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A special issue of Metals (ISSN 2075-4701). This special issue belongs to the section "Computation and Simulation on Metals".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 November 2021) | Viewed by 31987

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Dr. Richard Turner

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School of Metallurgy and Materials, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
Interests: microstructure; welding and joining; computational methods; thermodynamics
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Dear Colleagues,

Metal forming is the process of manufacturing both complex and simplistic metal parts through mechanical deformation. These manufacturing operations are of key importance to almost all metal-based industries, from construction to aerospace. Bulk forming operations including forging, rolling, and extrusion processes are widely used for a range of metals including steels, titanium alloys, nickel superalloys, and aluminium alloys. Further processing—often at elevated temperatures—such as welding, can be used to join smaller sections to form more complex components. Metal forming and processing has, therefore, been applied industrially for centuries, across the world, for a wide range of final components. Thus, metal forming and processing has helped to form the communities, culture, and society that we live in today.

Components manufactured using metal processing routes are becoming more and more complex for increasingly high technology industries. As such, the methods employed by, and the equipment and skills of, these manufacturers increase in response to the demand. In order to support the development of these manufacturing routes, new tools that can inform us about process stress, strain, distortion, and microstructure are necessary. Computational modeling and simulation of these metal forming processes offers virtual tools to monitor a workpiece during the forming operation in ways that traditional process monitoring cannot. These modeling tools can assist with process development, reduce the expense of experimental trials, reduce material waste, and allow for process optimization. Multi-scale modeling methods can, therefore, allow for a greater understanding of the process at the component (macro-scale) level, as well as micro- and nano-levels. Given the inherent process parameter–microstructure–material properties inter-relationship, modeling and simulation can, therefore, offer a detailed description of fundamental material behavior.

Dr. Richard Turner
Guest Editor

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Keywords

Process simulation
Finite element analysis
Microstructure modeling
Metal bulk forming
Forging
Rolling
Extrusion
Welding

Published Papers (11 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 184 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing

by Richard Turner

Metals 2022, 12(2), 231; https://doi.org/10.3390/met12020231 - 26 Jan 2022

Viewed by 1780

Abstract

Metal-processing operations, including casting, forging, forming, rolling, drawing, welding, machining and cutting, have provided the backbone to heavy industry and, as such, have been some of the principal drivers in the industrialization and manufacture of metal components for hundreds of years [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

Research

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9 pages, 2234 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Effect of Nickel on the Viscosity of Iron-Based Multicomponent Melts

by Vladimir S. Tsepelev, Yuri N. Starodubtsev and Viktor V. Konashkov

Metals 2021, 11(11), 1724; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11111724 - 28 Oct 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1336

Abstract

In this work, we investigated the temperature dependence of the kinematic viscosity of multicomponent Fe_72.5−xNi_xCu₁Nb₂Mo_1.5Si₁₄B₉ melts with a Ni content of up to 12.7 at. %. The peculiarities of the temperature dependence of Ni-containing melts were explained by the tendency of Ni atoms to surface segregation. Ni atoms are concentrated near the interfaces of the liquid and solid phases in the mushy zone at the stage of melting and restrain the melting of the solid phase. With increasing Ni content, the Arrhenius type of viscous flow begins at a higher temperature. Ni atoms are concentrated at the periphery of clusters, increasing their size and decreasing their mobility. The movement of Ni-containing clusters increases the activation energy and decreases the kinematic viscosity. The change in the activation energy at a temperature of about 1700 K was associated with a liquid-liquid structure transition (LLST). This structural transition is reversible since it is observed both at the heating and cooling stages. The increase in kinematic viscosity at temperatures above 1900 K was associated with the decomposition of high-temperature clusters based on cementite and silicon oxides. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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12 pages, 3974 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Minimizing the Negative Effects of Coolant Channels on the Torsional and Torsional-Axial Stiffness of Drills

by Amir Parsian, Mahdi Eynian, Martin Magnevall and Tomas Beno

Metals 2021, 11(9), 1473; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11091473 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1644

Abstract

Coolant channels allow internal coolant delivery to the cutting region and significantly improve drilling, but these channels also reduce the torsional and torsional-axial stiffness of the drills. Such a reduction in stiffness can degrade the quality of the drilled holes. The evacuation of cutting chips and the delivery of the cutting fluid put strict geometrical restrictions on the cross-section design of the drill. This necessitates careful selection and optimization of features such as the geometry of the coolant channels. This paper presents a new method that uses Prandtl’s stress function to predict the torsional and torsional-axial stiffness values. Using this method drills with one central channel are compared to those with two eccentric coolant channels, which shows that with the same cross-section area, the reduction of axial and torsional-axial stiffness is notably smaller for the design with two eccentric channels compared to a single central channel. The stress function method is further used to select the appropriate location of the eccentric coolant channels to minimize the loss of torsional and torsional-axial stiffness. These results are verified by comparison to the results of three-dimensional finite element analyses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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20 pages, 8822 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Metallurgical Modelling of Ti-6Al-4V for Welding Applications

by Matteo Villa, Jeffery W. Brooks, Richard Turner, Frédéric Boitout and Robin Mark Ward

Metals 2021, 11(6), 960; https://doi.org/10.3390/met11060960 - 15 Jun 2021

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2330

Abstract

Manufacturing processes such as welding subject the α/β titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V to a wide range of temperatures and temperature rates, generating microstructure variations in the phases and in the precipitate dimensions. In this study, the metallurgical and numerical modelling of Ti-6Al-4V when subjected to a high energy density welding process was affected by a series of analytical equations coded in Sysweld commercial specialist FE welding software. Numerical predictions were compared with experimental results from laser welding tests on plates with different thicknesses, initial microstructural morphologies, and operating conditions. The evolution of the microstructure was described by using a diffusion-based approach when the material was operating in the α + β field, whilst empirical equations were used for temperatures above the β-transus temperature. Predictions made by the subroutines within the FE model were shown to match with reasonable trends when validated using experimental characterisation methods for various metallurgical features, including the α particle size, β grain size, martensitic needle thickness, and relative phase volume fractions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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11 pages, 6449 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Constitutive Model and Microstructure Evolution Finite Element Simulation of Multidirectional Forging for GH4169 Superalloy

by Yongbo Jin, Chenyang Xi, Peng Xue, Chunxiang Zhang, Sirui Wang and Junting Luo

Metals 2020, 10(12), 1695; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10121695 - 21 Dec 2020

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2154

Abstract

This study investigates three processes of multidirectional forging (MDF), namely, closed MDF (CMDF), single-open MDF, and double-open MDF, by using a constitutive equation and a dynamic recrystallization model of hot deformation of the GH4169 superalloy. The microstructure evolution of the three processes is simulated and compared. Among the three processes, the double-open MDF obtains the highest recrystallization degree, followed by the CMDF and the single-open MDF under the same reduction. The recrystallization degree of CMDF reaches 99.5% at 1000 °C and 9 passes, and the average recrystallized grain size is small, which is approximately 8.1 μm. The double-open MDF can obtain a fine grain size of forgings at 9 passes and 1000 °C, and it is easy to obtain forgings with the single-open MDF with uniform performance. The temperature is 850 °C–1000 °C, the compression rate is 0.15–0.2, and the pass is 5–9, which are the suitable parameter selection ranges for the CMDF. The temperature is 950 °C–1000 °C, the compression rate is 0.1–0.2, and the pass is 7–9, which are the suitable parameter selection ranges for single-open MDF. The temperature is 850 °C–1000 °C, the compression rate is 0.1–0.2, and the pass is 6–9, which are the suitable parameter selection ranges for the double-open MDF. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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24 pages, 10894 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite Difference Modeling of the Interstand Evolutions of Profile and Residual Stress during Hot Strip Rolling

by Chihuan Yao, Anrui He, Jian Shao, Jianwei Zhao, Guanyu Zhou, Hui Li and Yi Qiang

Metals 2020, 10(11), 1417; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10111417 - 25 Oct 2020

Cited by 12 | Viewed by 2179

Abstract

Elastic recovery and viscoplastic stress relaxation occur in the interstand of hot rolling, impacting the evolutions of strip profile and residual stress, which are major concerns for obtaining high-quality flat products. A better understanding of the evolutionary mechanisms would help develop shape control strategies. Therefore, a quasi-3D steady-state elasto-viscoplastic rolling model is developed based on the finite difference method. Predictions of spread, profile, and residual stress are validated through comparisons with a two-stand finite element model. The new model is also complemented with a roll stack model and with a viscoplastic constitutive model calibrated by hot compression tests to simulate a seven-stand hot rolling industrial experiment with low carbon steel. Comparisons between the predicted and measured profiles show a satisfactory accuracy. The simulation costs approximately a minute of CPU time, enabling the new model to run massive parametric campaigns for process optimization. It is found that during the interstand elastic recovery, the transverse compressive stress releases and the strip velocity tends to be uniform, revealing residual stress after a significant change of stress pattern. The stress relaxation mainly occurs at the edge near the roll bite and therefore increases the edge drop of the profile; it also decreases the center crown by changing the distribution of the rolling pressure in the roll bite. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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18 pages, 3052 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Hybrid-Learning Type-2 Takagi–Sugeno–Kang Fuzzy Systems for Temperature Estimation in Hot-Rolling

by José Ángel Barrios, Gerardo Maximiliano Méndez and Alberto Cavazos

Metals 2020, 10(6), 758; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10060758 - 06 Jun 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 2485

Abstract

Entry temperature estimation is a major concern for finishing mill set-up in hot strip mills. Variations in the incoming bar conditions, frequent product changes and measurement uncertainties may cause erroneous estimation, and hence, an incorrect mill set-up causing a faulty bar head-end. In earlier works, several varieties of neuro-fuzzy systems have been tested due to their adaptation capabilities. In order to test the combination of the simplicity offered by Takagi–Sugeno–Kang systems (also known as Sugeno systems) and the modeling power of type-2 fuzzy, in this work, hybrid-learning type-2 Sugeno fuzzy systems are evaluated and compared with the results presented earlier. Systems with both empirically and fuzzy c-means-generated rules as well as purely fuzzy systems and grey-box models are tested. Experimental data were collected from a real-life mill; datasets for rule-generation, training, and validation were randomly drawn. Two of the grey-box models presented here reach 100% of bars with 20 °C or less prediction error, while two of the purely fuzzy systems improved performance with respect to purely fuzzy systems presented elsewhere, however it was only a slight improvement. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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18 pages, 10399 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Thermomechanical Finite Element Analysis of 3003-H14 Plates Joined by the GMAW Process

by Maribel Hernández, Ricardo R. Ambriz, Christian García and David Jaramillo

Metals 2020, 10(6), 708; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10060708 - 27 May 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3852

Abstract

The gas metal arc welding (GMAW) process was used to weld 3003-H14 plates under restricted and unrestricted thermal expansion. Experimental and numerical analysis were conducted to determine the relation between weld thermal cycles and residual stresses. A customized data acquisition system with K-type thermocouples was used to measure the weld thermal cycles, while residual stresses were determined by the hole drilling method. Thermo-mechanical simulation models for the two restricted conditions were implemented from the experimental data obtained. A double ellipse heat distribution geometry was used to model the heat moving source by using the finite element method. Thermal rates and peak temperatures were approximated by the finite element model with 2% difference, with respect to the experimental weld thermal cycles. Longitudinal and transverse normal residual stresses determined by the finite element model showed a good comparison with experimental measurements. The larger residual stresses were in the transverse direction for both clamping conditions, which indicated that working loading paths along the lateral direction of the welded plate are more influenced by the post-welding residual stresses. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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18 pages, 12506 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Design Approach of Porthole Die for Flow Balance in Extrusion of Complex Solid Aluminum Heatsink Profile with Large Variable Wall Thickness

by Tat-Tai Truong, Quang-Cherng Hsu, Van-Canh Tong and Jinn-Jong Sheu

Metals 2020, 10(5), 553; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10050553 - 25 Apr 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 7238

Abstract

In this study, porthole die used for extrusion of a solid heatsink profile with wall thickness variation ratio up to 15.3 was designed using finite element (FE) simulations. To improve the flow balance in the die, a design approach was introduced to find the appropriate die structure, which includes the porthole and pocket geometry correction, the bearing length adjustment, and the port bridge structure modification. Using the proposed die, the predicted velocity relative difference (VRD) and the maximum velocity difference (ΔV) of extrudate were significantly lower than those of an initial die, which was preliminarily designed based on general design experiences. The required extrusion force and the residual stress in the product were also reduced significantly. Then, the effects of the port bridge structure and welding chamber height on the behavior of the metal flow in the die were investigated. To verify the proposed die design, experimental extrusions were conducted on a 930-ton extruder. The experiment results showed that the extruded product fulfilled the requirements for dimensional tolerances. The design approach presented in this paper can be useful for practical implementation of die design when extruding similar solid heatsink profiles with large wall thickness variation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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13 pages, 8380 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Finite Element Analysis of Dynamic Recrystallization of Casting Slabs during Hot-Core Heavy Reduction Rolling Process

by Haijun Li, Tianxiang Li, Meina Gong, Zhaodong Wang and Guodong Wang

Metals 2020, 10(2), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/met10020181 - 26 Jan 2020

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2316

Abstract

Hot-core heavy reduction rolling (HHR²) is an innovative technology, where a two-high rolling mill is installed after the solidification end of a strand, which can significantly eliminate the core defects of the slab. The mill exhibits a heavy reduction ratio, which promotes the dynamic recrystallization (DRX) of the slab. This study aims to optimize the parameters of the HHR² process considering the effect of DRX on microstructure homogeneity. The secondary development of commercial software DEFORM-3D is conducted to calculate the deformation and DRX behavior of HHR² for different reduction ratios. The parameters of DRX volume fraction and DRX grain size are compared, and finer DRX grains are obtained when the greater reduction ratios are conducted in HHR². Then, corresponding to the deformation conditions in the HHR², the thermal–mechanical simulations are conducted on the Gleeble3800 to obtain the average grain sizes before and after this process. When the reduction amount increases from 20 mm to 50 mm, the difference of average grain size between the core and the surface reduces by 52%. In other words, appropriately enhancing the reduction ratio is helpful to reduce the average austenite grain and promote the microstructure uniformity of the slab. These results provide some valuable information on the design of deformation parameters for HHR². Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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20 pages, 4607 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A CPS-Based Simulation Platform for Long Production Factories

by Vincenzo Iannino, Valentina Colla, Joachim Denker and Marc Göttsche

Metals 2019, 9(10), 1025; https://doi.org/10.3390/met9101025 - 21 Sep 2019

Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3463

Abstract

Production technology in European steel industry has reached such a level, that significant improvements can only be reached by through process optimization strategies instead of separately improving each process step. Therefore, the connection of suitable technological models to describe process and product behavior, methods to find solutions for typical multi-criterial decisions, and a strong communication between involved plants is necessary. In this work, a virtual simulation platform for the design of cyber-physical production optimization systems for long production facilities focusing on thermal evolution and related material quality is presented. Models for describing physical processes, computers, software and networks as well as methods and algorithms for through process optimization were implemented and merged into a new and comprehensive model-based software architecture. Object-oriented languages are addressed and used because they provide modularity, a high-level of abstraction and constructs that allow direct implementation and usage of the cyber-physical production systems concepts. Simulation results show how the proper connection between models, communication, and optimization methods allows feasibility, safety and benefits of cyber-physical production systems to be established. Furthermore, the software architecture is flexible and general and thus, can be transferred to any steel production line as well as outside the steel industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Modeling and Simulation of Metal Processing)

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