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Processes
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Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology
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Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology

A special issue of Processes (ISSN 2227-9717). This special issue belongs to the section "Energy Systems".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 28 February 2026 | Viewed by 6681

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Lei Qin

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Guest Editor
College of Safety Science and Engineering, Xi'an University of Science and Technology, Xi'an 710054, China
Interests: unconventional gas; liquid nitrogen fracturing; coalbed methane recovery; carbon capture and storage; dust control
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Quangui Li

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Guest Editor
State Key Laboratory of Coal Mine Disaster Dynamics and Control, Chongqing University, Chongqing 400044, China
Interests: hydraulic fracturing; coalbed methane; microseismic monitoring; disaster control
Dr. Xu Yu

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Guest Editor
School of Safety Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China
Interests: unconventional gas resources; carbon sequestration; hazard control in coal mines
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Guanhua Ni

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Safety and Environmental Engineering, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
Interests: mechanism of enhancing permeability in deep coal seams; prevention and control of gas disasters; intelligent gas extraction technology and equipment

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Driven by global concerns about environmental and climate change, scientists and engineers are looking for clean and renewable energies, and searching for a way to achieve a low carbon footprint for fossil fuel industries. Many researchers have made significant contributions to the development of unconventional energy resources (shale gas, coalbed methane, and natural gas hydrates), renewable energies (hydrogen, solar energy, geothermal energy, wind power, etc.), and carbon storage in underground formations. Industries with a high-intensity carbon footprint, for instance petroleum and mining industries, face more challenges to eliminate their great amount of carbon emissions. Until now, the ratio of unconventional and clean energies to the total global energy is still small. Few commercial projects have been built for large-scale carbon sequestration. Therefore, further research is required to investigate the intrinsic mechanism of clean and low-carbon energy development.

This Special Issue, “Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology”, presents recent advancements in the unconventional and clean energy development and carbon sequestration.

Topics include, but are not limited to, the following:

  • Development of unconventional gas resources;
  • Clean and renewable energy;
  • Gas extraction and hazard prevention in coal mines;
  • Advanced progress in reservoir stimulation techniques;
  • Carbon capture, sequestration, and utilization.

We look forward to receiving your contributions to this Special Issue.

Dr. Lei Qin
Dr. Quangui Li
Dr. Xu Yu
Prof. Dr. Guanhua Ni
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Processes is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2400 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • unconventional energy resources
  • coalbed methane
  • shale gas
  • reservoir stimulation technology
  • geo-carbon sequestration
  • clean energy

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Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

17 pages, 4863 KB  
Article
Comparative Study on Gas Desorption Behaviors of Single-Size and Mixed-Size Coal Samples
by Long Chen, Xiao-Yu Cheng, Xuan-Ping Gong, Xing-Ying Ma, Cheng Cheng and Lu Xiao
Processes 2025, 13(9), 2760; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092760 - 28 Aug 2025
Viewed by 204
Abstract
The gas desorption behavior of coal is a key basis for guiding gas parameter determination, optimizing gas extraction, and preventing gas-related disasters. Coal in mine working faces typically exhibits a mixed particle size distribution. However, research on the gas desorption behavior of mixed-size [...] Read more.
The gas desorption behavior of coal is a key basis for guiding gas parameter determination, optimizing gas extraction, and preventing gas-related disasters. Coal in mine working faces typically exhibits a mixed particle size distribution. However, research on the gas desorption behavior of mixed-size coal samples and comparative studies with single-sized samples remains insufficient. This study employed a self-developed experimental system for the multi-field coupled seepage desorption of gas-bearing coal to conduct comparative experiments on gas desorption behavior between single-sized and mixed-size coal samples. Systematic analysis revealed significant differences in their desorption and diffusion patterns: smaller particle sizes and higher proportions of small particles correlate with greater total gas desorption amounts and higher desorption rates. The desorption process exhibits distinct stages: the initial desorption amount is primarily influenced by the particle size, while the later stage is affected by the proportion of coal samples with different particle sizes. The desorption intensity for both single-sized and mixed-size samples decays exponentially over time, with the decay rate weakening as the proportion of small particles decreases. The gas diffusion coefficient decays over time during desorption, eventually approaching zero, and increases as the proportion of small particles rises. Conversely, the gas desorption attenuation coefficient increases with a higher proportion of fine particles. Based on the desorption laws of coal samples with single and mixed particle sizes, this study can be applied to coalbed gas content measurements, emission prediction, and extraction design, thereby providing a theoretical foundation and technical support for coal mine operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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24 pages, 8254 KB  
Article
Practical Approach for Formation Damage Control in CO2 Gas Flooding in Asphaltenic Crude Systems
by David Sergio, Derrick Amoah Oladele, Francis Dela Nuetor, Himakshi Goswami, Racha Trabelsi, Haithem Trabelsi and Fathi Boukadi
Processes 2025, 13(9), 2740; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13092740 - 27 Aug 2025
Viewed by 280
Abstract
CO2 flooding has become a strategic tool for enhanced oil recovery and reservoir management in mature fields. This technique, however, is rarely utilized in asphaltenic crude oil systems, due to the likely occurrence of high asphaltene precipitation. The effect of asphaltene concentrations [...] Read more.
CO2 flooding has become a strategic tool for enhanced oil recovery and reservoir management in mature fields. This technique, however, is rarely utilized in asphaltenic crude oil systems, due to the likely occurrence of high asphaltene precipitation. The effect of asphaltene concentrations and CO2 injection pressures has mostly been the focus of studies in determining asphaltene precipitation rates. However, asphaltene precipitation is not the only direct factor to be considered in predicting the extent of damage in an asphaltenic crude oil system. In this study, a compositional reservoir simulation was conducted using Eclipse 300 to investigate the injection pressure at which asphaltene-induced formation damage can be avoided during both miscible and immiscible CO2 flooding in an asphaltenic crude system. Simulation results indicate that asphaltene-induced permeability reduction exceeded 35% in most affected zones, with a corresponding drop in injectivity of 28%. Cumulative oil recovery improved by 19% compared to base cases without CO2 injection, achieving peak recovery after approximately 4200 days of simulation time. As CO2 was injected below the Minimum Miscibility Pressure (MMP) of 2079.2 psi, a significantly lower asphaltene precipitation was observed near the injector. This could be attributed to the stripping of lighter hydrocarbon components (C2–C7+) occurring in the transition zone at the gas–oil interface. Injecting CO2 at pressures above the MMP resulted in precipitation occurring throughout the entire reservoir at 3200 psia and 1000 bbl/day injection rates. An increase in the injection rate at pressures above the MMP increased the rate of precipitation. However, a further increase in the injection rate from 1000 bbl/day to 4200 bbl/day resulted in a decrease in asphaltene deposition. The pressure drop in the water phase caused by pore throat increase demonstrated that water injection was effective in removing asphaltene deposits and restoring permeability. This work provides critical insights into optimizing CO2 injection strategies to enhance oil recovery while minimizing asphaltene-induced formation damage in heavy oil reservoirs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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15 pages, 7918 KB  
Article
Scale Deposition During Water Flooding and the Effect on Reservoir Performance
by Adaobi B. Irogbele, Bilal A. Ibrahim, Derrick Adjei, Vincent N. B. Amponsah, Racha Trabelsi, Haithem Trabelsi and Fathi Boukadi
Processes 2025, 13(8), 2645; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13082645 - 20 Aug 2025
Viewed by 350
Abstract
Scale deposition during waterflooding, driven by the incompatibility between injected seawater and formation of water, poses significant challenges to reservoir performance. This study examines the mechanisms of inorganic scale formation and assesses its impact on productivity index, permeability, and pressure dynamics using the [...] Read more.
Scale deposition during waterflooding, driven by the incompatibility between injected seawater and formation of water, poses significant challenges to reservoir performance. This study examines the mechanisms of inorganic scale formation and assesses its impact on productivity index, permeability, and pressure dynamics using the ECLIPSE simulator. A five-layered reservoir model with one injector and one producer (spaced 700 feet apart) was simulated under varying seawater injection rates of 1000, 3000, and 5000 stock tank barrels per day (stb/day). The results revealed rapid water breakthrough and escalating water cuts (34–38%) across scenarios, with scale deposition concentrated in layers 3 and 4, reducing permeability by up to 47% and productivity index by 50%. Layer 3 exhibited a threefold higher scaling due to the intense mixing of seawater and the formation of water. The study highlights the necessity of sulfate removal, alternative water sources, well repositioning, and preemptive scale inhibition to minimize reservoir damage caused by scale-induced permeability impairment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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28 pages, 1354 KB  
Article
Factors Affecting Energy Consumption in Hydrogen Liquefaction Plants
by Jin Xue and Fathi Boukadi
Processes 2025, 13(8), 2611; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13082611 - 18 Aug 2025
Viewed by 449
Abstract
Hydrogen energy is valued for its diverse sources and clean, low-carbon nature and is a promising secondary energy source with wide-ranging applications and a significant role in the global energy transition. Nonetheless, hydrogen’s low energy density makes its large-scale storage and transport challenging. [...] Read more.
Hydrogen energy is valued for its diverse sources and clean, low-carbon nature and is a promising secondary energy source with wide-ranging applications and a significant role in the global energy transition. Nonetheless, hydrogen’s low energy density makes its large-scale storage and transport challenging. Liquid hydrogen, with its high energy density and easier transport, offers a practical solution. This study examines the global hydrogen liquefaction methods, with a particular emphasis on the liquid nitrogen pre-cooling Claude cycle process. It also examines the factors in the helium refrigeration cycle—such as the helium compressor inlet temperature, outlet pressure, and mass—that affect energy consumption in this process. Using HYSYS software, the hydrogen liquefaction process is simulated, and a complete process system is developed. Based on theoretical principles, this study explores the pre-cooling, refrigeration, and normal-to-secondary hydrogen conversion processes. By calculating and analyzing the process’s energy consumption, an optimized flow scheme for hydrogen liquefaction is proposed to reduce the total power used by energy equipment. The study shows that the hydrogen mass flow rate and key helium cycle parameters—like the compressor inlet temperature, outlet pressure, and flow rate—mainly affect energy consumption. By optimizing these parameters, notable decreases in both the total and specific energy consumption were attained. The total energy consumption dropped by 7.266% from the initial 714.3 kW, and the specific energy consumption was reduced by 11.94% from 11.338 kWh/kg. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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19 pages, 6352 KB  
Article
Laboratory Investigation of Miscible CO2-Induced Enhanced Oil Recovery from the East-Southern Pre-Caspian Region
by Ainur B. Niyazbayeva, Rinat B. Merbayev, Yernazar R. Samenov, Assel T. Zholdybayeva, Ashirgul A. Kozhagulova and Ainash D. Shabdirova
Processes 2025, 13(8), 2566; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13082566 - 14 Aug 2025
Viewed by 314
Abstract
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques are essential for maximizing hydrocarbon extraction from mature reservoirs. CO2 injection (CO2-EOR) is a promising technology that improves oil recovery while contributing to greenhouse gas reduction. This study investigates the potential of miscible CO2 [...] Read more.
Enhanced oil recovery (EOR) techniques are essential for maximizing hydrocarbon extraction from mature reservoirs. CO2 injection (CO2-EOR) is a promising technology that improves oil recovery while contributing to greenhouse gas reduction. This study investigates the potential of miscible CO2-enhanced oil recovery (CO2-EOR) in the MakXX oilfield of southeastern Kazakhstan. The aim is to assess oil displacement efficiency and its impact on key rock properties, including porosity, permeability, and mineral composition, under reservoir conditions. Core flooding experiments were conducted at 13 MPa and 42 °C using high-precision equipment to replicate reservoir conditions. The core was analyzed before and after CO2 injection using SEM, EDS, and XRD. The results revealed a 54% oil recovery efficiency, accompanied by a 19% decrease in permeability and 8% reduction in porosity due to mineral precipitation and clay transformation. These findings provide insight into the performance and limitations of CO2-EOR and support its application in similar lithology. To confirm and upscale laboratory observations, numerical simulation was conducted using a compositional model. The results demonstrated improved oil recovery, pressure stabilization, and enhanced sweep efficiency under CO2 injection, supporting the scalability and field applicability of the proposed EOR approach. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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28 pages, 14694 KB  
Article
Optimizing Intermittent Water Injection Cycles to Mitigate Asphaltene Formation: A Reservoir Simulation Approach
by Edward Dylan Moorman, Jin Xue, Ismaeel Ibrahim, Nnaemeka Okeke, Racha Trabelsi, Haithem Trabelsi and Fathi Boukadi
Processes 2025, 13(7), 2143; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13072143 - 5 Jul 2025
Viewed by 424
Abstract
Asphaltene deposition remains a critical challenge in water-injected reservoirs, where pressure and compositional variations destabilize the oil phase, triggering precipitation and formation damage. This study explores the application of intermittent waterflooding (IWF) as a practical mitigation strategy, combining alternating injection and well shut-in [...] Read more.
Asphaltene deposition remains a critical challenge in water-injected reservoirs, where pressure and compositional variations destabilize the oil phase, triggering precipitation and formation damage. This study explores the application of intermittent waterflooding (IWF) as a practical mitigation strategy, combining alternating injection and well shut-in times to stabilize fluid conditions. A synthetic reservoir model was developed in Eclipse 300 to evaluate how key parameters such as shut-in time, injection rate, and injection timing affect asphaltene behavior under varying operational regimes. Comparative simulations against traditional continuous waterflooding reveal that IWF can significantly suppress near-wellbore deposition, preserve permeability, and improve overall oil recovery. The results show that early injections and optimized cycling schedules maintain reservoir pressure above the bubble point, thereby reducing the extent of destabilization. This study offers a simulation-based framework for IWF design, providing insights into asphaltene control mechanisms and contributing to more efficient reservoir management in fields prone to flow assurance issues. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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17 pages, 3935 KB  
Article
Optimization and Engineering Application of In-Seam Borehole Predrainage Technology for Coalbed Methane Based on Response Surface Methodology
by Yanhui Li, Qian Liu, Chuanjie Zhu and Yue’e Wu
Processes 2025, 13(5), 1601; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13051601 - 21 May 2025
Viewed by 486
Abstract
To advance the optimization of engineering parameters in in-seam borehole predrainage technology, this study developed a comprehensive analytical framework integrating theoretical modeling, numerical simulation, and field validation. Taking Pingdingshan Tian’an Coal Mine No. 1 as a practical case study, we established a gas-bearing [...] Read more.
To advance the optimization of engineering parameters in in-seam borehole predrainage technology, this study developed a comprehensive analytical framework integrating theoretical modeling, numerical simulation, and field validation. Taking Pingdingshan Tian’an Coal Mine No. 1 as a practical case study, we established a gas-bearing coal seam drainage model based on fluid–solid coupling theory. A multifactor optimization scheme was implemented using response surface methodology (RSM) complemented by an evaluation system focusing on the gas extraction efficiency coefficient (K). Numerical simulations through COMSOL Multiphysics 6.0 enabled detailed investigation of single-factor influences and multifactor coupling effects, ultimately identifying field-verified optimal parameters. Key discoveries include the following: (1) Spatiotemporal evolution patterns of gas drainage compliance zones showing stabilized interborehole pressure gradients and enhanced regional connectivity after 300-day extraction; (2) a parameter sensitivity hierarchy for K-value defined as drainage duration (primary) > borehole spacing > borehole diameter > extraction negative pressure; (3) an optimized configuration (4.5 m spacing, 113 mm diameter, 18 kPa pressure) achieving a 54.2% pressure reduction with a 0.98 efficiency coefficient. Field data demonstrated only 2.1% average deviation from model predictions, validating the methodology’s effectiveness for gas control parameter optimization in coal mining operations. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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20 pages, 8971 KB  
Article
A Review of CO2 Capture Utilization and Storage in China: Development Status, Cost Limits, and Strategic Planning
by Mingqiang Hao, Ran Bi and Yang Liu
Processes 2025, 13(3), 905; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030905 - 19 Mar 2025
Viewed by 1103
Abstract
The CCUS industry is developing rapidly worldwide, and its projects are gradually transitioning from single-section initiatives to whole-industry applications. Capture targets have expanded from power plants and natural gas processing to include steel, cement, kerosene, fertilizer, and hydrogen production. This paper analyzes CO [...] Read more.
The CCUS industry is developing rapidly worldwide, and its projects are gradually transitioning from single-section initiatives to whole-industry applications. Capture targets have expanded from power plants and natural gas processing to include steel, cement, kerosene, fertilizer, and hydrogen production. This paper analyzes CO2 emissions in eight major industries around oil regions in China, including emission factors, emission scale, and the composition and distribution of emission sources. The cost of CO2 sources and CO2-EOR affordable cost limits under different scenarios are calculated for different oil regions. The main influencing factors of the cost are analyzed, and possible ways to fill the cost gap are proposed. This paper also constructs a CO2-EOR strategic planning framework and a mathematical programming model, formulating short-term, mid-term, and long-term strategic plans for CO2-EOR and storage in 10 oil regions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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15 pages, 4989 KB  
Article
Simulating Horizontal CO2 Plume Migration in a Saline Aquifer: The Effect of Injection Depth
by Aboubakar Kone, Fathi Boukadi, Racha Trabelsi and Haithem Trabelsi
Processes 2025, 13(3), 734; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030734 - 3 Mar 2025
Viewed by 1087
Abstract
This study investigates the impact of injection depth on CO2 plume migration dynamics in saline aquifers, a critical aspect of secure and efficient carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS). While CCUS offers a vital pathway for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, challenges such [...] Read more.
This study investigates the impact of injection depth on CO2 plume migration dynamics in saline aquifers, a critical aspect of secure and efficient carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS). While CCUS offers a vital pathway for mitigating greenhouse gas emissions, challenges such as buoyancy-driven flow, salinity effects, and potential leakage threaten long-term CO2 containment. Using compositional reservoir simulation (CMG GEM 2021.10, Calgary, Canada) and Illinois Basin Decatur Project (IBDP) data, we modeled CO2 injection into a 10,000 ppm salinity aquifer, evaluating the effects of single- and multi-depth injection (5370 to 5385 ft). The results demonstrate that multi-depth injection significantly enhances CO2–brine contact area, promoting dissolution trapping and mitigating buoyancy-driven migration. This enhanced dissolution and residual trapping improves horizontal containment and overall storage security in the modeled salinity environment. The work provides valuable insights for optimizing injection strategies to maximize CO2 storage efficiency and minimize leakage risks. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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14 pages, 4195 KB  
Article
Effects of Liquid Nitrogen on Mechanical Deterioration and Fracturing Efficiency in Hot Dry Rock
by Hu Wang, Yong Hu, Na Luo, Chunbo Zhou and Chengzheng Cai
Processes 2025, 13(3), 696; https://doi.org/10.3390/pr13030696 - 28 Feb 2025
Viewed by 780
Abstract
Geothermal energy can be obtained from hot dry rock (HDR). The target temperatures for heat extraction from HDR range from 100 to 400 °C. Artificial fracturing is employed to stimulate HDR and create a network of fractures for geothermal resource extraction. Liquid nitrogen [...] Read more.
Geothermal energy can be obtained from hot dry rock (HDR). The target temperatures for heat extraction from HDR range from 100 to 400 °C. Artificial fracturing is employed to stimulate HDR and create a network of fractures for geothermal resource extraction. Liquid nitrogen (LN2) is environmentally friendly and shows better performance in reservoir stimulation than does conventional fracturing. In this study, triaxial compression experiments and acoustic emission location techniques were used to evaluate the impacts of temperatures and confining pressures on the mechanical property deterioration caused by LN2 cooling. The numerical simulation of LN2 fracturing was performed, and the results were compared with those for water and nitrogen fracturing. The results demonstrate that the confining pressure mitigated the deterioration effect of LN2 on the crack initiation stress, crack damage stress, and peak stress. From 20 to 60 MPa, LN2-induced reductions in these three stress parameters ranged between 7.73–18.51%, 3.46–12.15%, and 2.51–8.50%, respectively. Cryogenic LN2 increased the number and complexity of cracks generated during rock failure, further enhancing the fracture performance. Compared with those for water and nitrogen fracturing, the initiation pressures of LN2 fracturing decreased by 61.54% and 68.75%, and the instability pressures of LN2 fracturing decreased by 20.00% and 29.41%, respectively. These results contribute to the theoretical foundation for LN2 fracturing in HDR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Unconventional Energy, Clean Energy and Carbon Sequestration: Progress in Technology)
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