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Research

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12 pages, 2843 KB

Open AccessArticle

Electrochemical Characterization and Sensitive Voltammetric Determination of Etamsylate at a Boron-Doped Diamond Electrode

by Joanna Smajdor-Baran, Katarzyna Fendrych, Bogusław Baś and Robert Piech

Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 299; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030299 - 27 Feb 2026

Viewed by 432

Abstract

This study presents the development of a highly sensitive and selective electrochemical method for the determination of etamsylate (ETM) using a Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD) electrode. Analytical conditions were optimized using Square Wave Voltammetry (SWV), establishing an orthophosphoric acid (V) solution as the ideal [...] Read more.

This study presents the development of a highly sensitive and selective electrochemical method for the determination of etamsylate (ETM) using a Boron-Doped Diamond (BDD) electrode. Analytical conditions were optimized using Square Wave Voltammetry (SWV), establishing an orthophosphoric acid (V) solution as the ideal supporting electrolyte. Under optimized instrumental parameters, the sensor demonstrated a superior linear response with a correlation coefficient of 0.999. The calculated limit of detection (LOD) was 0.10 µmol L⁻¹ (0.026 mg L⁻¹), with very good repeatability, indicated by an RSD of 3.17%. The practical utility of the BDD electrode was confirmed through the analysis of pharmaceutical and spiked biological samples, yielding recovery values between 95% and 102%. The results indicate that this method serves as a robust, cost-effective, and efficient alternative for routine quality control, clinical diagnostics, and environmental monitoring of etamsylate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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13 pages, 1570 KB

Open AccessArticle

Denoising Method for NV-Center Fluorescence Signals Based on MPA-VMD Combined with Wavelet Thresholding

by Yanxin He, Xin Li, Zhonghao Li, Hao Guo, Huan Fei Wen, Jun Tang and Jun Liu

Micromachines 2026, 17(3), 289; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17030289 - 26 Feb 2026

Viewed by 452

Abstract

To address complex noise in nitrogen-vacancy center fluorescence signal acquisition, a hybrid denoising framework combining marine predators algorithm-optimized variational mode decomposition (VMD) and wavelet thresholding is proposed. MPA adaptively selects VMD parameters, enhancing decomposition reliability. Wavelet thresholding then suppresses noise-dominant intrinsic mode functions [...] Read more.

To address complex noise in nitrogen-vacancy center fluorescence signal acquisition, a hybrid denoising framework combining marine predators algorithm-optimized variational mode decomposition (VMD) and wavelet thresholding is proposed. MPA adaptively selects VMD parameters, enhancing decomposition reliability. Wavelet thresholding then suppresses noise-dominant intrinsic mode functions while preserving signal components. Results show significant SNR improvement to 57.12 dB (14.6% higher than standalone VMD), RMSE reduction by 56.7%, and 7.9% SNR enhancement over wavelet thresholding alone, with the correlation coefficient reaching 0.97. More importantly, the proposed method substantially improves the accuracy of ODMR resonance parameter estimation. Compared to wavelet denoising, RMSE of the center frequency is reduced by 29.8% and RMSE of the FWHM is reduced by 44.5%; compared to VMD denoising, the FWHM RMSE is reduced by 20.7% while maintaining comparable center frequency accuracy. This approach validates the synergistic effect of VMD’s global decomposition and wavelet’s local denoising, offering an effective method for high-precision ODMR inversion with substantial application potential in quantum sensing and precision measurement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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16 pages, 3139 KB

Open AccessArticle

Research on Partial Discharge Acoustic Emission Sensing Using Fiber Optic Sagnac Interferometer Based on Shaft–Type Multi–Order Resonant Mode Coupling

by Qichao Chen, Mengze Xu, Zhongyuan Li, Cong Chen and Weichao Zhang

Micromachines 2026, 17(2), 228; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17020228 - 10 Feb 2026

Viewed by 643

Abstract

In response to the key issues of complex internal structure, significant attenuation of partial discharge (PD) ultrasound signal propagation, and low sensor sensitivity in large oil–immersed power transformers, this paper analyzes the multi–order resonant mode vibration characteristics of the shaft–type fiber optic ultrasound [...] Read more.

In response to the key issues of complex internal structure, significant attenuation of partial discharge (PD) ultrasound signal propagation, and low sensor sensitivity in large oil–immersed power transformers, this paper analyzes the multi–order resonant mode vibration characteristics of the shaft–type fiber optic ultrasound sensor core structure. The displacement distribution patterns of the core structure in both transverse and longitudinal resonant modes are clarified. A strategy using oblique fiber winding rings is proposed to eliminate the problems of strain cancellation and non–accumulation of displacement in transverse and longitudinal resonant modes, which are common in traditional fiber optic ultrasound sensors with parallel fiber windings. Furthermore, design principles are provided to enhance the coverage of the free end and the high–strain regions with semi–high symmetry, as well as the vector–integrated response suitable for multi–order modes. Experimental results show that, in typical PD model detection, the oblique winding sensor exhibits a more prominent response near the high–order resonances of the core, with a detection sensitivity approximately 2.5 times higher than that of the parallel winding structure, and an overall sensitivity at least 7.4 times greater than that of traditional Piezoelectric (PZT) sensors. This demonstrates that the fiber winding method is a key design parameter determining the acoustic–solid coupling efficiency and high sensitivity performance of shaft–type fiber optic interferometric PD sensors, providing a feasible path for high–reliability fiber optic sensing solutions for online monitoring of transformer partial discharges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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25 pages, 5385 KB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical Investigation of Early Cancer Biomarker Sensing Using a PMMA–Gold Hybrid Quasi-D-Shaped Photonic-Crystal-Fiber-Based Surface Plasmon Resonance Biosensor

by Ayushman Ramola, Amit Kumar Shakya, Nezah Balal and Arik Bergman

Micromachines 2026, 17(1), 68; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17010068 - 31 Dec 2025

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 1108

Abstract

In this work, a quasi-D-shaped photonic crystal fiber (PCF)-based surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor is proposed and numerically investigated using the finite element method (FEM) implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics version 6.2 for the detection of cancer cells with different refractive indices. The biosensor [...] Read more.

In this work, a quasi-D-shaped photonic crystal fiber (PCF)-based surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensor is proposed and numerically investigated using the finite element method (FEM) implemented in COMSOL Multiphysics version 6.2 for the detection of cancer cells with different refractive indices. The biosensor has a coating of plasmonic material gold (Au) and a polymer coat of polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA). The effects of plasmonic material thickness and air hole dimensions on key sensing parameters, including confinement loss (CL), wavelength sensitivity (WS), and amplitude sensitivity (AS), are systematically analyzed. The results revealed that increasing plasmonic thickness beyond its optimum value significantly raises CL while reducing sensitivity due to reduced penetration depth of the evanescent field. Similarly, variations in the geometrical dimensions of the air holes (±10%) also affect the sensor response, emphasizing the importance of precise structural optimization. For the optimized design the proposed biosensor exhibits high performance with a maximum WS of 31,000 nm/RIU for MDA-MB-231 cells under x-polarization and 29,500 nm/RIU under y-polarization. The corresponding resolutions achieved are as low as 3.22 × 10⁻⁶ RIU and 3.38 × 10⁻⁶ RIU, respectively, with AS exceeding 9000 RIU⁻¹. The WS, AS, and other sensing parameters obtained from our sensor are relatively higher than some of the PCF–SPR sensors reported recently. These numerical results demonstrate that the optimized quasi-D-shaped PCF–SPR biosensor exhibits enhanced sensitivity to refractive index (RI) variations associated with cancerous cells, suggesting its suitability for early detection. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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11 pages, 6830 KB

Open AccessArticle

Monolayer Metasurface Enabling Linear Polarizer and Quarter-Wave Plate for Chip-Scale Atomic Clocks

by Taolong Wang, Zhiqiang Li, Ting Liang, Jiangang Yu, Xiaoqian Cui, Xinpu Li, Zong Yao and Cheng Lei

Micromachines 2026, 17(1), 25; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17010025 - 25 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1570

Abstract

A monolayer metasurface-based Linear Polarizer and Quarter-Wave Plate (LP&QWP) is proposed for compact and precise polarization control in chip-scale atomic clocks (CSACs). Finite-difference time-domain simulations reveal that the designed metasurface efficiently converts linearly polarized light into right-handed circularly polarized light. Experimental characterization of [...] Read more.

A monolayer metasurface-based Linear Polarizer and Quarter-Wave Plate (LP&QWP) is proposed for compact and precise polarization control in chip-scale atomic clocks (CSACs). Finite-difference time-domain simulations reveal that the designed metasurface efficiently converts linearly polarized light into right-handed circularly polarized light. Experimental characterization of devices fabricated on optical glass substrates confirms the polarization manipulation performance, achieving a polarization extinction ratio (PER) of 4.8 dB and a degree of polarization (DOP) of 74.2%, confirming its ability to effectively control the state of polarization. The short-term frequency stability of the developed CSAC prototype reaches 9.29 × 10⁻¹¹ at 1 s and 1.59 × 10⁻¹¹ at 10,000 s, demonstrating its potential for integration into miniature timing systems. The novelty of this work lies in the specific application to CSACs and the co-optimization with attenuation, as the metasurface simultaneously realizes polarization control and optical power balancing within a single functional layer. This study bridges metasurface photonics and atomic frequency standards, providing a functional route toward polarization control and frequency stability in miniaturized chip-scale atomic clocks. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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11 pages, 3049 KB

Open AccessArticle

Optimization Method for the Synergistic Control of DRIE Process Parameters on Sidewall Steepness and Aspect Ratio

by Dandan Wang, Cheng Lei, Pengfei Ji, Zhiqiang Li, Renzhi Yuan, Jiangang Yu, Ting Liang, Zong Yao and Jialong Li

Micromachines 2026, 17(1), 13; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17010013 - 23 Dec 2025

Viewed by 1634

Abstract

Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE), as a key process in silicon micromachining, remains constrained in high-precision applications by sidewall angle deviation and aspect ratio limitations. This study systematically investigates the mapping relationship between process parameters and etching morphology, focusing on the following aspects: [...] Read more.

Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE), as a key process in silicon micromachining, remains constrained in high-precision applications by sidewall angle deviation and aspect ratio limitations. This study systematically investigates the mapping relationship between process parameters and etching morphology, focusing on the following aspects: the influence mechanism of C₄F₈ passivation time and bottom RF power on sidewall perpendicularity; and the effect patterns of etch cycle count, single-step time, and bottom RF power on aspect ratio and top–bottom line width (CD) difference. The findings reveal that dynamic adjustment of bottom RF power significantly influences sidewall angle: incremental adjustment tends to cause sharp angles (decreased angular precision), while decremental adjustment tends to form obtuse angles. Simply increasing the cycle count leads to a bottleneck in etch depth growth. Combining incremental bottom RF power adjustment can overcome depth limitations but induces axial variation in aperture dimensions. Optimizing the passivation-to-etch time ratio effectively controls etch morphology characteristics. This study achieved an etch depth of 112.2 μm for a 5 μm wide trench with an overall aperture size difference of 0.279 μm, providing a theoretical basis and practical guidance for parameter optimization in DRIE processes for high-precision silicon structure fabrication. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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14 pages, 4180 KB

Open AccessArticle

Self-Assembled MXene/MWCNTs Pressure Sensors Combined with Novel Hollow Microstructures for High Sensitivity

by Zhicheng Wang, Hongchen Yu, Xingyu Ma, Yijian Liu, Fei Wang and Da Chen

Micromachines 2026, 17(1), 3; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17010003 - 19 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 561

Abstract

Flexible pressure sensors have garnered significant attention over the past few decades owing to their indispensable role in electronic skin and health monitoring, and there is an urgent demand for high sensitivity to meet the requirements of large-scale applications. In this work, we [...] Read more.

Flexible pressure sensors have garnered significant attention over the past few decades owing to their indispensable role in electronic skin and health monitoring, and there is an urgent demand for high sensitivity to meet the requirements of large-scale applications. In this work, we demonstrate a resistive pressure sensor with self-assembled MXene/MWCNTs complex conductive networks, whose hollow substrate is achieved via designed molds and thermally expandable microspheres. Herein, the pressure sensor exhibits the desired performances, including a high sensitivity of 2.63 kPa⁻¹, an ultra-low detection limit of ~0.25% relative resistance change, and rapid response times of 340 ms. The high performance enables promising prospects for detecting diverse human body movements. More importantly, it has been applied in numerical classification based on machine learning with the Hidden Markov Model, achieving an impressive accuracy of ~99.2%. Our research offers novel insights for enhancing the performance of pressure sensors, which hold great potential for practical applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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10 pages, 2960 KB

Open AccessArticle

High-Precision Optical Angle Detection Method for Two-Dimensional MEMS Mirrors

by Longqi Ran, Yan Wang, Zhongrui Ma, Ting Li, Jiangbo He, Jiahao Wu and Wu Zhou

Micromachines 2025, 16(12), 1346; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16121346 - 28 Nov 2025

Viewed by 2332

Abstract

As a core component of MEMS LiDAR, the 2D MEMS mirror, with high-precision optical angle detection, is a key technology for radar scanning and imaging. Existing piezoresistive detection schemes of mirrors suffer from high fabrication complexity, high temperature sensitivity, and a limited accuracy [...] Read more.

As a core component of MEMS LiDAR, the 2D MEMS mirror, with high-precision optical angle detection, is a key technology for radar scanning and imaging. Existing piezoresistive detection schemes of mirrors suffer from high fabrication complexity, high temperature sensitivity, and a limited accuracy of only 0.08°, failing to meet the requirements for vehicular and airborne scanning applications. This study focuses on a two-dimensional electromagnetic MEMS mirror. Based on the reflection principles of geometric optics, angle detection schemes with photodiode (PD) arrays are analyzed. A novel four-quadrant optical measurement sensor featuring a 16-PD array is proposed. This design replaces conventional large-area PDs with a compact PD array, effectively mitigating nonlinearity and low accuracy issues caused by oversized PD trenches and edge dimensions. High-precision detection of the mirror’s deflection angle is achieved by measuring the current variations induced by the reflected spot position on the PDs in each quadrant. The experimental results demonstrate that the 16-PD array optical angle sensor achieves an accuracy between 0.03° and 0.036° over a detection range of ±8°. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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23 pages, 5532 KB

Open AccessArticle

Pulsed CO₂ Laser-Fabricated Cascades of Double Resonance Long Period Gratings for Sensing Applications

by Tinko Eftimov, Sanaz Shoar Ghaffari, Georgi Dyankov, Veselin Vladev and Alla Arapova

Micromachines 2025, 16(8), 959; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16080959 - 20 Aug 2025

Viewed by 907

Abstract

We present a detailed theoretical and experimental study of cascaded double resonance long period gratings (C DR LPGs) for fabricated sensing applications. The matrix description of cascaded LPGs is presented, and several important particular cases are considered related to the regular and turn [...] Read more.

We present a detailed theoretical and experimental study of cascaded double resonance long period gratings (C DR LPGs) for fabricated sensing applications. The matrix description of cascaded LPGs is presented, and several important particular cases are considered related to the regular and turn around point (TAP) gratings. A pulsed CO₂ laser was used to fabricate ordinary and cascaded DR LPGs in a photosensitive optical fiber. The responses of the fabricated C DR LPGs to surrounding refractive index (SRI) temperature as well to longitudinal strain have been studied. A statistical comparison of the SRI sensitivities of ordinary and cascaded DR LPGs is presented to outline the capabilities and advantages of cascaded DR gratings. It was experimentally established that the temperature dependence of the wavelength split at the TAP follows a logarithmic dependence and the sensitivity to temperature is inversely proportional to the temperature itself. We evaluate the temperature stability needed for SRI-based sensing application and the importance of fine-tuning to the operational point slightly after the TAP to ensure maximum sensitivity of the sensor. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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Review

Jump to: Research

28 pages, 4217 KB

Open AccessReview

Microfluidics-Assisted Three-Dimensional Confinement of Cholesteric Liquid Crystals for Sensing Applications

by Jiamei Chen, Xinyi Feng, Jiaying Huang, Xinyi Li, Shijian Huang, Zongbing Wu, Lvqin Qiu, Liping Cao, Qi Liang and Xiaoyan Li

Micromachines 2026, 17(2), 244; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi17020244 - 13 Feb 2026

Viewed by 530

Abstract

As a class of self-organized soft matter systems merging fluidic mobility with long-range molecular order, cholesteric liquid crystals (CLCs) possess immense potential for the development of high-sensitivity, visually tractable flexible sensors. Leveraging their unique helical superstructures and stimuli-responsive photonic bandgaps, CLCs can transduce [...] Read more.

As a class of self-organized soft matter systems merging fluidic mobility with long-range molecular order, cholesteric liquid crystals (CLCs) possess immense potential for the development of high-sensitivity, visually tractable flexible sensors. Leveraging their unique helical superstructures and stimuli-responsive photonic bandgaps, CLCs can transduce subtle physical or chemical perturbations into discernible optical signatures, such as Bragg reflection shifts or mesomorphic textural transitions. Nonetheless, the intrinsic fluidity of CLCs often compromises their structural integrity, while conventional one-dimensional (1D) or two-dimensional (2D) confinement geometries exhibit pronounced angular dependence, significantly constraining their detection precision in complex environments. Recently, microfluidic technology has emerged as a pivotal paradigm for achieving sophisticated three-dimensional (3D) spatial confinement of CLCs through the precise manipulation of microscale fluid volumes. This review systematically delineates recent advancements in microfluidics-enabled CLC sensors. Initially, the fundamental self-assembly principles and optical properties of CLCs are introduced, emphasizing the unique advantages of 3D spherical confinement in mitigating angular sensitivity and intensifying interfacial interactions. Subsequently, the primary sensing mechanisms are bifurcated into bulk-driven sensing via pitch modulation and interface-driven sensing via topological configuration transitions. We then detail the microfluidic-based fabrication strategies and engineering protocols for diverse 3D architectures, including monodisperse/multiphase droplets, microcapsules, shells, and Janus structures. Building upon these structural frameworks, current sensing applications in physical (temperature, strain/stress), chemical (volatile organic compounds, ions, pH), and biological (biomarkers, pathogens) detection are evaluated. Lastly, in light of persistent challenges, such as intricate signal interpretation and limited robustness in complex matrices, we propose future research trajectories, encompassing the co-optimization of geometric parameters (size and curvature), artificial intelligence-enhanced automated diagnostics, and multi-field-coupled intelligent integration. This work seeks to provide a comprehensive roadmap for the design of next-generation, high-performance, and portable liquid-state photonic sensing platforms. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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29 pages, 5372 KB

Open AccessReview

TiO₂ Nanotube-Enabled Glucose Biosensing: Transformative Insights from 2009 to 2024

by Joydip Sengupta and Chaudhery Mustansar Hussain

Micromachines 2025, 16(11), 1235; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16111235 - 30 Oct 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1000

Abstract

The global rise in diabetes has intensified the demand for advanced glucose monitoring technologies that provide continuous, accurate, and real-time detection. Traditional sensing approaches often face challenges related to sensitivity, long-term stability, and suitability for wearable or implantable systems. In this context, titanium [...] Read more.

The global rise in diabetes has intensified the demand for advanced glucose monitoring technologies that provide continuous, accurate, and real-time detection. Traditional sensing approaches often face challenges related to sensitivity, long-term stability, and suitability for wearable or implantable systems. In this context, titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanotube arrays (NTAs) have emerged as a versatile platform owing to their well-defined nanostructure, tunable surface properties, and semiconductor nature, which collectively enable enhanced performance across different sensing modes. These include enzymatic systems, non-enzymatic configurations, and photoelectrochemical (PEC) sensors. While each sensing strategy offers considerable potential, certain inherent limitations continue to be explored. Ongoing research is gradually uncovering various pathways to enhance performance and reliability through the introduction of novel materials and system designs. Looking forward, the broader integration of TiO₂-based sensing platforms with evolving technological frameworks may contribute to the advancement of more adaptive and user-friendly glucose monitoring solutions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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36 pages, 1471 KB

Open AccessReview

Next-Gen Healthcare Devices: Evolution of MEMS and BioMEMS in the Era of the Internet of Bodies for Personalized Medicine

by Maria-Roxana Marinescu, Octavian Narcis Ionescu, Cristina Ionela Pachiu, Miron Adrian Dinescu, Raluca Muller and Mirela Petruța Șuchea

Micromachines 2025, 16(10), 1182; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16101182 - 19 Oct 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 5249

Abstract

The rapid evolution of healthcare technology is being driven by advancements in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), BioMEMS (Biological MEMS), and the expanding concept of the Internet of Bodies (IoB). This review explores the convergence of these three domains and their transformative impact on personalized [...] Read more.

The rapid evolution of healthcare technology is being driven by advancements in Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS), BioMEMS (Biological MEMS), and the expanding concept of the Internet of Bodies (IoB). This review explores the convergence of these three domains and their transformative impact on personalized medicine (PM), with a focus on smart, connected biomedical devices. Starting from the historical development of MEMS for medical sensing and diagnostics, the review traces the emergence of BioMEMS as biocompatible, minimally invasive solutions for continuous monitoring and real-time intervention. The integration of such devices within the IoB ecosystem enables data-driven, remote, and predictive healthcare, offering tailored diagnostics and treatment for chronic and acute conditions alike. The paper classifies IoB-associated technologies into non-invasive, invasive, and incorporated devices, reviewing wearable systems such as smart bracelets, e-tattoos, and smart footwear, as well as internal devices including implantable and ingestible. Alongside these opportunities, significant challenges persist, particularly in device biocompatibility, data interoperability, cybersecurity, and ethical regulation. By synthesizing recent advances and critical perspectives, this review aims to provide a comprehensive understanding of the current landscape, clinical potential, and future directions of MEMS, BioMEMS, and IoB-enabled personalized healthcare. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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27 pages, 2399 KB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceReview

Carbon Materials in Voltammetry: An Overview of Versatile Platforms for Antidepressant Drug Detection

by Joanna Smajdor, Katarzyna Fendrych and Anna Górska-Ratusznik

Micromachines 2025, 16(4), 423; https://doi.org/10.3390/mi16040423 - 31 Mar 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2655

Abstract

This review concentrates on the application of carbon-based materials in the development and fabrication of voltammetric sensors of antidepressant drugs used in the treatment of moderate to severe depression, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and various phobias. Voltammetric techniques offer outstanding sensitivity and selectivity, [...] Read more.

This review concentrates on the application of carbon-based materials in the development and fabrication of voltammetric sensors of antidepressant drugs used in the treatment of moderate to severe depression, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and various phobias. Voltammetric techniques offer outstanding sensitivity and selectivity, accuracy, low detection limit, high reproducibility, instrumental simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and short time of direct determination of antidepressant drugs in pharmaceutical and clinical samples. Moreover, the combination of voltammetric approaches with the unique characteristics of carbon and its derivatives has led to the development of powerful electrochemical sensing tools for detecting antidepressant drugs, which are highly desirable in healthcare, environmental monitoring, and the pharmaceutical industry. In this review, carbon-based materials, such as glassy carbon and boron-doped diamond, and a wide spectrum of carbon nanoparticles, including graphene, graphene oxides, reduced graphene oxides, single-walled carbon nanotubes, and multi-walled carbon nanotubes were described in terms of the sensing performance of agomelatine, alprazolam, amitriptyline, aripiprazole, carbamazepine, citalopram, clomipramine, clozapine, clonazepam, desipramine, desvenlafaxine, doxepin, duloxetine, flunitrazepam, fluoxetine, fluvoxamine, imipramine, nifedipine, olanzapine, opipramol, paroxetine, quetiapine, serotonin, sertraline, sulpiride, thioridazine, trazodone, venlafaxine, and vortioxetine. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Micro- and Nanosensors: Fabrication, Applications and Performance Enhancements, Third Edition)

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