpret the results. In M1, the SVM algorithm achieved the highest performance (accuracy = 0.84, ROC AUC = 0.91), while in M2 Random Forest performed best (accuracy = 0.92, ROC AUC = 0.94). Based on these results, we propose an athleticism index and a soccer identification index derived from HRV data. The findings suggest that ML algorithms, such as SVM and RF, can effectively generate indices based on HRV for identifying individuals with athletic characteristics or distinguishing athletes with specific sports profiles. These insights underscore the importance of integrating HRV assessments systematically into training regimens for enhanced athletic evaluation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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15 pages, 568 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Electrocardiographic Assessment of National-Level Triathletes: Sinus Bradycardia and Other Electrocardiographic Abnormalities

by Mike Climstein, Kenneth S. Graham, Michael Stapelberg, Joe Walsh, Mark DeBeliso, Kent Adams, Trish Sevene and Chad Harris

Sports 2025, 13(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010025 - 16 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1359

Abstract

Background: High-intensity endurance training induces specific cardiac adaptations, often observed through electrocardiographic (ECG) changes. This study investigated the prevalence of ECG abnormalities in national-level Australian triathletes compared to sedentary controls. Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted involving 22 triathletes and 7 sedentary [...] Read more.

Background: High-intensity endurance training induces specific cardiac adaptations, often observed through electrocardiographic (ECG) changes. This study investigated the prevalence of ECG abnormalities in national-level Australian triathletes compared to sedentary controls. Methods: A cross-sectional observational study was conducted involving 22 triathletes and 7 sedentary controls. Standard 12-lead ECGs assessed resting heart rate, ECG intervals, and axis deviation. Peak oxygen consumption was evaluated in triathletes to correlate with ECG indices and left ventricular mass, derived via echocardiography. Results: Triathletes exhibited significantly lower resting heart rates (53.8 vs. 72.1 bpm, −34%, p = 0.04), shorter QRS durations (0.088 vs. 0.107 ms, −21.6%, p = 0.01), and longer QT intervals (0.429 vs. 0.358 ms, +16.6%, p = 0.01) compared to controls. Sinus bradycardia was present in 68.2% of triathletes, with varying severity. First-degree atrioventricular block was identified in 13.6% of athletes, and left ventricular hypertrophy was confirmed in 18 triathletes via echocardiography. A significant positive relationship was identified between VO₂peak and left ventricular mass (r = 0.68, p = 0.003). Conclusions: National-level triathletes exhibited ECG and structural cardiac adaptations consistent with high-intensity endurance training. Echocardiography is recommended for the accurate identification of LVH. These findings highlight the need for comprehensive cardiac evaluation in athletes to distinguish between physiological and pathological adaptations. Full article

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12 pages, 562 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Concurrent Effects of Plyometric Interval Training Implemented in Physical Education Lessons on Adolescent Power and Endurance: An Analysis of Responder Prevalence

by Dawid Koźlenia, Katarzyna Kochan-Jacheć and Jarosław Domaradzki

Sports 2025, 13(1), 15; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010015 - 9 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1365

Abstract

Schools provide an ideal setting for enhancing adolescents’ health and fitness. Short-term intensive interventions are particularly relevant, but the effectiveness of plyometric exercises in jointly improving aerobic and anaerobic performance remains uncertain. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of plyometric-based training, in [...] Read more.

Schools provide an ideal setting for enhancing adolescents’ health and fitness. Short-term intensive interventions are particularly relevant, but the effectiveness of plyometric exercises in jointly improving aerobic and anaerobic performance remains uncertain. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of plyometric-based training, in the form of interval workouts during physical education lessons, on power and endurance in adolescents. A total of 87 boys and 95 girls (aged 14–15 years) participated in an 8-week intervention, performing plyometric exercises twice weekly during physical education classes. The analyzed parameters were jump height (JH) measured by countermovement jump (CMJ) and distance covered during multistage fitness test (MFT). The results showed significant improvements among boys participating in the JH experiment and the distance covered in the MFT (p < 0.05); thus, the effect sizes were relatively small (ES < 0.3). Also, the prevalence of positive responders was more common for boys than girls; however, the difference was statistically insignificant (p = 0.09). These findings suggest that plyometric training has the potential for improving physical fitness, even in the context of developing opposing physical abilities, particularly in boys. However, the effects varied across individuals and were generally small, highlighting the need to optimize the intervention to achieve more pronounced results tailored to individual characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport, Physical Activity, and Adolescent Health: Challenges and Opportunities)

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25 pages, 305 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Assessing Nutritional Knowledge and Physical Health Among Football Players: A Pilot Study from Three Sports Clubs in Western Romania

by Gabriel Roberto Marconi, Brigitte Osser, Gyongyi Osser, Caius Calin Miuța, Csongor Toth, Viorel Petru Ardelean, Anca Dicu, Corina Dalia Toderescu and Laura Ioana Bondar

Sports 2025, 13(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010016 - 9 Jan 2025

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2004

Abstract

Background: Football players require optimal nutrition and physical fitness to enhance their performance and maintain their health. Understanding the relationships among nutritional knowledge, dietary habits, physical health, and substance use in athletes is essential for developing effective strategies. This study investigates these factors [...] Read more.

Background: Football players require optimal nutrition and physical fitness to enhance their performance and maintain their health. Understanding the relationships among nutritional knowledge, dietary habits, physical health, and substance use in athletes is essential for developing effective strategies. This study investigates these factors in male football players aged 16–33 years. Methods: The study involved 60 male football players from three teams in Liga4Arad. A mixed-methods approach was used, incorporating a self-developed pilot questionnaire and internationally validated instruments. The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed using Guttman’s λ2. The questionnaire assessed nutritional knowledge, eating habits, substance use, and physical health parameters, including body fat percentage and training frequency. Spearman’s correlation was used to analyze the data and explore the interrelationships between these factors. It is important to note that the pilot questionnaire used in this study was self-developed and not previously validated in this specific context. Results: Nutritional knowledge was positively correlated with healthier eating habits (ρ = 0.675, p < 0.001). Intensive training and higher physical activity levels were both associated with improved body composition and lower body fat (ρ = 0.341, p = 0.006). Supplement use was moderately correlated with alcohol consumption (ρ = 0.548, p < 0.001) and weakly correlated with smoking (ρ = 0.348, p = 0.007). Conclusions: The study highlights a strong relationship between nutritional knowledge and healthier eating habits among football players, as well as the significant role of frequent intense training in reducing body fat percentages and enhancing physical fitness. Additionally, the findings suggest a moderate association between dietary supplement use and alcohol consumption, underscoring the need for tailored interventions to address substance use and its impact on players’ health behaviors and performance. Full article

16 pages, 284 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Severe Injuries of Former Portuguese Football Players: A Post-Career Burden?

by Eduardo Teixeira, Carlos Silva, Félix Romero, Mauro Miguel and António Vicente

Sports 2025, 13(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010017 - 9 Jan 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1168

Abstract

Background/Objectives: Football players have a high injury risk due to the physical demands of their profession, which can negatively affect their quality of life (QoL) in the long term. The aim of this study is to characterize the severe injuries that former Portuguese [...] Read more.

Background/Objectives: Football players have a high injury risk due to the physical demands of their profession, which can negatively affect their quality of life (QoL) in the long term. The aim of this study is to characterize the severe injuries that former Portuguese football players suffered throughout their professional careers and investigate the resulting impacts on the physical domain of QoL after retirement. Methods: This study includes 84 former Portuguese football players (48.8 ± 8.2 years) who underwent reform between 1988 and 2018 and played in professional leagues (15.2 ± 3.2 years of career duration), namely, first division leagues (n = 43) and secondary division leagues (n = 41). Quantitative and qualitative interview data are used by a validated interview guide and from results of the physical domain obtained by the application of the World Health Organization Quality of Life questionnaire (WHOQOL-Bref). Results: Former players had 2.1 ± 1.5 severe injuries throughout their careers. The most common injuries involve the knee (47.5%) and foot/ankle (17.2%), with the anatomical area of the knee as the most likely to require surgical intervention (60%). The association between tactical-positional status and the incidence of severe injuries is significant, with defenders sustaining less severe injuries throughout their careers. This study found a statistically significant linear model (F(1.82) = 8.089, p < 0.006) that explains 7.9% of the variation in the physical domain of QoL (R2ajuste = 0.079). For each severe injury sustained throughout a career, there is an estimated decrease of 2.7 values in QoL perception in the physical domain. Conclusions: The higher the number of severe injuries sustained during a career, the lower the perception of QoL in the physical domain of former players in their post-career. These findings highlight the need to optimize training programs and injury prevention and recovery protocols for long-term QoL improvement in the physical domain of football players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Healthcare of Athletes)

20 pages, 1226 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Brain Oxygenation During Exercise in Different Types of Chronic Lung Disease: A Narrative Review

by Stella Kritikou, Andreas Zafeiridis, Georgia Pitsiou, Ioannis Gkalgkouranas, Leonidas Kastritseas, Afroditi Boutou and Konstantina Dipla

Sports 2025, 13(1), 9; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010009 - 8 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1896

Abstract

Chronic lung diseases such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Interstitial Lung Disease (ILD), and Pulmonary Hypertension (PH) are characterized by progressive symptoms such as dyspnea, fatigue, and muscle weakness, often leading to physical inactivity, and reduced quality of life. Many patients also experience [...] Read more.

Chronic lung diseases such as Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Interstitial Lung Disease (ILD), and Pulmonary Hypertension (PH) are characterized by progressive symptoms such as dyspnea, fatigue, and muscle weakness, often leading to physical inactivity, and reduced quality of life. Many patients also experience significantly impaired exercise tolerance. While pulmonary, cardiovascular, respiratory, and peripheral muscle dysfunction contribute to exercise limitations, recent evidence suggests that hypoxia and impairments in cerebral oxygenation may also play a role in exercise intolerance. This narrative review (i) summarizes studies investigating cerebral oxygenation responses during exercise in patients with different types of chronic lung diseases and (ii) discusses possible mechanisms behind the blunted cerebral oxygenation during exercise reported in many of these conditions; however, the extent of cerebral desaturation and the intensity at which it occurs can vary. These differences depend on the specific pathophysiology of the lung disease and the presence of comorbidities. Notably, reduced cerebral oxygenation during exercise in fibrotic-ILD has been linked with the development of dyspnea and early exercise termination. Understanding the effects of chronic lung disease on cerebral oxygenation during exercise may improve our understanding of exercise intolerance mechanisms and help identify therapeutic strategies to enhance brain health and exercise capacity in these patients. Full article

(This article belongs to the Collection Human Physiology in Exercise, Health and Sports Performance)

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17 pages, 935 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

The Influence of Anthropometric Characteristics on Punch Impact

by Manuel Pinto, João Crisóstomo, Gil Silva and Luís Monteiro

Sports 2025, 13(1), 12; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010012 - 8 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1809

Abstract

Objective: This review examined the influence of anthropometric characteristics, such as body height (BH) and body mass (BM), on the impact of punches in striking-combat sports. Despite their perceived importance for combat strategy, the relationship between these characteristics and punch impact remains unclear. [...] Read more.

Objective: This review examined the influence of anthropometric characteristics, such as body height (BH) and body mass (BM), on the impact of punches in striking-combat sports. Despite their perceived importance for combat strategy, the relationship between these characteristics and punch impact remains unclear. Methods: We included experimental, quasi-experimental and cross-sectional studies. The search was conducted on 30 August 2024, in three databases. The review analyzed 23 studies involving 381 participants (304 men, 30 women, 47 participants of unknown gender). Various instruments were used in the included studies, including ten instruments used to measure impact force and two instruments used to measure impact power. Results: Impact force ranged from 989 ± 116.76 to 5008.6 ± 76.3 N, with rear-hand straight punches and rear-hand hooks producing the greatest force. The PowerKube, a device specifically designed to measure punch impact power, revealed that the rear-hand straight punch generated the highest power, ranging from 15,183.27 ± 4368.90 to 22,014 ± 1336 W. While higher BM categories were associated with stronger punches, BM alone was not the only predictor. Other factors, such as technique, gender, and sport type, also played roles. The relationship between BH and punch impact showed mixed results. Conclusions: The data suggest that while higher BM categories are associated with greater punch impact, BM is not the only determining factor. The relationship between BH and impact also showed mixed results, with no clear association found. The review highlights the lack of a “gold standard” instrument for evaluating punch impact. Full article

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14 pages, 441 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Effects of Workplace Supervised Exercise on Psychological Capital: An Intervention Study

by Carmen M. Salvador-Ferrer, Pedro A. Diaz-Fúnez, Álvaro Carrera-Ruiz, Montserrat Monserrat-Hernández, Enrique G. Artero and Miguel A. Mañas-Rodríguez

Sports 2025, 13(1), 2; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports13010002 - 24 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1094

Abstract

Public employees face a growing array of professional challenges, and psychological capital (PC) has emerged as a valuable resource to address them. Workplace supervised exercise (WSE) programs can improve physical fitness and personal resources, though their adoption in organizations is limited. This study [...] Read more.

Public employees face a growing array of professional challenges, and psychological capital (PC) has emerged as a valuable resource to address them. Workplace supervised exercise (WSE) programs can improve physical fitness and personal resources, though their adoption in organizations is limited. This study examines the impact of a long-term WSE program on the psychological capital of public administration employees. Fifty-five participants completed PC questionnaires and attended at least 40% of the sessions; 49.1% were women, and 40% were over 50 years old (age range: 24–73 years). A quasi-experimental design without a control group was used with a longitudinal design, and a nine-month WSE program (from October to June) was implemented. The data show gender-specific variations in PC patterns. Among men, incremental increases were observed over the three measurement intervals, with statistical significance achieved only in self-efficacy and hope. Among women, an upward trend was observed between October and February without statistical significance, followed by a slight decline. The results suggest that the WSE program may enhance personal resources, particularly hope and self-efficacy, highlighting the importance of tailoring WSE programs to the specific characteristics of the target group. Full article

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13 pages, 259 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Occurrence of Injuries in Different Phases of Judo Matches: Analysis Based on International Competitions

by Wiesław Błach, Dawid Gaweł, Wojciech J. Cynarski, Łukasz Rydzik, Zbigniew Borysiuk and Maciej Kostrzewa

Sports 2024, 12(12), 354; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120354 - 19 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1249

Abstract

Background: The specificity of the technical actions that are performed in judo may be dependent on and vary during particular phases of the combat, thus possibly impacting injury prevalence. Therefore, towards the betterment of athletes’ safety and considering the importance of the issue [...] Read more.

Background: The specificity of the technical actions that are performed in judo may be dependent on and vary during particular phases of the combat, thus possibly impacting injury prevalence. Therefore, towards the betterment of athletes’ safety and considering the importance of the issue of injury prevention in judo, the main goal of this study was to identify the injury occurrence during respective combat phases, i.e., the (a) first half, (b) second half, (c) last minute, and (d) golden score. Methods: A total of 26,862 elite judo athletes, including 15,571 men and 11,291 women, participated in the study. The subjects competed in 128 international tournaments of the European Judo Union (EJU) in 2005–2020. The EJU medical questionnaire was utilized to gather information from each injured athlete according to the aforementioned inclusion criteria. Results: Several statistically significant relationships were found between the differences in the number of injuries between particular combat phases and the athlete’s sex. Conclusions: A significantly higher number of injuries occurred during the combined second half and the last minute of the judo combat. Males suffered more injuries during the first and second half of the combat compared to females, however, during the last minute of the combat, the number of injuries was greater among women. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Strength and Conditioning Society 2024: Sports Performance, Injury Prevention, Rehabilitation, and Health Improvement)

22 pages, 2484 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Educational Intervention on Awareness of Health-Damaging Behaviors in Educators

by Valentina Focaroli, Marina Chiaro, Maria Vittoria Battaglia, Laura Guidetti and Andrea Velardi

Sports 2024, 12(12), 348; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120348 - 18 Dec 2024

Viewed by 901

Abstract

Doping prevention transcends elite sports, highlighting a broader societal challenge where performance enhancement is driven by pressures to increase strength, beauty, and status. This issue extends to adolescents and non-competitive sports participants, where self-optimization pressures are increasingly normalized. Research underscores the need for [...] Read more.

Doping prevention transcends elite sports, highlighting a broader societal challenge where performance enhancement is driven by pressures to increase strength, beauty, and status. This issue extends to adolescents and non-competitive sports participants, where self-optimization pressures are increasingly normalized. Research underscores the need for tailored educational interventions that go beyond punitive measures, fostering ethical decision-making and personal responsibility. The recent literature emphasizes that addressing psychological protective factors, such as self-efficacy and emotional regulation, can effectively mitigate substance use risks. The project “Sport Informa” involved the educational community and adolescents between the ages of 16 and 19, with the goal of providing knowledge about the phenomenon of doping and acquiring tools useful for enhancing self-esteem and self-management skills, in order to prevent the risk of doping by promoting a balanced psychophysical development in young people. A 16 h online training program was delivered to high school teachers. The training provided knowledge about doping, its psychological and social implications, and practical tools for promoting protective factors in students. A longitudinal design was employed, with data collected before and after the intervention using validated psychometric tools, including the Self-Efficacy Scale, the Self-Compassion Scale, and the Emotional Regulation Questionnaire. Results showed significant improvements in teachers’ psychological dimensions, particularly in self-efficacy and emotional regulation, which they subsequently applied in their interactions with students. Finally, a survey was conducted with young participants who took part in the project activities to assess their self-evaluation of key factors relevant to designing future educational interventions and events aimed at preventing doping use. Full article

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10 pages, 878 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Transferability of Exercise Intensity Based on Muscle Oxygenation from Normoxia to Hypoxia in Ski-Mountaineering Athletes—Exploratory Study

by Kinga Rębiś, Tomasz Kowalski, Kamil Michalik and Andrzej Klusiewicz

Sports 2024, 12(12), 351; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120351 - 18 Dec 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1294

Abstract

Frequent changes in altitude and oxygen levels limit the practical application of traditionally derived exercise thresholds or training zones based on heart rate (HR) or blood lactate concentration (bLa). We investigated the transferability of a muscle oxygenation (SmO₂)-based intensity prescription between [...] Read more.

Frequent changes in altitude and oxygen levels limit the practical application of traditionally derived exercise thresholds or training zones based on heart rate (HR) or blood lactate concentration (bLa). We investigated the transferability of a muscle oxygenation (SmO₂)-based intensity prescription between different hypoxic conditions to assess the suitability of real-time SmO₂ measurements for ski-mountaineering (SKIMO) athletes during submaximal endurance exercise. A group of 15 well-trained male SKIMO athletes performed a graded-intensity run test in normoxia (87 m ASL, FiO₂ = 20.8%) to determine the anaerobic threshold (AnT) with the mod-Dmax method, and maximal lactate steady state (MLSS) assessments in acute normobaric hypoxia (3000 m ASL, FiO₂ = 14.4%) with the intensity aligned to 90–105% of SmO₂ at the normoxia-determined AnT. SmO₂, HR, and bLa were monitored during both tests. The number of MLSS assessments without a bLa increase over 1 mmol·L⁻¹ was reported. Paired t-tests with Cohen’s d effect sizes and intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) were computed to compare the bLa and HR at the AnT in normoxia and MLSS averages in hypoxia, as both corresponded to equivalent SmO₂. Out of the 15 MLSS assessments, 11 (73.3%) were performed without a bLa increase over 1 mmol·L⁻¹. Significant differences at equivalent SmO₂ in normoxia and hypoxia were found for HR (175 ± 11.7 vs. 160 ± 14.2 bpm, p = 0.005, d = 1.02), but not for bLa (4.9 ± 1.2 vs. 5.1 ± 2.4 mmol·L⁻¹, p = 0.845, d = −0.05). ICC(2,k) for HR and bLa were 0.56 (95% CI: −0.24, 0.85) and 0.40 (95% CI: −0.75, 0.80), respectively. The results indicate a fair transferability of a SmO₂-based intensity prescription between different hypoxic conditions in well-trained SKIMO athletes during submaximal endurance exercise. The practical significance of the observations depends on the required accuracy of the exercise intensity determination. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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11 pages, 1096 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Quantification of Ground Reaction Forces During the Follow Through in Trained Male Cricket Fast Bowlers: A Laboratory-Based Study

by Jeffrey Fleming, Corey Perrett, Onesim Melchi, Jodie McClelland and Kane Middleton

Sports 2024, 12(12), 316; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12120316 - 22 Nov 2024

Viewed by 1378

Abstract

Ground reaction forces (GRFs) are known to be high during front foot contact of fast bowling deliveries in cricket. There is a lack of published data on the GRFs during follow through foot contacts. The aim of this study was to quantify and [...] Read more.

Ground reaction forces (GRFs) are known to be high during front foot contact of fast bowling deliveries in cricket. There is a lack of published data on the GRFs during follow through foot contacts. The aim of this study was to quantify and compare peak GRFs and impulse of the delivery stride and the follow through of fast bowling deliveries. Ten trained male fast bowlers (ball release speed mean ± SD; 32.6 ± 2.3 m/s) competing in the Men’s Victorian Premier League participated in the study. Peak GRF and impulse data were collected using in-ground force plates in a laboratory setting. Linear mixed modelling of GRFs and impulse showed a significant effect of foot strike (p < 0.001). Front foot contact had the greatest magnitude of peak vertical GRF (5.569 ± 0.334 BW) but was not significantly greater than back foot recontact (4.471 ± 0.285 BW) (p = 0.07). Front foot impact had the greatest vertical impulse (0.408 ± 0.018 BW·s) but was similar to back foot (0.377 ± 0.012 BW·s) and front foot (0.368 ± 0.006 BW·s) recontacts (p = 0.070 to 0.928). The high GRF and impulse during the follow through highlights the need for further kinetic and kinematic research on this phase of the fast bowling delivery. Full article

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10 pages, 445 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Beyond Borders and Genders: Unveiling Cultural Influences on Badminton Motivation Among Older Adult Players in Taiwan and the United States

by Wei-Chieh Liao, Yun-Dih Chia-Smith, David Cabello-Manrique, Chia-Min Wang and Li-An Liao

Sports 2024, 12(11), 313; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12110313 - 20 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1180

Abstract

This study explores and compares the motivations behind badminton participation among older adult players from Taiwan and the United States (U.S.), with a specific focus on cultural and gender differences. A total of 139 participants aged 60 and above took part in the [...] Read more.

This study explores and compares the motivations behind badminton participation among older adult players from Taiwan and the United States (U.S.), with a specific focus on cultural and gender differences. A total of 139 participants aged 60 and above took part in the study, with 55 from the United States (24 females, 31 males) and 84 from Taiwan (39 females, 45 males). Utilizing the Exercise Motivations Inventory-2 (EMI-2), this research examines differences in motivations across cultural and gender lines, identifying key factors such as health-related motivations, personal achievement, social interactions, and competition. The results reveal that Taiwanese players are more motivated by health benefits and stress reduction, while U.S. players emphasize personal achievement and recognition. Additionally, gender-specific motivations emerged, with female players from both countries placing greater importance on social interactions compared to their male counterparts. These findings underscore the need for culturally and gender-sensitive approaches to promote sports participation among older adults in diverse settings. Full article

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14 pages, 1345 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Acute Responses to Different Velocity Loss Thresholds during Squat Exercise with Blood-Flow Restriction in Strength-Trained Men

by Juan Sánchez-Valdepeñas, Pedro J. Cornejo-Daza, Luis Rodiles-Guerrero, Jose A. Páez-Maldonado, Miguel Sánchez-Moreno, Beatriz Bachero-Mena, Eduardo Saez de Villarreal and Fernando Pareja-Blanco

Sports 2024, 12(6), 171; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12060171 - 20 Jun 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2687

Abstract

(1) Background: The aim of this paper is to analyze the acute effects of different velocity loss (VL) thresholds during a full squat (SQ) with blood-flow restriction (BFR) on strength performance, neuromuscular activity, metabolic response, and muscle contractile properties. (2) Methods: Twenty strength-trained [...] Read more.

(1) Background: The aim of this paper is to analyze the acute effects of different velocity loss (VL) thresholds during a full squat (SQ) with blood-flow restriction (BFR) on strength performance, neuromuscular activity, metabolic response, and muscle contractile properties. (2) Methods: Twenty strength-trained men performed four protocols that differed in the VL achieved within the set (BFR0: 0% VL; BFR10: 10% VL; BFR20: 20% VL; and BFR40: 40% VL). The relative intensity (60% 1RM), recovery between sets (2 min), number of sets (3), and level of BFR (50% of arterial occlusion pressure) were matched between protocols. Tensiomyography (TMG), blood lactate, countermovement jump (CMJ), maximal voluntary isometric SQ contraction (MVIC), and performance with the absolute load required to achieve 1 m·s⁻¹ at baseline measurements in SQ were assessed before and after the protocols. (3) Results: BFR40 resulted in higher EMG alterations during and after exercise than the other protocols (p < 0.05). BFR40 also induced greater impairments in TMG-derived variables and BFR10 decreased contraction time. Higher blood lactate concentrations were found as the VL within the set increased. BFR0 and BFR10 showed significantly increased median frequencies in post-exercise MVIC. (4) Conclusions: High VL thresholds (BFR40) accentuated metabolic and neuromuscular stress, and produced increased alterations in muscles’ mechanical properties. Low VL could potentiate post-exercise neuromuscular activity and muscle contractile properties. Full article

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15 pages, 2603 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Physical and Physiological Characteristics of Elite CrossFit Athletes

by Bram Sauvé, Magnus Haugan and Gøran Paulsen

Sports 2024, 12(6), 162; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12060162 - 12 Jun 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 4660

Abstract

Due to little available research on elite CrossFit athletes, the present investigation was undertaken to provide knowledge about their physical and physiological characteristics. Nineteen international level CrossFit athletes (8 men; 11 women) were tested for maximum oxygen consumption (

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O₂ [...] Read more.

Due to little available research on elite CrossFit athletes, the present investigation was undertaken to provide knowledge about their physical and physiological characteristics. Nineteen international level CrossFit athletes (8 men; 11 women) were tested for maximum oxygen consumption (

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O₂max), Wingate, squat 1 repetition maximum (1RM), countermovement jump (CMJ), lower body force–velocity, and body composition (DXA). To provide perspective, the results were compared to sixteen elite-level Alpinists (8 men; 8 women). There was no significant difference in absolute nor relative

\dot{V}

O₂max between the CrossFit and Alpinist men (p = 0.335 and p = 0.279, respectively). The CrossFit women showed similar absolute but higher relative

\dot{V}

O₂max than the Alpinist women (p = 0.055 and p = 0.005, respectively). Mean anaerobic power was higher in both CrossFit men and women (p = 0.021 and p = 0.008, respectively). There were no significant differences in squat 1RM and CMJ for both men and women (p > 0.05). Both CrossFit men and women showed lesser lower body force production (p = 0.043 and p = 0.034, respectively) but higher power (p = 0.009 and p = 0.003, respectively). The CrossFit men and women had a lower fat mass (p = 0.018 and p = 0.002, respectively) and fat percentage (p = 0.027 and p < 0.001, respectively). These observations show that elite CrossFit athletes possess physical and physiological characteristics comparable to world-class Alpinists. Full article

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16 pages, 4672 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

If You Want to Prevent Hamstring Injuries in Soccer, Run Fast: A Narrative Review about Practical Considerations of Sprint Training

by Pedro Gómez-Piqueras and Pedro E. Alcaraz

Sports 2024, 12(5), 134; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12050134 - 15 May 2024

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 14494

Abstract

Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) are one of the most common injuries in sprint-based sports. In soccer, the ability to sprint is key, not only because of its relation to performance but also due to its possible protective effect against HSIs. Although many authors [...] Read more.

Hamstring strain injuries (HSIs) are one of the most common injuries in sprint-based sports. In soccer, the ability to sprint is key, not only because of its relation to performance but also due to its possible protective effect against HSIs. Although many authors have focused on the “how”, “when”, and “what” training load should be implemented, there is a lack of practical proposals for sprint training in a high-level professional environment. The objective of this narrative review is, after a deep review of the scientific literature, to present a practical approach for sprint training, trying to answer some of the questions that most strength and conditioning coaches ask themselves when including it in soccer. Once the literature published on this topic was reviewed and combined with the practical experience of the authors, it was concluded that sprint training in soccer, although it presents an obvious need, is not something about which there is methodological unanimity. However, following the practical recommendations from this narrative review, strength and conditioning coaches can have a reference model that serves as a starting point for optimal management of the internal and external training load when they wish to introduce sprint training in the competitive microcycle in professional soccer players, with the aim of reducing HSIs. Full article

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29 pages, 6932 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Metabolomic and Proteomic Profiling of Athletes Performing Physical Activity under Hypoxic Conditions

by Kristina A. Malsagova, Arthur T. Kopylov, Alexander A. Stepanov, Liudmila I. Kulikova, Alexander A. Izotov, Ksenia A. Yurku, Evgenii I. Balakin, Vasiliy I. Pustovoyt and Anna L. Kaysheva

Sports 2024, 12(3), 72; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12030072 - 5 Mar 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3629

Abstract

Proteomic and metabolomic research enables quantitation of the molecular profile of athletes. Multiomic profiling was conducted using plasma samples collected from 18 male athletes performing aerobic activity (running) at high altitude. Metabolomic profiling detected changes in the levels of 4-hydroxyproline, methionine, oxaloacetate, and [...] Read more.

Proteomic and metabolomic research enables quantitation of the molecular profile of athletes. Multiomic profiling was conducted using plasma samples collected from 18 male athletes performing aerobic activity (running) at high altitude. Metabolomic profiling detected changes in the levels of 4-hydroxyproline, methionine, oxaloacetate, and tyrosine during the recovery period. Furthermore, proteomic profiling revealed changes in expression of proteins contributing to the function of the immune system, muscle damage, metabolic fitness and performance, as well as hemostasis. Further research should focus on developing metabolic models to monitor training intensity and athlete adaptation. Full article

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17 pages, 2803 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Basketball Fatigue Impact on Kinematic Parameters and 3-Point Shooting Accuracy: Insights across Players’ Positions and Cardiorespiratory Fitness Associations of High-Level Players

by Dimitrios I. Bourdas, Antonios K. Travlos, Athanasios Souglis, Dimitrios C. Gofas, Dimitrios Stavropoulos and Panteleimon Bakirtzoglou

Sports 2024, 12(3), 63; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12030063 - 20 Feb 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 6122

Abstract

This study investigated the impact of basketball-induced fatigue on 3-point jump shooting accuracy, the ball’s entry angle (EA) into the hoop, shot release time (RT), their relationship with player positions in high-level basketball, and the correlation between cardiorespiratory fitness markers and potential shooting [...] Read more.

This study investigated the impact of basketball-induced fatigue on 3-point jump shooting accuracy, the ball’s entry angle (EA) into the hoop, shot release time (RT), their relationship with player positions in high-level basketball, and the correlation between cardiorespiratory fitness markers and potential shooting performance changes. Guards (n = 13), forwards (n = 13), and centers (n = 12) underwent physiological assessments. Sequentially, they performed 15 jump shots (PRE), a basketball exercise simulation (BEST) involving 24 × 30 s circuit activities, and a repeated shooting test (POST). The study design was double-blind. The results revealed significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) in RT, EA, and successful shots (SSs) between PRE and POST in each group. The percentage changes from PRE to POST conditions across guards, forwards, and centers were for RT: 25.34% [95%CI: 1.7–48.98], 19.73% [95%CI: −1.9–41.36], 14.95% [95%CI: −5.23–35.13]; for EA: −3.89% [95%CI: −14.82–7.04], −3.13% [95%CI: −12.9–6.64], −3.47% [95%CI: −14.19–7.25]; and for SS: −14.42% [95%CI: −36.5–7.66], −16.76% [95%CI: −40.81–7.29], −19.44% [95%CI: −46.7–7.82], respectively. Post-test differences (p ≤ 0.05) highlighted greater fatigue impact on RT, EA, and SS from guards to centers. Additionally, significant correlations (p ≤ 0.05) were found between the ventilatory threshold, mean HR during BEST, and changes in RT, EA, and SS. This study highlights the substantial impact of basketball-induced fatigue on 3-point shooting parameters across player positions and the interplay with cardiorespiratory factors post-fatigue. Tailored training, considering heart rate, is crucial to optimizing shooting performance. Full article

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19 pages, 2777 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

The Effects of Physical and Mental Fatigue on Time Perception

by Reza Goudini, Ali Zahiri, Shahab Alizadeh, Benjamin Drury, Saman Hadjizadeh Anvar, Abdolhamid Daneshjoo and David G. Behm

Sports 2024, 12(2), 59; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020059 - 15 Feb 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5524

Abstract

The perception of time holds a foundational significance regarding how we elucidate the chronological progression of events. While some studies have examined exercise effects on time perception during exercise periods, there are no studies investigating the effects of exercise fatigue on time perception [...] Read more.

The perception of time holds a foundational significance regarding how we elucidate the chronological progression of events. While some studies have examined exercise effects on time perception during exercise periods, there are no studies investigating the effects of exercise fatigue on time perception after an exercise intervention. This study investigated the effects of physical and mental fatigue on time estimates over 30 s immediately post-exercise and 6 min post-test. Seventeen volunteers were subjected to three conditions: physical fatigue, mental fatigue, and control. All participants completed a familiarization session and were subjected to three 30 min experimental conditions (control, physical fatigue (cycling at 65% peak power output), and mental fatigue (Stroop task)) on separate days. Time perception, heart rate, and body temperature were recorded pre-test; at the start of the test; 5, 10, 20, 30 seconds into the interventions; post-test; and at the 6 min follow-up. Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was recorded four times during the intervention. Physical fatigue resulted in a significant (p = 0.001) underestimation of time compared to mental fatigue and control conditions at the post-test and follow-up, with no significant differences between mental fatigue and control conditions. Heart rate, body temperature, and RPE were significantly (all p = 0.001) higher with physical fatigue compared to mental fatigue and control conditions during the intervention and post-test. This study demonstrated that cycling-induced fatigue led to time underestimation compared to mental fatigue and control conditions. It is crucial to consider that physical fatigue has the potential to lengthen an individual’s perception of time estimates in sports or work environments. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Effect of Neuromuscular Fatigue Mechanisms on Exercise Performance)

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15 pages, 2423 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Training Characteristics, Performance, and Body Composition of Three U23 Elite Female Triathletes throughout a Season

by Sergio Sellés-Pérez, Hector Arévalo-Chico, José Fernández-Sáez and Roberto Cejuela

Sports 2024, 12(2), 53; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020053 - 7 Feb 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 6184

Abstract

(1) Background: There is a lack of data on the long-term training characteristics and performance markers of elite young female endurance athletes. The aim of this study was to present the training load (ECOs), as well as the evolution of the anthropometric values [...] Read more.

(1) Background: There is a lack of data on the long-term training characteristics and performance markers of elite young female endurance athletes. The aim of this study was to present the training load (ECOs), as well as the evolution of the anthropometric values and performance of three elite U23 female triathletes over a season. (2) Methods: General training data and performance data relating to the swimming, cycling, and running legs of the 2021 season were described. The training intensity distribution (TID) was presented using the triphasic model, while the training load was based on the ECO model. An anthropometric analysis was also conducted in accordance with the ISAK standards. (3) Results: Triathletes increased their VO_2max in cycling (6.9–10%) and running (7.1–9.1%), as well as their power and speed associated with the VO_2max (7.7–8.6% in cycling and 5.1–5.3% in running) and their swimming speed associated with the lactate thresholds (2.6–4.0% in LT2 and 1.2–2.5% in LT1). The triathletes completed more than 10 h of weekly average training time, with peak weeks exceeding 15 h. The average TID of the three triathletes was 82% in phase 1, 6% in phase 2, and 12% in phase 3. A decrease in the sum of skinfolds and fat mass percentage was observed during the season in the three triathletes, although the last measurement revealed a stagnation or slight rise in these parameters. (4) Conclusions: The triathletes performed a combination of two training periodization models (traditional and block periodization) with a polarized TID in most of the weeks of the season. Improvements in performance and physiological parameters were observed after the general preparatory period as well as a positive body composition evolution throughout the season, except at the end, where the last measurement revealed stagnation or a slight decline. This study can be useful as a general guide for endurance coaches to organize a training season with female U23 triathletes. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Sport Physiology and Physical Performance)

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11 pages, 2688 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

A Comparison of Leg Muscle Oxygenation, Cardiorespiratory Responses, and Blood Lactate between Walking and Running at the Same Speed

by Alexandros Stathopoulos, Anatoli Petridou, Nikolaos Kantouris and Vassilis Mougios

Sports 2024, 12(2), 48; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020048 - 1 Feb 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2875

Abstract

It is not known whether different gait modes, or movement patterns, at the same speed elicit differences in muscle oxygen oxygenation, expressed as muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂). Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the oxygenation of two leg [...] Read more.

It is not known whether different gait modes, or movement patterns, at the same speed elicit differences in muscle oxygen oxygenation, expressed as muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂). Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the oxygenation of two leg muscles (vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius medialis), as well as the heart rate, respiratory gases, and blood lactate between two gait modes (walking and running) of the same speed and duration. Ten men walked and ran for 30 min each at 7 km/h in a random, counterbalanced order. SmO₂, heart rate, and respiratory gases were monitored continuously. Blood lactate was measured at rest, at the end of each exercise, and after 15 min of recovery. Data were analyzed by two-way (gait mode × time) or three-way (gait mode × muscle × time) ANOVA, as applicable. Heart rate and oxygen consumption were higher when running compared to walking. SmO₂ was lower during exercise compared to rest and recovery, in gastrocnemius medialis compared to vastus lateralis, and in running compared to walking. Blood lactate increased during exercise but did not differ between gait modes. In conclusion, running caused higher deoxygenation in leg muscles (accompanied by higher whole-body oxygen uptake and heart rate) than walking at the same speed (one that was comfortable for both gait modes), thus pointing to a higher internal load despite equal external load. Thus, preferring running over walking at the same speed causes higher local muscle deoxygenation, which may be beneficial in inducing favorable training adaptations. Full article

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21 pages, 2280 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Agreement between Ventilatory Thresholds and Bilaterally Measured Vastus Lateralis Muscle Oxygen Saturation Breakpoints in Trained Cyclists: Effects of Age and Performance

by Karmen Reinpõld, Indrek Rannama and Kristjan Port

Sports 2024, 12(2), 40; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12020040 - 28 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3073

Abstract

This study focused on comparing metabolic thresholds derived from local muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) signals, obtained using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), with global pulmonary ventilation rates measured at the mouth. It was conducted among various Age Groups within a well-trained cyclist population. [...] Read more.

This study focused on comparing metabolic thresholds derived from local muscle oxygen saturation (SmO₂) signals, obtained using near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), with global pulmonary ventilation rates measured at the mouth. It was conducted among various Age Groups within a well-trained cyclist population. Additionally, the study examined how cycling performance characteristics impact the discrepancies between ventilatory thresholds (VTs) and SmO₂ breakpoints (BPs). Methods: Junior (n = 18) and Senior (n = 15) cyclists underwent incremental cycling tests to assess their aerobic performance and to determine aerobic (AeT) and anaerobic (AnT) threshold characteristics through pulmonary gas exchange and changes in linearity of the vastus lateralis (VL) muscle SmO₂ signals. We compared the relative power (Pkg) at ventilatory thresholds (VTs) and breakpoints (BPs) for the nondominant (ND), dominant (DO), and bilaterally averaged (Avr) SmO₂ during the agreement analysis. Additionally, a 30 s sprint test was performed to estimate anaerobic performance capabilities and to assess the cyclists’ phenotype, defined as the ratio of P@VT2 to the highest 5 s sprint power. Results: The P_kg@BP for Avr SmO₂ had higher agreement with VT values than ND and DO. Avr SmO₂ P_kg@BP1 was lower (p < 0.05) than P_kg@VT1 (mean bias: 0.12 ± 0.29 W/kg; Limits of Agreement (LOA): −0.45 to 0.68 W/kg; R² = 0.72) and mainly among Seniors (0.21 ± 0.22 W/kg; LOA: −0.22 to 0.63 W/kg); there was no difference (p > 0.05) between Avr P_kg@BP2 and P_kg@VT2 (0.03 ± 0.22 W/kg; LOA: −0.40 to 0.45 W/kg; R² = 0.86). The bias between two methods correlated significantly with the phenotype (r = −0.385 and r = −0.515 for AeT and AnT, respectively). Conclusions: Two breakpoints can be defined in the NIRS-captured SmO₂ signal of VL, but the agreement between the two methods at the individual level was too low for interchangeable usage of those methods in the practical training process. Older cyclists generally exhibited earlier thresholds in muscle oxygenation signals compared to systemic responses, unlike younger cyclists who showed greater variability and no significant differences in this regard in bias values between the two threshold evaluation methods with no significant difference between methods. More sprinter-type cyclists tended to have systemic VT thresholds earlier than local NIRS-derived thresholds than athletes with relatively higher aerobic abilities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Topic Endurance and Ultra-Endurance: Implications of Training, Recovery, Nutrition, and Technology on Performance and Health)

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41 pages, 1724 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Sporting Mind: The Interplay of Physical Activity and Psychological Health

by Alexandra Martín-Rodríguez, Laura Augusta Gostian-Ropotin, Ana Isabel Beltrán-Velasco, Noelia Belando-Pedreño, Juan Antonio Simón, Clara López-Mora, Eduardo Navarro-Jiménez, José Francisco Tornero-Aguilera and Vicente Javier Clemente-Suárez

Sports 2024, 12(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010037 - 22 Jan 2024

Cited by 112 | Viewed by 51518

Abstract

The symbiotic relationship between sports practice and psychological well-being has, in recent times, surged to the forefront of academic and public attention. The aim of this narrative review is to comprehensively explore the intricate pathways linking physical engagement in sports to its subsequent [...] Read more.

The symbiotic relationship between sports practice and psychological well-being has, in recent times, surged to the forefront of academic and public attention. The aim of this narrative review is to comprehensively explore the intricate pathways linking physical engagement in sports to its subsequent impacts on mental health and synthesize the multifarious effects of sports on psychological health, offering insights for integrating physical and psychological strategies to enhance well-being. From neurobiological underpinnings to therapeutic applications, this comprehensive manuscript provides an in-depth dive into the multifaceted world of sports and psychology. Highlighting evidence-based interventions, this review aspires to offer actionable insights for practitioners, athletes, and individuals alike, advocating for a holistic approach to mental well-being. This manuscript highlights the profound impact of sports on mental health, emphasizing its role in emotional regulation, resilience, cognitive function, and treating psychological conditions. It details how sports induce neurochemical changes, enhance brain functions like memory and learning, and aid against cognitive decline. This review also notes the benefits of regular exercise in mood improvement, stress management, and social skill enhancement, particularly when combined with mindfulness practices. It underscores the importance of considering cultural and gender perspectives in sports psychology, advocating for an integrated physical–psychological approach to promote overall well-being. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Second Edition: Sport Psychology Interventions for Athletes' Performance and Well-Being)

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22 pages, 1220 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

The Influence of Menstrual Cycle Phases on Maximal Strength Performance in Healthy Female Adults: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis

by Marc Niering, Nacera Wolf-Belala, Johanna Seifert, Ole Tovar, Jacqueline Coldewey, Jennifer Kuranda and Thomas Muehlbauer

Sports 2024, 12(1), 31; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010031 - 12 Jan 2024

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 22609

Abstract

Maximal strength is a significant factor in achieving peak performance and injury prevention in athletes. In individualization strategies for the efficient development of athletes, it is necessary to consider the respective components separately. The purpose of this study was to systematically examine the [...] Read more.

Maximal strength is a significant factor in achieving peak performance and injury prevention in athletes. In individualization strategies for the efficient development of athletes, it is necessary to consider the respective components separately. The purpose of this study was to systematically examine the effects of the different cycle phases on isometric, isokinetic, and dynamic maximum strength. A systematic literature review was conducted; databases were searched from January 1960 to September 2023. The included studies focused on the expression of maximal strength in the earlier follicular phase as well as at least one comparative phase. Of the initial 707 articles identified, 22 met the selection criteria and were included. The studies considered a total of 433 subjects. Our results revealed medium effects (weighted mean standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.60; seven studies) for isometric maximal strength in favor of the late follicular phase, small effects (weighted mean SMD = 0.39; five studies) for isokinetic maximal strength in favor of the ovulation phase, and small effects (weighted mean SMD = 0.14; three studies) for dynamic maximal strength in favor of the late follicular phase. The results indicate that the early follicular phase is unfavorable for all strength classes. Peak performance in isometric strength is seen in the late follicular phase, whereas isokinetic strength peaks during ovulation. Dynamic strength is optimal in the late follicular phase. Full article

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13 pages, 1989 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Follow-Up Weekly Training Distribution and Accumulated Internal Load Effects on Young Football Players’ Well-Being, Physical Fitness, and Technical Performance

by Yutthana Riansoi, Nuntapol Tongnillpant, Sakdarin Thammawong, João Ribeiro, Rodrigo Zacca and Phornpot Chainok

Sports 2024, 12(1), 23; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010023 - 9 Jan 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 3613

Abstract

This study aimed to quantify the relationships among internal training load, wellness, physiological, isokinetic profile, and technical performance and assessed changes before and after a six-week pre-season structured combining physical fitness, small-sided-game and skill-based training program in young soccer players. Forty-five national-level young [...] Read more.

This study aimed to quantify the relationships among internal training load, wellness, physiological, isokinetic profile, and technical performance and assessed changes before and after a six-week pre-season structured combining physical fitness, small-sided-game and skill-based training program in young soccer players. Forty-five national-level young male soccer players (16.8 ± 0.9 years) were evaluated. There were no significant correlations between the wellness index and the physiological, isokinetic, or specific soccer skill parameters. Moderate correlations were observed between fatigue and stress (r = 0.47, moderate, p < 0.01), fatigue and average muscle soreness (r = 0.38, moderate, p = 0.01), and a large correlation between average stress and muscle soreness (r = 0.53, large, p < 0.01) were presented. All physiological, isokinetic, and technical parameters improved after a six-week pre-season training program (0.1 to −61.0%). Significant alterations in the physiological domain were observed after a six-week period, particularly in the fatigue index of the Bangsbo sprint test, YO-YO IR1 performance, and YO-YO peak La^- (p < 0.01; −61.0%, 25.3%, and −19.8%, respectively). As such, the implementation of structured training and the monitoring of stress responses can lead to appropriate adaptation and balancing in the psychological and physical well-being of young national-level soccer players, particularly in the pre-season period. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Physical Fitness Profile in Soccer Players)

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8 pages, 467 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Impact of the Menstrual Cycle on Physical Performance and Subjective Ratings in Elite Academy Women Soccer Players

by Etienne Juillard, Tom Douchet, Christos Paizis and Nicolas Babault

Sports 2024, 12(1), 16; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010016 - 3 Jan 2024

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 7516

Abstract

Our study aimed to combine psychological and physical factors to explore the impact of the menstrual cycle on performance in elite academy women soccer players through weekly monitoring. Eighteen elite academy women soccer players were monitored. Players reported daily through an online anonymous [...] Read more.

Our study aimed to combine psychological and physical factors to explore the impact of the menstrual cycle on performance in elite academy women soccer players through weekly monitoring. Eighteen elite academy women soccer players were monitored. Players reported daily through an online anonymous survey if they were in menstruation. Players answered the Hooper Questionnaire daily, performed an Illinois Agility Test (IAT) twice a week, and rated their perceived exertion (RPE) after every training session. Tests were associated with a complete menstrual cycle reported through the online anonymous survey to determine the two weeks of the follicular phase and the two weeks of the luteal phase. Of the 18 players, 10 completed all requirements and were retained for analyses. IAT did not show significant differences throughout the menstrual cycle (p = 0.633). Fatigue (p = 0.444), Stress (p = 0.868), Sleep (p = 0.398), DOMS (delayed onset muscle soreness; p = 0.725), and Hooper Index (p = 0.403) did not show significant differences either. RPE was also comparable across the cycle (p = 0.846). Our results failed to demonstrate that hormonal variation during the menstrual cycle influenced psychological and physical markers of performance. Full article

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16 pages, 3354 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Acute Effect of the “Zero Point” Method on Muscle Thickness and Muscle Damage in Trained Men

by Thiago B. Trindade, Ragami C. Alves, Nuno Manuel Frade de Sousa, Charles Lopes, Bruno Magalhães de Castro, Thiago S. Rosa and Jonato Prestes

Sports 2024, 12(1), 6; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12010006 - 22 Dec 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4676

Abstract

The “zero point” method allows for lower intensities for an exercise session without impairing the total training volume. This study aimed to compare the effects of the “zero point” versus the traditional method on muscle responses and muscle damage in trained men. Fifteen [...] Read more.

The “zero point” method allows for lower intensities for an exercise session without impairing the total training volume. This study aimed to compare the effects of the “zero point” versus the traditional method on muscle responses and muscle damage in trained men. Fifteen experienced men (age: 27.7 ± 6.4 years; body mass: 78.4 ± 11.4 kg; height: 174.8 ± 4.9 cm; experience: 5.86 ± 4.7 years; relative bench press strength: 1.38 ± 0.17 kg·kg⁻¹) were subjected to two exercise protocols in a randomized order and separated by a week. The traditional and “zero point” methods were applied in the bench press, with loads of 70% and 50% of one repetition maximum (1RM), respectively, for 10 sets until concentric failure, with 3-min intervals between sets. The zero point method displayed a higher number of repetitions and time under tension than the traditional method, with no difference in the total training volume, echo intensity, algometry, lactate, and myoglobin. For the muscle thickness, no differences between the groups were presented, except for the deltoid muscle thickness, in which a higher post-training volume was observed compared to traditional training. The “zero point” method increases the demand on the deltoid muscles in the bench press exercise, but not on the pectoralis and triceps brachii. Full article

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18 pages, 2403 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceSystematic Review

Recovery Methods in Basketball: A Systematic Review

by Mladen Mihajlovic, Dimitrije Cabarkapa, Damjana V. Cabarkapa, Nicolas M. Philipp and Andrew C. Fry

Sports 2023, 11(11), 230; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11110230 - 20 Nov 2023

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 13318

Abstract

Although different strategies have been implemented to manage recovery-fatigue status in athletes, there is still a lack of consensus on which recovery protocols have the greatest impact and effectiveness when implemented with basketball players, including both physiological and psychological recovery methods. Thus, the [...] Read more.

Although different strategies have been implemented to manage recovery-fatigue status in athletes, there is still a lack of consensus on which recovery protocols have the greatest impact and effectiveness when implemented with basketball players, including both physiological and psychological recovery methods. Thus, the purpose of this systematic review is to: (a) determine which recovery methods attain the greatest benefit in restoring the process of attenuating fatigue and (b) provide sports practitioners with guidelines on how some of the most effective recovery strategies can be used to optimize athletes’ recovery and ultimately enhance their performance. Using the PRISMA guidelines, a total of 3931 research reports were obtained through four database searches (i.e., PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane, and Web of Science), from which only 25 met the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The recovery protocols analyzed in this systematic review were: sleep, nutrition, hydration, ergogenic aids, cold-water immersion, compression garments, massage, acupuncture, tapering, mindfulness, and red-light irradiation. The results revealed that all recovery strategies are capable of attenuating fatigue and enhancing recovery in basketball players to a certain degree. However, an individualized approach should be promoted, where a combination of proactive recovery modalities appears to result in the most rapid rates of recovery and athletes’ ability to maintain high-level performance. Recovery should be programmed as an integral component of training regimens. Also, cooperation and communication between coaches, players, and the rest of the team staff members are essential in minimizing the risk of non-functional overreaching or injury and optimizing basketball players’ on-court performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Connecting Health and Performance with Sports Sciences)

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26 pages, 1492 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Pacing Strategies Differ by Sex and Rank in 2020 CrossFit^® Open Tests

by Gerald T. Mangine, Elisabeth K. Zeitz, Joshua D. Dexheimer, Ashley Hines, Brandon Lively and Brian M. Kliszczewicz

Sports 2023, 11(10), 199; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11100199 - 11 Oct 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3185

Abstract

This retrospective study collected video recordings of a random selection of eighty men and women (n = 160) completing all five tests of the 2020 CrossFit^® Open. All competitors were ranked within the top 10,000 overall but were sub-divided based on [...] Read more.

This retrospective study collected video recordings of a random selection of eighty men and women (n = 160) completing all five tests of the 2020 CrossFit^® Open. All competitors were ranked within the top 10,000 overall but were sub-divided based on whether they ranked within the top 10% of their respective divisions. To examine the effect of sex and rank on pacing strategy, video analysis quantified the overall repetition completion rate on each test, as well as per minute (or round) repetition completion rates for each test’s individual exercises, quantity of failed repetitions, break times, and transition times. All per minute (or round) data were aggregated into first- and last-half or total test average, slopes, and coefficient of variation. Sex and rank analyses of variance were performed on averages, slopes, and coefficients of variation for each variable calculated over the first and last halves of each test, except test 5 (total only). The top 10% of men were 17.5% faster (p < 0.001) than everyone else in tests 1, 3, and 5. The top 10% of women and remaining men were ~9.5% faster than remaining women in tests 1 and 3. In test 5, the remaining men were faster than top 10% of women (~11.2%, p < 0.001), and both were faster than the remaining women. In tests 2 and 4, the top 10% of athletes were 9.7% faster (p < 0.001) than remaining athletes, and at the same time, men were 7.7% faster (p < 0.001) than women. Analysis of each test’s components revealed the top 10% of competitors to be faster and more consistent in most areas, while men were generally faster than women in gymnastics components and more consistent with their pace for resistance training exercises. These data provide insight into the differential factors linked to success in the men’s and women’s CFO divisions. Full article

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22 pages, 2308 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Short-Term Effects of Lower-Extremity Heavy Resistance versus High-Impact Plyometric Training on Neuromuscular Functional Performance of Professional Soccer Players

by Michał Boraczyński, José Magalhães, Jacek J. Nowakowski and James J. Laskin

Sports 2023, 11(10), 193; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11100193 - 4 Oct 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 4772

Abstract

Background: To compare the effects of short-term 8 week heavy-resistance or plyometric training protocols (HRT or PLY) incorporated into regular soccer practice on measures of neuromuscular functional performance in professional soccer players, a single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted. Methods: Forty-seven participants aged [...] Read more.

Background: To compare the effects of short-term 8 week heavy-resistance or plyometric training protocols (HRT or PLY) incorporated into regular soccer practice on measures of neuromuscular functional performance in professional soccer players, a single-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted. Methods: Forty-seven participants aged 22.3 ± 3.52 years were assigned to three groups: HRT (n = 15), PLY (n = 15), and control (CON; n = 17). The HRT group performed 3 sets and 10 repetitions twice a week using 80% of their baseline 1-RM (weeks 1–3), followed by 8 repetitions at 85% 1-RM (weeks 4–6), and 6 repetitions at 90% 1-RM (weeks 7–8) of 6 lower-body strength exercises with a 1 min rest period between sets. The PLY protocol involved a preparatory phase (weeks 1–2), followed by two 3-week progressive periods (weeks 3–5 and weeks 6–8). The plyometric sessions consisted of four jump exercises/drills with progressively increasing number of sets and total number of foot contacts. The rest intervals between repetitions and sets were 15 and 90 s, respectively. Outcome measures included tests assessing 10 and 30 m speed (t10m and t30m), one-repetition maximum half-back squat (1-RM squat), isokinetic peak torques for the quadriceps and hamstring muscles (Qcon and Hcon), countermovement jump (CMJ), and squat jump (SJ). Results: Two-way ANOVA detected main effects of time and group×time interactions for all examined variables, except t30m, 1-RM, and relative 1-RM. Post hoc analyses revealed significant increases in the HRT group (t10m: 6.3%, t30m: 7.1%; absolute 1-RM: 29.6%; relative 1-RM: 30.3%, Qcon: 24.5%; Hcon: 14.4%; CMJ: 5.9%; SJ: 7.2%, all p < 0.001) and the PLY group (t10m: 3.1%; t30m: 4.1%; absolute 1-RM:19.1%; relative 1-RM: 20.3%; Qcon: 12.6%; Hcon: 8.7%; CMJ: 3.3%; SJ: 3.5%, all p < 0.001). HRT was superior compared to PLY in relative 1-RM, Qcon and Hcon (all p < 0.001). In addition, we found knee muscular strength imbalance in 70.5% of participants from the total sample (H/Q ratio < 60%). The HRT and PLY protocols resulted in improved neuromuscular functional performance compared to the regular soccer regime. Conclusions: This study showed that during the pre-competitive season, additional HRT and PLY drills/exercises as a substitute for standard soccer training as part of a regular 90 min practice twice a week for 8 weeks, can produce acute physical performance-enhancing effects in professional soccer players. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Lower Extremity Biomechanics and Lower Extremity Injury Risk)

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12 pages, 725 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Are Late-Born Young Soccer Players Less Mature Than Their Early-Born Peers, Although No Differences in Physical and Technical Performance Are Evident?

by Eduard Bezuglov, Georgiy Malyakin, Anton Emanov, Grigory Malyshev, Maria Shoshorina, Evgeny Savin, Artemii Lazarev and Ryland Morgans

Sports 2023, 11(9), 179; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11090179 - 8 Sep 2023

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2721

Abstract

The aim of the study was to compare the status of somatic maturity, anthropometry, strength, speed, and soccer-specific technical skills of players from leading youth soccer academies born in different quarters of the same calendar year. A total of 678 young male soccer [...] Read more.

The aim of the study was to compare the status of somatic maturity, anthropometry, strength, speed, and soccer-specific technical skills of players from leading youth soccer academies born in different quarters of the same calendar year. A total of 678 young male soccer players from eight leading Russian soccer academies took part in the study. The following anthropometric measures and physical characteristics were measured: height, weight, body mass index, countermovement jumps (CMJ), 5, 10, and 20 m sprints, speed dribbling, foot and body ball juggling, and short and long pass accuracy. The determination of somatic maturity as a percentage of projected adult height was collected. All subject dates of birth were divided into four quartiles according to the month of birth. The analysis of all data obtained was conducted both within the total sample and by quartiles of birth, according to the age group categories of 12–13 years, 14–15 years, and 16–17 years and the degree of somatic maturity. There was a widespread relative age effect, with 43.5% of early-born players and only 9.6% of late-born players representing the sample. Early-born players were more mature than late-born players (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001) but had no statistically significant differences in strength, speed, or soccer-specific skills. Full article

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15 pages, 3038 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Emotional Intelligence in Spanish Elite Athletes: Is There a Differential Factor between Sports?

by Daniel Mon-López, Cecilia Blanco-García, Jorge Acebes-Sánchez, Gabriel Rodríguez-Romo, Moisés Marquina, Adrián Martín-Castellanos, Alfonso de la Rubia, Carlos Cordente Martínez, Jesús Oliván Mallén and María Garrido-Muñoz

Sports 2023, 11(8), 160; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11080160 - 18 Aug 2023

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 3363

Abstract

Emotional intelligence is a determinant factor in sports performance. The present study analysed differences in total emotional intelligence and its four dimensions in 2166 Spanish athletes (25.20 ± 10.17 years) from eight sports (volleyball, track and field, shooting, football, basketball, handball, gymnastics, and [...] Read more.

Emotional intelligence is a determinant factor in sports performance. The present study analysed differences in total emotional intelligence and its four dimensions in 2166 Spanish athletes (25.20 ± 10.17 years) from eight sports (volleyball, track and field, shooting, football, basketball, handball, gymnastics, and judo). A total of 1200 men and 966 women answered anonymously using a Google Forms questionnaire sent via WhatsApp about demographics and psychological variables. A Pearson correlation was conducted to assess the age–emotional intelligence relationship. An independent T-test and One-Way ANOVA were carried out to check for age differences between biological sex and sport and a One-Way ANCOVA to determine differences between sports controlled by age. Age differences were observed by sex and sport (p < 0.001). An association was found between age and emotional intelligence dimensions (p < 0.001), except for other’s emotional appraisal (p > 0.05). Judo was the sport with the highest levels of regulation of emotions, other’s emotional appraisal, use of emotion, and total emotional intelligence (p < 0.05). Generally, emotional intelligence was found to be more developed in individual sports than in team sports, except football. Consequently, psychological skills like emotional intelligence could be critical to achieving high performance, depending on the sport. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Sport Psychology)

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8 pages, 598 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Motor Coordination in Children: A Comparison between Children Engaged in Multisport Activities and Swimming

by Dušan Stanković, Maja Horvatin, Jadranka Vlašić, Damir Pekas and Nebojša Trajković

Sports 2023, 11(8), 139; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11080139 - 25 Jul 2023

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 4744

Abstract

Motor coordination has a crucial role in various physical activities and sports, highlighting its significance in overall movement proficiency and performance. This study aimed to compare motor coordination in children engaged in multisport versus swimming activities. The participants of this study included 180 [...] Read more.

Motor coordination has a crucial role in various physical activities and sports, highlighting its significance in overall movement proficiency and performance. This study aimed to compare motor coordination in children engaged in multisport versus swimming activities. The participants of this study included 180 boys and girls (girls = 87) aged 8.25 years ± 0.89. A total of three groups were included: group 1 consisted of inactive children, group 2 included children participating in swimming, and group 3 included children enrolled in multisport. Motor coordination was assessed using the Kiphard–Schilling body coordination test, evaluated by motor quotient (MQ): walking backwards, hopping for height, jumping sideways, and moving sideways. Additionally, a total motor quotient (Total MQ) was calculated based on the performance in all four tests. ANOVA revealed a significant difference in Total MQ and all subtests between the groups (p < 0.01). A significant difference in Total MQ was found not only between the inactive and multisport groups (Diff = 19.8000; 95%CI = 13.1848 to 26.4152; p = 0.001) but also between the multisport and swimming groups (Diff = 12.8000; 95%CI = 6.3456 to 19.2544; p = 0.001). In conclusion, the results revealed that children involved in multisport activities exhibited significantly better motor coordination compared to both the swimming group and the inactive group. Therefore, to enhance the growth of motor coordination abilities, it is crucial that parents, instructors, and coaches encourage kids to engage in multisport physical activities on a daily basis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Motor Behavior and Child Health)

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12 pages, 927 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Blood Flow Restriction Is Not Useful as Soccer Competition Recovery in Youth Male National-Level Soccer Players: A Crossover Randomised Controlled Trial

by Christian Castilla-López and Natalia Romero-Franco

Sports 2023, 11(5), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11050099 - 7 May 2023

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3457

Abstract

In soccer, blood flow restriction (BFR) is used to optimise between-match recovery. However, the benefits are unclear. This study evaluated the effects of BFR as a recovery strategy after a competition on countermovement jump (CMJ) height, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the [...] Read more.

In soccer, blood flow restriction (BFR) is used to optimise between-match recovery. However, the benefits are unclear. This study evaluated the effects of BFR as a recovery strategy after a competition on countermovement jump (CMJ) height, rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and the wellness of soccer players. Forty national-level soccer players were allocated into two conditions: BFR (an active recovery session wearing a BFR device, 24 h after a competition) or NoBFR (the same recovery without BFR). CMJ, RPE and wellness were evaluated the day (CMJ and RPE) or the morning (wellness) before the competition; just after the competition (CMJ and RPE); and 24, 48 (wellness) and 72 h later. After 4 weeks, the players changed conditions. All players showed impaired CMJ (p = 0.013), RPE (p < 0.001) and wellness (p < 0.001) after the match compared with the baseline. The CMJ returned to the baseline 24 h later and wellness returned 48 h later. Only in the BFR condition did the RPE remain impaired 24 h after the match, which was also the moment after finishing the BFR recovery session (p < 0.001). BFR during active recovery does not provide any additional benefits compared with traditional exercise modalities to recover CMJ, RPE and wellness in youth national-level soccer players. BFR could even induce an immediate higher RPE. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Monitoring Load, Recovery, and Performance in Soccer Players)

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10 pages, 1849 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Professional Athletes Maintain High TNF-Alpha or IFN-Gamma Related Inflammatory Status after Recovering from COVID-19 Infection without Developing a Neutralizing Antibody Response

by Mira Ambrus, Eszter Fodor, Timea Berki, Veronika Müller, Ádám Uhlár, István Hornyák and Zsombor Lacza

Sports 2023, 11(5), 97; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11050097 - 30 Apr 2023

Viewed by 2449

Abstract

Introduction: Professional athletes are endangered by COVID-19 and belong to the high-risk population due to their lifestyle. To obtain information on the behavior of COVID-19 in professional athletes, serological, cytokine, and virus neutralization capacities were analyzed. Materials and methods: Hungarian national teams participated [...] Read more.

Introduction: Professional athletes are endangered by COVID-19 and belong to the high-risk population due to their lifestyle. To obtain information on the behavior of COVID-19 in professional athletes, serological, cytokine, and virus neutralization capacities were analyzed. Materials and methods: Hungarian national teams participated in international sports events during the early phases of the COVID-19 epidemic in 2020. Altogether, 29 professional athletes volunteered to donate plasma. Their serological status was evaluated by IgA, IgM, and IgG ELISAs and the highest virus neutralization titer in an in vitro live tissue assay. Plasma cytokine patterns were analyzed with a Bioplex multiplex ELISA system. Results: Surprisingly, only one athlete (3%) had anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG, while IgA was more common (31%). Neither plasma showed direct virus neutralization in a titer over 1:10; hence, they were not suitable for reconvalescent treatment. The ‘cytokine storm’ markers IL-6 and IL-8 were at baseline levels. In contrast, either the TNF-alpha-related cytokines or the IFN-gamma-associated cytokines were elevated. There was a strong negative correlation between the TNF-alpha- or IFN-gamma-related cytokines. Conclusions: Professional athletes are susceptible to the SARS-CoV-2 infection without developing long-term immunity through neutralizing immunoglobulins. Elevated secretory and cellular immunity markers indicate that these systems are probably responsible for virus elimination in this subpopulation. Full article

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13 pages, 711 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Whole Body Vibration Training Improves Maximal Strength of the Knee Extensors, Time-to-Exhaustion and Attenuates Neuromuscular Fatigue

by Serge S. Colson, Jennifer Gioda and Flavio Da Silva

Sports 2023, 11(5), 94; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11050094 - 25 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2713

Abstract

Whole-body vibration (WBV) training programs were reported to improve knee extensor muscle (KE) strength in healthy participants. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanisms of these strength gains remain unresolved. In addition, WBV training was shown to increase the time-to-exhaustion of a static submaximal endurance task. [...] Read more.

Whole-body vibration (WBV) training programs were reported to improve knee extensor muscle (KE) strength in healthy participants. Unfortunately, the underlying mechanisms of these strength gains remain unresolved. In addition, WBV training was shown to increase the time-to-exhaustion of a static submaximal endurance task. However, the effects of WBV training on neuromuscular fatigue (i.e., a decrease of the maximal voluntary isometric contraction; MVIC) induced by an endurance task is unknown. We, therefore, investigated the influence of WBV training on (i) KE MVIC and neuromuscular function, (ii) the time-to-exhaustion of the KE associated with a submaximal isometric fatiguing exercise, and (iii) KE neuromuscular fatigue and its etiology. Eighteen physically active males were assigned to a WBV group (n = 10) or a sham training group (SHAM; n = 8). The MVIC of the KE, voluntary activation, and electrically evoked responses of the KE were assessed (i) before and after a fatiguing exercise (i.e., submaximal isometric contraction) performed until failure, and (ii) before (PRE) and after a 6-week training (POST) period. At POST, the WBV training increased the KE MVIC (+12%, p = 0.001) and voluntary activation (+6%, p < 0.05) regardless of the fatiguing exercise. The time-to-exhaustion was also lengthened at POST in the WBV group (+34%, p < 0.001). Finally, the relative percentage of MVIC decrease after fatiguing exercises diminished in the WBV group between PRE and POST (−14% vs. −6%, respectively, p < 0.001). Significant neural adaptation enhancements account for the trend in KE strength improvements observed after the WBV training program. In addition, the WBV training was effective at increasing the time-to-exhaustion and attenuating neuromuscular fatigue. Full article

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12 pages, 525 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Relationship between Football-Specific Training Characteristics and Tibial Bone Adaptation in Male Academy Football Players

by Ian Varley, Craig Sale, Julie P. Greeves, John G. Morris, Caroline Sunderland and Chris Saward

Sports 2023, 11(4), 86; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11040086 - 19 Apr 2023

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2403

Abstract

We examined the relationship between football-specific training and changes in bone structural properties across a 12-week period in 15 male football players aged 16 years (Mean ± 1 SD = 16.6 ± 0.3 years) that belonged to a professional football academy. Tibial scans [...] Read more.

We examined the relationship between football-specific training and changes in bone structural properties across a 12-week period in 15 male football players aged 16 years (Mean ± 1 SD = 16.6 ± 0.3 years) that belonged to a professional football academy. Tibial scans were performed at 4%, 14% and 38% sites using peripheral quantitative computed tomography immediately before and 12 weeks after increased football-specific training. Training was analysed using GPS to quantify peak speed, average speed, total distance and high-speed distance. Analyses were conducted with bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals (BCa 95% CI). There were increases in bone mass at the 4% (mean ∆ = 0.15 g, BCa 95% CI = 0.07, 0.26 g, g = 0.72), 14% (mean ∆ = 0.04 g, BCa 95% CI = 0.02, 0.06 g, g = 1.20), and 38% sites (mean ∆ = 0.03 g, BCa 95% CI = 0.01, 0.05 g, g = 0.61). There were increases in trabecular density (4%), (mean ∆ = 3.57 mg·cm⁻³, BCa 95% CI = 0.38, 7.05 mg·cm⁻³, g = 0.53), cortical dentsity (14%) (mean ∆ = 5.08 mg·cm⁻³, BCa 95% CI = 0.19, 9.92 mg·cm⁻³, g = 0.49), and cortical density (38%) (mean ∆ = 6.32 mg·cm⁻³, BCa 95% CI = 4.31, 8.90 mg·cm⁻³, g = 1.22). Polar stress strain index (mean ∆ = 50.56 mm³, BCa 95% CI = 10.52, 109.95 mm³, g = 0.41), cortical area (mean ∆ = 2.12 mm², BCa 95% CI = 0.09, 4.37 mm², g = 0.48) and thickness (mean ∆ = 0.06 mm, BCa 95% CI = 0.01, 0.13 mm, g = 0.45) increased at the 38% site. Correlations revealed positive relationships between total distance and increased cortical density (38%) (r = 0.39, BCa 95% CI = 0.02, 0.66), and between peak speed and increased trabecular density (4%) (r = 0.43, BCa 95% CI = 0.03, 0.73). There were negative correlations between total (r = −0.21, BCa 95% CI = −0.65, −0.12) and high-speed distance (r = −0.29, BCa 95% CI = −0.57, −0.24) with increased polar stress strain index (38%). Results suggest that despite football training relating to increases in bone characteristics in male academy footballers, the specific training variables promoting adaptation over a 12-week period may vary. Further studies conducted over a longer period are required to fully elucidate the time-course of how certain football-specific training characteristics influence bone structural properties. Full article

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16 pages, 1963 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Resting Blood Pressure in Master Athletes: Immune from Hypertension?

by Mike Climstein, Joe Walsh, Mark DeBeliso, Tim Heazlewood, Trish Sevene, Luke Del Vecchio and Kent Adams

Sports 2023, 11(4), 85; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11040085 - 18 Apr 2023

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 6323

Abstract

Ageing is associated with decreased physical activity, obesity and increased risk of hypertension (HTN). Master athletes (MA) have either pursued a physically active lifestyle throughout their life or initiated exercise or sport later in life. We assessed resting blood pressure (BP) in male [...] Read more.

Ageing is associated with decreased physical activity, obesity and increased risk of hypertension (HTN). Master athletes (MA) have either pursued a physically active lifestyle throughout their life or initiated exercise or sport later in life. We assessed resting blood pressure (BP) in male and female World Masters Games (WMG) athletes. This was a cross-sectional, observational study which utilized an online survey to assess the blood pressure (BP) and other physiological parameters. Results: a total of 2793 participants were involved in this study. Key findings included differences between genders with males reporting higher resting SBP (+9.4%, p < 0.001), resting DBP (+5.9%, p < 0.001) and mean arterial pressure (+6.2%, p < 0.001). Significant differences (p < 0.001) were also identified when comparing WMG athletes’ resting BP results (genders combined) to the general Australian population with WMG athletes having a lower SBP (p < 0.001, −8.4%) and DBP (p < 0.001, −3.6%). Additionally, 19.9% of males and 49.7% of female WMG participants were normotensive whereas 35.7% of the general Australian population were normotensive. Only 8.1% of the WMG athletes (genders combined) were found to be HTN compared to 17.2% in the general Australian population. These findings reflect a low prevalence of HTN in WMG participants and support our hypothesis of a low prevalence of HTN in an active, but aged cohort of MA. Full article

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18 pages, 827 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Normative Scores for CrossFit^® Open Workouts: 2011–2022

by Gerald T. Mangine, Nina Grundlingh and Yuri Feito

Sports 2023, 11(2), 24; https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11020024 - 18 Jan 2023

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3863

Abstract

To create normative scores for all CrossFit^® Open (CFO) workouts and compare male and female performances, official scores were collected from the official competition leaderboard for all competitors of the 2011–2022 CFO competitions. Percentiles were calculated for athletes (18–54 years) who completed [...] Read more.

To create normative scores for all CrossFit^® Open (CFO) workouts and compare male and female performances, official scores were collected from the official competition leaderboard for all competitors of the 2011–2022 CFO competitions. Percentiles were calculated for athletes (18–54 years) who completed all workouts within a single year ‘as prescribed’ and met minimum scoring thresholds. Independent t-tests revealed significant (p < 0.05) sex differences for 56 of 60 workouts. In workouts scored by repetitions completed, men completed more repetitions in 18 workouts by small to large differences (d = 0.22–0.81), whereas women completed more repetitions in 6 workouts by small to medium differences (d = 0.36–0.77). When workouts were scored by time to completion, men were faster in 10 workouts by small to large differences (d = 0.23–1.12), while women were faster in 3 workouts by small differences (d = 0.46). In three workouts scored by load lifted, men lifted more weight by large differences (d = 2.00–2.98). All other differences were either trivial or not significant. Despite adjusted programming for men and women, the persistence of performance differences across all CFO workouts suggests that resultant challenges are not the same. These normative values may be useful for training and research in male and female CrossFit^® athletes. Full article

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