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A special issue of Molecules (ISSN 1420-3049). This special issue belongs to the section "Materials Chemistry".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: 30 June 2025 | Viewed by 14758

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Dr. Dipendu Saha

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Department of Chemical Engineering, Widener University, Chester, PA 19013, USA
Interests: nanoporous materials; porous carbons; photocatalysis; plasmonic systems; sustainability
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Porous carbon materials have versatile applications in the modern world. Different varieties of carbon exist, including activated carbon, nanocarbon, soft and hard templated mesoporous carbon, carbon fibers, or biochar. Among the applications of carbon-based materials, this Special Issue of Molecules invites papers that specifically target the application of carbon-based materials toward sustainability. These applications include, but are not limited to, carbon capture, air purification, water purification, trace contaminant removal, and the sensing and removal of chemical warfare agents. The synthesis of carbon-based materials using a sustainable approach also falls under this category.

Dr. Dipendu Saha
Guest Editor

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Keywords

carbon-based materials
carbon nanostructures
adsorption
sustainability

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Related Special Issue

Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry in Molecules (10 articles)

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

Jump to: Review

17 pages, 3911 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Wood-Based Micro-Biochars in a Cement Mixture

by Minkyeong Pyo, Jongsun Kim, Seungwook Seok, Chan Ho Park and Wonchang Choi

Molecules 2025, 30(9), 1898; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30091898 - 24 Apr 2025

Viewed by 330

Abstract

Immediate action is required to achieve carbon neutrality within the cement industry. The integration of biochar into cement as a component of reinforced concrete has potential to mitigate carbon emissions in the construction sector by enabling carbon sequestration. In pursuit of eco-friendly practices and improved physical properties of cement composites, this study investigated the properties of wood-based, micron-sized biochar as a non-carbonate raw material, including its chemical composition, morphology, and wettability. The characterization of lignocellulosic micro-biochar and its mechanical impact on cement composites was a focus of this study. Cement was partially replaced with varying weight percentages of micro-biochar (1, 3, and 5 wt%), and the effects were evaluated through compressive strength tests after 7 and 28 d. The results demonstrated that the micro-biochar could sustain strength even when substituted for cement. Notably, after 28 d, the compressive strength of the sample with only cement was 29.6 MPa, while the sample with 3 wt% biochar substitution showed 30.9 MPa, indicating a 4.4% increase. This research contributes to sustainable construction practices by offering a green solution for reducing carbon emissions in the industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 4614 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Simultaneous Measurements of Nanotrace Amounts of Lead and Cadmium Using an Environmentally Friendly Sensor (An Activated Glassy Carbon Electrode Modified with a Bismuth Film)

by Katarzyna Tyszczuk-Rotko and Aleksy Keller

Molecules 2025, 30(6), 1308; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30061308 - 14 Mar 2025

Viewed by 619

Abstract

This paper shows the fabrication of a new environmentally friendly sensor, an activated glassy carbon electrode with an in situ deposited bismuth film (aGCE/BiF), to determine Cd(II) and Pb(II) at the nanotrace level. The electrochemical activation of the GCE surface was achieved in a solution of 0.1 M phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) of pH = 7 by performing five cyclic voltammetric scans in the range of −1.5–2.5 V at ν of 100 mV/s. The newly developed electrode provides several advantages, such as an increased electron active surface (compared to the glassy carbon electrode) and improved electron transfer kinetics. As a result, the new voltammetric procedure (square-wave anodic stripping voltammetry, SWASV) was established and optimized. With the SWASV method, the following calibration curves and low detection limits (LODs) were obtained for Cd(II) and Pb(II), respectively: 5–100 nM, 0.62 nM, 2–200 nM, and 0.18 nM. The newly prepared method was used to determine the amounts of Pb(II) and Cd(II) in the certified reference material, and the results agreed with the certified values. Moreover, the procedure was successfully applied to determine the Cd(II) and Pb(II) in river samples. The official and standard addition methods validated the measurement results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 6248 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Multi-Sensor for Direct and Simultaneous Monitoring of Changes in the Contents of Four Ionic Components

by Barbara Niemiec, Robert Piech and Beata Paczosa-Bator

Molecules 2025, 30(5), 1118; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30051118 - 28 Feb 2025

Viewed by 489

Abstract

This paper presents the application of a multi-sensor with a renewable surface based on a carbon black paste modified with ruthenium dioxide hydrate for monitoring the concentration changes of four ionic compounds (nitrate, ammonium, sodium, and calcium). By combining these into one sensor body, analyses can be performed simultaneously, based on a single standard curve, on a small number of available samples. The multi-sensor electrodes were characterized by determining both their electrical parameters, using methods such as chronopotentiometry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and analytical parameters, through a series of potentiometric tests. The electrodes were characterized by high electric charge capacities ranging from 80 µF for the sodium electrode to 257 µF for the nitrate electrode. The tested electrodes showed calibration curve slopes of −51.1 mV/dec for the nitrate electrode, 59.3 mV/dec for the ammonium electrode, 57.0 mV/dec for the sodium electrode, and 26.0 mV/dec for the calcium electrode. The multi-sensor parameters allow for free determination of ions of biological significance in river water samples, soil samples, and plant substrates. The multi-sensor presented in this work can be successfully used to analyze water or plant substrates at home or among commercial crops. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 6218 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Study of the Catalytic System H₃PW₁₂O₄₀/Quaternary Phosphonium Salts for the Epoxidation of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters—The Effect of the Molar Ratio of Hydrogen Peroxide to the Double Bond

by Marlena Musik, Ewa Janus and Robert Pełech

Molecules 2025, 30(5), 1109; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30051109 - 28 Feb 2025

Viewed by 423

Abstract

In the present work, the epoxidation of fatty acid methyl esters (biodiesel or FAMEs) with an iodine number of 96.4 g/100 g and containing approximately 11% palmitic acid, 4% stearic acid, 51% oleic acid, 25% linoleic acid, and 5% linolenic acid was studied with an aqueous H₂O₂ solution and different quaternary phosphonium salts (QPSs) combined with the phosphotungstic heteropolyacid (HPA) H₃PW₁₂O₄₀ in a biphasic system. The effect of the molar ratio of H₂O₂:C=C on the epoxidation of FAMEs was investigated. The effect of the molar ratio of H₂O₂:C=C on the epoxy number (EN) and iodine number (IN) was measured. Multiple regression analysis methods were used to determine the regression model describing the influence of the various independent variables. In the results obtained, it was found that the highest yields were obtained for [P6][Phosf]. The optimum conditions for the epoxidation process with the systems used were a time range of 30 ± 4 min and a H₂O₂/double bond molar ratio in the range of 1.8 ± 0.2. The formation of epoxidised fatty acid methyl esters (E-FAMEs) was confirmed by FT-IR, ¹H NMR and ¹³C NMR analyses. In the FT-IR spectrum of the E-FAMEs, epoxy ring vibration signals were identified at 826 cm⁻¹. In the ¹H NMR spectrum, signals appeared in the range of 3.25–3.00 ppm, corresponding to epoxy ring formation in biodiesel, and in the range of 60–55 ppm in the ¹³C NMR spectrum. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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25 pages, 3584 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Bimetallic Zinc-Iron-Modified Sugarcane Bagasse Biochar for Simultaneous Adsorption of Arsenic and Oxytetracycline from Wastewater

by Nhat-Thien Nguyen, An-Bang Lin, Chang-Tang Chang and Gui-Bing Hong

Molecules 2025, 30(3), 572; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30030572 - 27 Jan 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 884

Abstract

Arsenic (As), a highly toxic and carcinogenic heavy metal, poses significant risks to soil and water quality, while oxytetracycline (OTC), a widely used antibiotic, contributes to environmental pollution due to excessive human usage. Addressing the coexistence of multiple pollutants in the environment, this study investigates the simultaneous adsorption of As(III) and OTC using a novel bimetallic zinc-iron-modified biochar (1Zn-1Fe-1SBC). The developed adsorbent demonstrates enhanced recovery, improved adsorption efficiency, and cost-effective operation. Characterization results revealed a high carbon-to-hydrogen ratio (C/H) and a specific surface area of 1137 m² g⁻¹ for 1Zn-1Fe-1SBC. Isotherm modeling indicated maximum adsorption capacities of 34.7 mg g⁻¹ for As(III) and 172.4 mg g⁻¹ for OTC. Thermodynamic analysis confirmed that the adsorption processes for both pollutants were spontaneous (ΔG < 0), endothermic (ΔH > 0), and driven by chemical adsorption (ΔH > 80 kJ mol⁻¹), with increased system disorder (ΔS > 0). The adsorption mechanisms involved multiple interactions, including pore filling, hydrogen bonding, electrostatic attraction, complexation, and π-π interactions. These findings underscore the potential of 1Zn-1Fe-1SBC as a promising adsorbent for the remediation of wastewater containing coexisting pollutants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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24 pages, 5288 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Purification of Biodiesel Polluted by Copper Using an Activated Carbon Prepared from Spent Coffee Grounds: Adsorption Property Tailoring, Batch and Packed-Bed Studies

by Daniel Eduardo Cárdenas-Piñeros, Hilda Elizabeth Reynel-Ávila, Lizbeth Liliana Díaz-Muñoz, Adrián Bonilla-Petriciolet, Carlos Javier Durán-Valle and Marta Adame-Pereira

Molecules 2025, 30(3), 483; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules30030483 - 22 Jan 2025

Viewed by 975

Abstract

Biodiesel produced via oil transesterification often contains metallic impurities, such as copper, which affects its quality and engine performance. This study explores the use of activated carbon prepared from spent coffee grounds to remove copper from biodiesel. Activated carbon samples were prepared via biomass pyrolysis and chemical activation with KOH and HNO₃. The optimal conditions for copper adsorption were determined using a Taguchi L9 design. Maximum adsorption capacities were 13.4 and 17.3 mg/g at 30 and 40 °C, respectively, in batch adsorbers. In packed-bed columns, the axial dispersion reduced the adsorption efficiency obtaining bed adsorption capacities from 1.9 to 5.1 mg/g under tested experimental conditions. Adsorbent characterization and adsorption modeling indicated that copper removal was driven by multi-cationic interactions, where carboxylic groups from carbon surface acted as key active sites. The new adsorbent outperformed commercial bone char, making it a cost-effective alternative to improve biodiesel production contributing to the energy matrix diversification. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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19 pages, 6813 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Antibacterial and Anticorrosive Hydrogel Coating Based on Complementary Functions of Sodium Alginate and g-C₃N₄

by Zishuai Hu, Baochen Han, Jianhui Li, Dan Liu and Jian Qi

Molecules 2024, 29(17), 4192; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29174192 - 4 Sep 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1463

Abstract

Graphitic carbon nitride (g-C₃N₄, CN) has emerged as a promising photocatalytic material due to its inherent stability, antibacterial properties, and eco-friendliness. However, its tendency to aggregate and limited dispersion hinder its efficacy in practical antibacterial applications. To address these limitations, this study focuses on developing a composite hydrogel coating, in which sodium alginate (SA) molecules interact electrostatically and through hydrogen bonding to anchor CN, thereby significantly improving its dispersion. The optimal CN loading of 35% results in a hydrogel with a tensile strength of 120 MPa and an antibacterial rate of 99.87% within 6 h. The enhanced mechanical properties are attributed to hydrogen bonding between the -NH2 groups of CN and the -OH groups of SA, while the -OH groups of SA facilitate the attraction of photogenerated holes from CN, promoting carrier transfer and separation, thereby strengthening the antibacterial action. Moreover, the hydrogel coating exhibits excellent antibacterial and corrosion resistance capabilities against Pseudomonas aeruginosa on 316L stainless steel (316L SS), laying the foundation for advanced antimicrobial and anticorrosion hydrogel systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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14 pages, 4208 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Cashew Nut Shell Waste Derived Graphene Oxide

by Alvaro Arrieta, Yamid E. Nuñez de la Rosa and Samuel Pestana

Molecules 2024, 29(17), 4168; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29174168 - 3 Sep 2024

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1086

Abstract

The particular properties of graphene oxide (GO) make it a material with great technological potential, so it is of great interest to find renewable and eco-friendly sources to satisfy its future demand sustainably. Recently, agricultural waste has been identified as a potential raw material source for producing carbonaceous materials. This study explores the potential of cashew nut shell (CNS), a typically discarded by-product, as a renewable source for graphene oxide synthesis. Initially, deoiled cashew nut shells (DCNS) were submitted to pyrolysis to produce a carbonaceous material (Py-DCNS), with process optimization conducted through response surface methodology. Optimal conditions were identified as a pyrolysis temperature of 950 °C and a time of 1.8 h, yielding 29.09% Py-DCNS with an estimated purity of 82.55%, which increased to 91.9% post-washing. Using a modified Hummers method, the Py-DCNS was subsequently transformed into graphene oxide (GO-DCNS). Structural and functional analyses were carried out using FTIR spectroscopy, revealing the successful generation of GO-DCNS with characteristic oxygen-containing functional groups. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the formation of defects and layer separations in GO-DCNS compared to Py-DCNS, indicative of effective oxidation. The thermogravimetric analysis demonstrated distinct thermal decomposition stages for GO-DCNS, aligning with the expected behavior for graphene oxide. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) further corroborated the morphological and compositional transformation from DCNS to GO-DCNS, showcasing reduced particle size, increased porosity, and significant oxygen functional groups. The results underscore the viability of cashew nut shells as a sustainable precursor for graphene oxide production, offering an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional methods. This innovative approach addresses the waste management issue associated with cashew nut shells and contributes to developing high-value carbon materials with broad technological applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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16 pages, 4159 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Zanthoxylum bungeanum Waste-Derived High-Nitrogen Self-Doped Porous Carbons as Efficient Adsorbents for Methylene Blue

by Yuhong Zhao, Qi Zhang, Zhuhua Gong, Wenlin Zhang, Yun Ren, Qiang Li, Hongjia Lu, Qinhong Liao, Zexiong Chen and Jianmin Tang

Molecules 2024, 29(8), 1809; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29081809 - 16 Apr 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1100

Abstract

In this study, we prepared high-nitrogen self-doped porous carbons (NPC1 and NPC2) derived from the pruned branches and seeds of Zanthoxylum bungeanum using a simple one-step method. NPC1 and NPC2 exhibited elevated nitrogen contents of 3.56% and 4.22%, respectively, along with rich porous structures, high specific surface areas of 1492.9 and 1712.7 m² g⁻¹ and abundant surface groups. Notably, both NPC1 and NPC2 demonstrated remarkable adsorption abilities for the pollutant methylene blue (MB), with maximum monolayer adsorption capacities of 568.18 and 581.40 mg g⁻¹, respectively. The adsorption kinetics followed the pseudo-second-order kinetics and the adsorption isotherms conformed to the Langmuir isotherm model. The adsorption mechanism primarily relied on the hierarchical pore structures of NPC1 and NPC2 and their diverse strong interactions with MB molecules. This study offers a new approach for the cost-effective design of nitrogen self-doped porous carbons, facilitating the efficient removal of MB from wastewater. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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Review

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31 pages, 8699 KiB

Open AccessReview

A Review of Carbon Anode Materials for Sodium-Ion Batteries: Key Materials, Sodium-Storage Mechanisms, Applications, and Large-Scale Design Principles

by Qixing Jia, Zeyuan Li, Hulong Ruan, Dawei Luo, Junjun Wang, Zhiyu Ding and Lina Chen

Molecules 2024, 29(18), 4331; https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29184331 - 12 Sep 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 6427

Abstract

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) have been proposed as a potential substitute for commercial lithium-ion batteries due to their excellent storage performance and cost-effectiveness. However, due to the substantial radius of sodium ions, there is an urgent need to develop anode materials with exemplary electrochemical characteristics, thereby enabling the fabrication of sodium-ion batteries with high energy density and rapid dynamics. Carbon materials are highly valued in the energy-storage field due to their diverse structures, low cost, and high reliability. This review comprehensively summarizes the typical structure; energy-storage mechanisms; and current development status of various carbon-based anode materials for SIBs, such as hard carbon, soft carbon, graphite, graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), and porous carbon materials. This review also provides an overview of the current status and future development of related companies for sodium-ion batteries. Furthermore, it offers a summary and outlook on the challenges and opportunities associated with the design principles and large-scale production of carbon materials with high-energy-density requirements. This review offers an avenue for exploring outstanding improvement strategies for carbon materials, which can provide guidance for future application and research. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Carbon-Based Materials for Sustainable Chemistry: 2nd Edition)

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