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Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 March 2023) | Viewed by 34156

Special Issue Editor

Dr. Lenka Scheinherrová

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Materials Engineering and Chemistry, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, 160 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic
Interests: Influence of water-to-cement ratio, pozzolana active materials and storage on hydration processes of cement pastes. Effect of high temperatures on properties of cement composites by means of thermal analysis (DSC/TG), XRD and thermodilatometry
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the light of climate change, energy, and sustainability challenges, there is an urgent need to find ways to manage the increasing global demand for cement, which is used for the preparation of the most popular construction material: concrete. Thus, research efforts are of importance that aim at least to partially replace cement, or to replace cement fully in some specific applications with other building materials, e.g., gypsum, lime, geopolymers; or to reduce CO2 emissions from its production.

This Special Issue (SI) on “Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances” is dedicated to progress in the design, manufacture, analyzing methods, applications, and performance of composites consisting of at least one of the mentioned traditional binders and their possible combinations in advanced applications, with emphasis on environmentally friendly solutions. More specifically, this SI covers composites prepared with the utilization of conventionally used supplementary cementitious materials (ground granulated blast furnace slag, fly ash, silica fume, metakaolin, or e.g. ceramic waste), and newly developed composites, as well as advances in analytical techniques (isothermal calorimetry, X-ray powder diffraction, thermal analysis, scanning electron microscopy, mercury intrusion porosimetry) used for analysis and interpretation of hydration and hardening mechanisms of beforementioned composites.

Please kindly consider this invitation to submit a manuscript for this Special Issue. Original research articles, review articles, and short communications are all welcome.

Dr. Lenka Scheinherrová
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • cement composites
  • gypsum composites
  • lime composites
  • thermal analysis
  • microstructure
  • materials characterization
  • modeling
  • kinetics

Published Papers (19 papers)

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18 pages, 3958 KiB  
Article
Changes in the Phase Composition of Calcium Aluminoferrites Based on the Synthesis Condition and Al2O3/Fe2O3 Molar Ratio
by Michał Pyzalski, Tomasz Brylewski, Agnieszka Sujak and Karol Durczak
Materials 2023, 16(12), 4234; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16124234 - 7 Jun 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 885
Abstract
The presented work concerns the study of the changes in the phase composition of calcium aluminoferrites which depend on the synthesis conditions and the selection of the Al2O3/Fe2O3 molar ratio (A/F). The A/F molar ratio extends [...] Read more.
The presented work concerns the study of the changes in the phase composition of calcium aluminoferrites which depend on the synthesis conditions and the selection of the Al2O3/Fe2O3 molar ratio (A/F). The A/F molar ratio extends beyond the limiting composition of C6A2F (6CaO·2Al2O3·Fe2O) towards phases richer in Al2O3. An increase in the A/F ratio above unity favours the formation of other crystalline phases such as C12A7 and C3A, in addition to calcium aluminoferrite. Slow cooling of melts characterised by an A/F ratio below 0.58, results in the formation of a single calcium aluminoferrite phase. Above this ratio, the presence of varying contents of C12A7 and C3A phases was found. The process of rapid cooling of the melts with an A/F molar ratio approaching the value of four favours the formation of a single phase with variable chemical composition. Generally, an increase in the A/F ratio above the value of four generates the formation of a calcium aluminoferrite amorphous phase. The rapidly cooled samples with compositions of C22.19A10.94F and C14.61A6.29F were fully amorphous. Additionally, this study shows that as the A/F molar ratio of the melts decreases, the elemental cell volume of the calcium aluminoferrites decreases. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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21 pages, 6388 KiB  
Article
The Effect of Biological Corrosion on the Hydration Processes of Synthetic Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A)
by Michał Pyzalski, Agnieszka Sujak, Karol Durczak, Paweł Murzyn, Tomasz Brylewski and Maciej Sitarz
Materials 2023, 16(6), 2225; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062225 - 10 Mar 2023
Viewed by 890
Abstract
This paper presents a study related to the biological degradation of a tricalcium aluminate (C3A) phase treated with reactive media from the agricultural industry. During one month of setting and hardening, synthetic C3A was subjected to corrosion in corn [...] Read more.
This paper presents a study related to the biological degradation of a tricalcium aluminate (C3A) phase treated with reactive media from the agricultural industry. During one month of setting and hardening, synthetic C3A was subjected to corrosion in corn silage, pig slurry and chicken manure. The hardening process of the C3A phase in water was used as a reference sample. The phase composition and microstructure of the hydrating tricalcium aluminate slurries were characterised by X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermal analysis (DTA/TG/DTG/EGA), scanning microscopy (SEM, EDS) and infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR). In the samples studied, it was observed that the qualitative and quantitative phase composition of the synthetic tricalcium aluminate preparations changed depending on the corrosion exposure conditions. The main crystalline phases formed by the hydration of the examined samples in water as well as in corrosive media were the catoite (Ca3Al2(OH)12) and hydrocalumite (Ca2Al(OH)7·3H2O) phases. Detailed analysis showed the occurrence of secondary crystallisation in hydrating samples and the phases were mainly calcium carbonates (CaCO3) with different crystallite sizes. In the phase composition of the C3A pastes, varying amounts of aluminium hydroxides (Al(OH)3) were also present. The crystalline phases formed as a result of secondary crystallisation represented biological corrosion products, probably resulting from the reaction of hydrates with secondary products resulting from the metabolic processes of anaerobic bacterial respiration (from living matter) associated with the presence of bacteria in the reaction medium. The results obtained contribute towards the development of fast-acting and bio-corrosion-resistant special cements for use in bioenergetics. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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23 pages, 8301 KiB  
Article
Behaviour and Microstructural Characteristics of Lime-GGBS-Treated Kaolin Clay Contaminated with Gypsum
by Jeremiah J. Jeremiah, Samuel J. Abbey, Colin A. Booth and Anil Kashyap
Materials 2023, 16(2), 874; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020874 - 16 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1663
Abstract
In this experimental study, the physico-mechanical and microstructural properties of sulphate-bearing clays have been investigated. Sulphate bearing soils constituted by mixing kaolin and gypsum at 0%, 15%, 25%, and 35% gypsum contents were treated with 12% ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and 4%Lime (L) [...] Read more.
In this experimental study, the physico-mechanical and microstructural properties of sulphate-bearing clays have been investigated. Sulphate bearing soils constituted by mixing kaolin and gypsum at 0%, 15%, 25%, and 35% gypsum contents were treated with 12% ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and 4%Lime (L) and 8% ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) and subjected to compaction, swell, unconfined compressive strength (UCS), California bearing ratio (CBR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy dispersive spectrometry (EDX) analyses. The results of the study showed that the use of L-GGBS improved the soaked CBRs of the treated samples by over 43% when compared to OPC-treated samples after 7-days curing. A reduction in water absorption by 82% was also observed with L-GGBS treatment after 28-days curing. The UCS results also showed better performance with L-GGBS treatment exceeding 856% at 28 days. The effect of increased cementitious product with increasing gypsum content was negated by simultaneous and rapid growth of ettringite minerals which reduced the strength and increased swelling of OPC treated samples up to 18.92%, exceeding allowable limits of 2.5% as specified in Highway Agency Advice Note HA 74/07. The L-GGBS treated gypseous soil samples meet the strength requirement for stabilised sub-base (CS) and stabilised road-bases (CB1 and CB2) as described in TRL ORN31. Hence, the use of L-GGBS combination was found to be effective in ameliorating sulphate-induced expansion and therefore encouraged in the stabilisation of subgrade and road-base materials with high sulphate contents. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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16 pages, 2431 KiB  
Article
Effects of Particle Size Distribution of Standard Sands on the Physical-Mechanical Properties of Mortars
by Ruan L. S. Ferreira, Mauricéia Medeiros, Jéssyca E. S. Pereira, Glauco F. Henriques, Jennef C. Tavares, Markssuel T. Marvila and Afonso R. G. de Azevedo
Materials 2023, 16(2), 844; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020844 - 15 Jan 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1833
Abstract
Obtained natural sands can present different particle size distributions (PSD), although they have the same mineralogical origin. These differences directly influence the physical and mechanical behavior of mortars and, therefore, the performance of mortar and ceramic renderings. Standardizing the particle size of sands [...] Read more.
Obtained natural sands can present different particle size distributions (PSD), although they have the same mineralogical origin. These differences directly influence the physical and mechanical behavior of mortars and, therefore, the performance of mortar and ceramic renderings. Standardizing the particle size of sands based on pre-established requirements in normative standards (NBR 7214 or ASTM C778) is one way to minimize these effects. However, these standards do not consider the optimization of the granular skeleton through the analysis of bulk density and PSD, which may be insufficient to obtain satisfactory results. Therefore, this paper analyzes the effects of using different particle size ranges on the physical and mechanical behavior of cement and hydrated lime mortars. The properties of consistency index, bulk density, air content, capillary water absorption, water absorption by immersion, flexural strength, compressive strength, and dynamic modulus of elasticity were evaluated. For this purpose, standardized sands of the same mineralogical origin were made with different particle size ranges, being: (i) standardized sand constituted by 25% of coarse and fine fractions (S25-control), (ii) standardized sand constituted by 30% of coarse fraction and 20% of fine fraction (S30-20), and (iii) standardized sand composed by 40% of coarse fraction, and 10% of fine fraction (S40-10), respectively. The results indicated that variations in the particle size composition of the standardized sands are necessary to obtain mixtures with higher compactness and, therefore, mortars with better physical and mechanical performance. Thus, the dosage of the particle size fractions of standardized sand should consider the optimization of the granular skeleton, being the unit mass and the granulometric composition as important parameters to meet this premise. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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14 pages, 1472 KiB  
Article
Predicting Compressive Strength and Hydration Products of Calcium Aluminate Cement Using Data-Driven Approach
by Sai Akshay Ponduru, Taihao Han, Jie Huang and Aditya Kumar
Materials 2023, 16(2), 654; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16020654 - 9 Jan 2023
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1851
Abstract
Calcium aluminate cement (CAC) has been explored as a sustainable alternative to Portland cement, the most widely used type of cement. However, the hydration reaction and mechanical properties of CAC can be influenced by various factors such as water content, Li2CO [...] Read more.
Calcium aluminate cement (CAC) has been explored as a sustainable alternative to Portland cement, the most widely used type of cement. However, the hydration reaction and mechanical properties of CAC can be influenced by various factors such as water content, Li2CO3 content, and age. Due to the complex interactions between the precursors in CAC, traditional analytical models have struggled to predict CAC binders’ compressive strength and porosity accurately. To overcome this limitation, this study utilizes machine learning (ML) to predict the properties of CAC. The study begins by using thermodynamic simulations to determine the phase assemblages of CAC at different ages. The XGBoost model is then used to predict the compressive strength, porosity, and hydration products of CAC based on the mixture design and age. The XGBoost model is also used to evaluate the influence of input parameters on the compressive strength and porosity of CAC. Based on the results of this analysis, a closed-form analytical model is developed to predict the compressive strength and porosity of CAC accurately. Overall, the study demonstrates that ML can be effectively used to predict the properties of CAC binders, providing a valuable tool for researchers and practitioners in the field of cement science. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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13 pages, 1155 KiB  
Article
Effects of Alternate Wet and Dry Conditions on the Mechanical and Physical Performance of Limestone Calcined Clay Cement Mortars Immersed in Sodium Sulfate Media
by Vincent Odhiambo Odhiambo, Lenka Scheinherrová, Silvester Ochieng Abuodha, John Nyiro Mwero and Joseph Mwiti Marangu
Materials 2022, 15(24), 8935; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15248935 - 14 Dec 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1669
Abstract
Sulfate attack in concrete structures significantly reduces their durability. This article reports the experimental findings on the effects of sodium sulfate on limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) in an alternate wet and dry media. The samples underwent wet–dry conditions of 28 [...] Read more.
Sulfate attack in concrete structures significantly reduces their durability. This article reports the experimental findings on the effects of sodium sulfate on limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) in an alternate wet and dry media. The samples underwent wet–dry conditions of 28 cycles. Two types of LC3 were studied, one made from clay (LC3-CL) and the other made from fired rejected clay bricks (LC3-FR). The composition of each LC3 blend by weight was 50% clinker, 30% calcined clay, 15% limestone, and 5% gypsum. The reference compressive strength was evaluated at 2, 7, and 28 days of age. Then, ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and LC3-CL blends were subjected to alternate wet–dry cycle tests, immersion in a 5% sodium sulfate solution, or in water. For all exposed samples, sorptivity tests and compressive strength were done. The results showed that LC3 blends met the requirements for KS-EAS 18-1:2017 standard, which specifies the composition and conformity criteria for common cements in Kenya. The LC3 blend also had a lower rate of initial absorption compared to OPC. Additionally, LC3 blend also showed good resistance to sodium sulfate when exposed to alternating wetting and drying environment. OPC showed higher compressive strength than LC3 blends for testing ages of 2, 7, and 28 days. However, the LC3 samples utilized in the sodium sulfate attack experiment, which were later tested after 84 days, exhibited higher compressive strengths than OPC tested after the same period. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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19 pages, 5820 KiB  
Article
Preparation and Pore Structure of Energy-Storage Phosphorus Building Gypsum
by Shixiong Liao, Kun Ma, Zhiman Zhao, Lei Wu, Zhuo Liu and Sicheng Quan
Materials 2022, 15(19), 6997; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15196997 - 9 Oct 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1258
Abstract
In this study, the pore structure of a hardened phosphorous building gypsum body was optimised by blending an air-entraining agent with the appropriate water–paste ratio. The response surface test was designed according to the test results of the hardened phosphorous building gypsum body [...] Read more.
In this study, the pore structure of a hardened phosphorous building gypsum body was optimised by blending an air-entraining agent with the appropriate water–paste ratio. The response surface test was designed according to the test results of the hardened phosphorous building gypsum body treated with an air-entraining agent and an appropriate water–paste ratio. Moreover, the optimal process parameters were selected to prepare a porous phosphorous building gypsum skeleton, which was used as a paraffin carrier to prepare energy-storage phosphorous building gypsum. The results indicate that if the ratio of the air-entraining agent to the water–paste ratio is reasonable, the hardened body of phosphorous building gypsum can form a better pore structure. With the influx of paraffin, its accumulated pore volume and specific surface area decrease, and the pore size distribution is uniform. The paraffin completely occupies the pores, causing the compressive strength of energy-storage phosphorous building gypsum to be better than that of similar gypsum energy-storing materials. The heat energy further captured by energy-storage phosphorous building gypsum in the endothermic and exothermic stages is 28.19 J/g and 28.64 J/g, respectively, which can be used to prepare energy-saving building materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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14 pages, 4035 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Feasibility Study of Pressed and Burned Red Ceramic Blocks as Structural and Sealing Masonry
by Niander Aguiar Cerqueira, Victor Souza, Jonas Alexandre, Gustavo de Castro Xavier, Roman Fediuk, Sergio Neves Monteiro, Marcelo Neves Barreto and Afonso R. G. de Azevedo
Materials 2022, 15(14), 5004; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15145004 - 19 Jul 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1473
Abstract
In the search for better constructive efficiency and a reduction of the waste of construction materials, several researches have been performed in the last years around the world. Red ceramic blocks are artifacts widely used in civil construction around the world, and they [...] Read more.
In the search for better constructive efficiency and a reduction of the waste of construction materials, several researches have been performed in the last years around the world. Red ceramic blocks are artifacts widely used in civil construction around the world, and they result in a great consumption of raw materials and energy. The great innovation of this research was the development of ceramic blocks through an innovative method of pressing and dosing materials, replacing the traditional stage of extrusion in the manufacture of ceramics. In such a sense, a new manufacturing technology for ceramic blocks was proposed through the pressing process, adapting the soil-cement brick press machine, thus attaining more even pieces with greater compliance to the dimensions and preset geometry. In this work, the physical and mechanical features of the pressed and burned blocks (PBB) are produced in a partnership with Arte Cerâmica Sardinha, a traditional ceramic industry in the region of Campos dos Goytacazes, RJ, Brazil. It was sought to set the quality parameters for the blocks, to set their mechanical compressive strength, deformation modules and the Poisson coefficient. The blocks were tested in use by means of three layers of prism and small wall samples, and it was checked the fragile-type failure of the PBB. Results indicate that the blocks can be employed in small-sized construction works, as the characteristic compressive strength to block measured was 3.62 N/mm2 for average water absorption of 20.84%. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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16 pages, 5787 KiB  
Article
Numerical Simulation Study of Mixed Particle Size Calcination Processes in the Calcination Zone of a Parallel Flow Regenerative Lime Kiln
by Shaopei Duan, Baokuan Li and Wenjie Rong
Materials 2022, 15(13), 4609; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134609 - 30 Jun 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1484
Abstract
Limestone of different particle sizes is often calcined together to improve production efficiency, but the calcination effect of mixed particle size limestone is difficult to guarantee. To investigate the effect of different particle size combinations on calcination, this study uses a porous media [...] Read more.
Limestone of different particle sizes is often calcined together to improve production efficiency, but the calcination effect of mixed particle size limestone is difficult to guarantee. To investigate the effect of different particle size combinations on calcination, this study uses a porous media model and a shrinking core model to simulate the calcination process for a single particle size and two mixed particle sizes in a Parallel Flow Regenerative lime kiln (PFR lime kiln). The results of the study show that an increase in void fraction has a small effect on the gas temperature. The temperature also does not change with particle sizes. At the same time, the decomposition is poor near the wall and better the closer to the center of the calcination zone. In addition, when the particle sizes differ by 2 times, the decomposition of small limestone particles had less influence, and the decomposition of large particles was also better. When the particle sizes differ by 3 times, the decomposition of both limestone sizes is more affected, especially for the larger limestone size, where only the outer surface is involved in the decomposition. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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16 pages, 1831 KiB  
Article
Self-Healing Performance Assessment of Bacterial-Based Concrete Using Machine Learning Approaches
by Xu Huang, Jessada Sresakoolchai, Xia Qin, Yiu Fan Ho and Sakdirat Kaewunruen
Materials 2022, 15(13), 4436; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134436 - 23 Jun 2022
Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2097
Abstract
Bacterial-based self-healing concrete (BSHC) is a well-known healing technology which has been investigated for a few decades for its excellent crack healing capacity. Nevertheless, considered as costly and time-consuming, the healing performance (HP) of concrete with various types of bacteria can be designed [...] Read more.
Bacterial-based self-healing concrete (BSHC) is a well-known healing technology which has been investigated for a few decades for its excellent crack healing capacity. Nevertheless, considered as costly and time-consuming, the healing performance (HP) of concrete with various types of bacteria can be designed and evaluated only in laboratory environments. Employing machine learning (ML) models for predicting the HP of BSHC is inspired by practical applications using concrete mechanical properties. The HP of BSHC can be predicted to save the time and cost of laboratory tests, bacteria selection and healing mechanisms adoption. In this paper, three types of BSHC, including ureolytic bacterial healing concrete (UBHC), aerobic bacterial healing concrete (ABHC) and nitrifying bacterial healing concrete (NBHC), and ML models with five kinds of algorithms consisting of the support vector regression (SVR), decision tree regression (DTR), deep neural network (DNN), gradient boosting regression (GBR) and random forest (RF) are established. Most importantly, 22 influencing factors are first employed as variables in the ML models to predict the HP of BSHC. A total of 797 sets of BSHC tests available in the open literature between 2000 and 2021 are collected to verify the ML models. The grid search algorithm (GSA) is also utilised for tuning parameters of the algorithms. Moreover, the coefficient of determination (R2) and root mean square error (RMSE) are applied to evaluate the prediction ability, including the prediction performance and accuracy of the ML models. The results exhibit that the GBR model has better prediction ability (R2GBR = 0.956, RMSEGBR = 6.756%) than other ML models. Finally, the influence of the variables on the HP is investigated by employing the sensitivity analysis in the GBR model. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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20 pages, 2467 KiB  
Article
Multi Expression Programming Model for Strength Prediction of Fly-Ash-Treated Alkali-Contaminated Soils
by Kaffayatullah Khan, Mohammed Ashfaq, Mudassir Iqbal, Mohsin Ali Khan, Muhammad Nasir Amin, Faisal I. Shalabi, Muhammad Iftikhar Faraz and Fazal E. Jalal
Materials 2022, 15(11), 4025; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15114025 - 6 Jun 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1964
Abstract
Rapid industrialization is leading to the pollution of underground natural soil by alkali concentration which may cause problems for the existing expansive soil in the form of producing expanding lattices. This research investigates the effect of stabilizing alkali-contaminated soil by using fly ash. [...] Read more.
Rapid industrialization is leading to the pollution of underground natural soil by alkali concentration which may cause problems for the existing expansive soil in the form of producing expanding lattices. This research investigates the effect of stabilizing alkali-contaminated soil by using fly ash. The influence of alkali concentration (2 N and 4 N) and curing period (up to 28 days) on the unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of fly ash (FA)-treated (10%, 15%, and 20%) alkali-contaminated kaolin and black cotton (BC) soils was investigated. The effect of incorporating different dosages of FA (10%, 15%, and 20%) on the UCSkaolin and UCSBC soils was also studied. Sufficient laboratory test data comprising 384 data points were collected, and multi expression programming (MEP) was used to create tree-based models for yielding simple prediction equations to compute the UCSkaolin and UCSBC soils. The experimental results reflected that alkali contamination resulted in reduced UCS (36% and 46%, respectively) for the kaolin and BC soil, whereas the addition of FA resulted in a linear rise in the UCS. The optimal dosage was found to be 20%, and the increase in UCS may be attributed to the alkali-induced pozzolanic reaction and subsequent gain of the UCS due to the formation of calcium-based hydration compounds (with FA addition). Furthermore, the developed models showed reliable performance in the training and validation stages in terms of regression slopes, R, MAE, RMSE, and RSE indices. Models were also validated using parametric and sensitivity analysis which yielded comparable variation while the contribution of each input was consistent with the available literature. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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16 pages, 6975 KiB  
Article
Experiment on the Properties of Soda Residue-Activated Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag Mortars with Different Activators
by Yonghui Lin, Dongqiang Xu, Wenguang Ji and Xianhui Zhao
Materials 2022, 15(10), 3578; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103578 - 17 May 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1266
Abstract
Soda residue (SR), a solid waste generated in the production of Na2CO3 during the ammonia soda process, with a high pH value of 12, can be used as an activator of alkali-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) cementitious materials. [...] Read more.
Soda residue (SR), a solid waste generated in the production of Na2CO3 during the ammonia soda process, with a high pH value of 12, can be used as an activator of alkali-activated ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS) cementitious materials. Three groups of experiments on SR-activated GGBFS mortars were designed in this paper to assess the role of the dominant parameters on fluidity and compressive strength of mortars. The results indicate that for fluidity and mechanical properties, the optimal scheme of SR-activated GGBFS mortars is 16:84–24:76 S/G, 0.01 NaOH/b, 0.05 CaO/b, and 0.50 w/b, with fluidity and compressive strength (28 d) of the mortars being 181–195 mm and 32.3–35.4 MPa, respectively. Between 2.5–10% CaCl2 addition to CaO (5%)-SR (24%)-activated GGBFS mortar is beneficial to the improvement of the compressive strength of C2, whereas the addition of CaSO4 is harmful. The main hydration products of mortars are ettringite, Friedel’s slat, and CSH gels. The results provide a theoretical basis and data support for the utilization of SR. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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16 pages, 2173 KiB  
Article
Production of Belite Based Clinker from Ornamental Stone Processing Sludge and Calcium Carbonate Sludge with Lower CO2 Emissions
by Francisco Roger Carneiro Ribeiro, Regina Célia Espinosa Modolo, Marlova Piva Kulakowski, Feliciane Andrade Brehm, Carlos Alberto Mendes Moraes, Victor Miguel Ferreira, Esequiel Fernandes Teixeira Mesquita, Afonso Rangel Garcez de Azevedo and Sergio Neves Monteiro
Materials 2022, 15(7), 2352; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15072352 - 22 Mar 2022
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1617
Abstract
Environmental concerns have come to the forefront due to the substantial role of the cement industry in the extraction and expenditure of natural resources. Additionally, industrial processes generate a considerable amount of waste, which is frequently disposed of inadequately. The objective of this [...] Read more.
Environmental concerns have come to the forefront due to the substantial role of the cement industry in the extraction and expenditure of natural resources. Additionally, industrial processes generate a considerable amount of waste, which is frequently disposed of inadequately. The objective of this study was to evaluate the simultaneous use of ornamental rock processing sludge and calcium carbonate sludge generated from the kraft process in the production of belitic clinker. These waste materials would be used in total or partial substitution of natural raw materials, namely, limestone and clay. Several formulations were produced and sintered at 1100 and 1200 °C. The raw materials were characterized physico-chemically and thermogravimetrically, with subsequent evaluation of the resulting dosed raw mixes. Mineral analyses determined that the mixtures with limestone and clay in substitution ratios of 95% and 100%, respectively, and sintered at 1100 °C have the potential to produce belite-rich clinkers. This temperature is considerably lower than those reported in reference studies. Additionally, full limestone and clay substitution could result in a 23.92% reduction in carbon dioxide in clinker production. The results confirmed the potential use of ornamental rock processing sludge and calcium carbonate sludge as viable alternative materials for cement production and, consequently, could contribute to a reduction in the negative environmental impacts of this industry. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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13 pages, 5208 KiB  
Article
Fire-Exposed Fly-Ash-Based Geopolymer Concrete: Effects of Burning Temperature on Mechanical and Microstructural Properties
by Siti Nooriza Abd Razak, Nasir Shafiq, Laurent Guillaumat, Syed Ahmad Farhan and Vicky Kumar Lohana
Materials 2022, 15(5), 1884; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051884 - 3 Mar 2022
Cited by 14 | Viewed by 2782
Abstract
Geopolymer concrete possesses superior fire resistance compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC)-based concrete; however, there are concerns regarding its vulnerability when exposed to real fire events. In the present study, the fire resistance of fly-ash-based geopolymer concrete was evaluated relative to that of [...] Read more.
Geopolymer concrete possesses superior fire resistance compared to ordinary Portland cement (OPC)-based concrete; however, there are concerns regarding its vulnerability when exposed to real fire events. In the present study, the fire resistance of fly-ash-based geopolymer concrete was evaluated relative to that of OPC-based concrete. Concrete specimens of standard strength grades of 20, 40, and 60 MPa were exposed to fire at 500 and 1200 °C for 2 h to simulate real fire events. Visual observation was performed, mass loss and residual compressive strength were measured, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) analyses were conducted. OPC-based concrete suffered major cracks accompanied with spalling for the high-strength specimen, while geopolymer concrete experienced minor cracks with no spalling. Mass losses of the geopolymer concrete—of 1.69% and 4%, after the exposure to fire at 500 and 1200 °C, respectively—were lower than those of the OPC-based concrete. More than 50% of the residual compressive strength for low- and medium-strength geopolymer concrete, after the exposure to fire at 1200 °C, was maintained. After the exposure to fire at 500 °C, the residual compressive strength of the geopolymer concrete increased from 13 to 45%, while the OPC-based concrete was not able to sustain its compressive strength. SEM images showed that the matrix of the geopolymer concrete, after the exposure to fire, was denser than that of the OPC-based concrete, while the FTIR spectra of the geopolymer concrete showed a minor shift in wavelength. Hence, our findings indicate that fly-ash-based geopolymer concrete has an excellent fire resistance as compared to OPC-based concrete. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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16 pages, 7553 KiB  
Article
Mechanical Properties of Reactive Powder Concrete with Coal Gangue as Sand Replacement
by Wen Luo, Haijun Wang, Xiongwei Li, Xiaolong Wang, Zhang Wu, Yuan Zhang, Xiaoqing Lian and Xiaojun Li
Materials 2022, 15(5), 1807; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15051807 - 28 Feb 2022
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1566
Abstract
Coal gangue (CG) represents a huge amount of industrial solid waste in China, and usually is used as a coarse aggregate to produce low-strength coal-gangue-based concrete. In this paper, in order to prove the possibility to obtain a higher-strength concrete with a higher [...] Read more.
Coal gangue (CG) represents a huge amount of industrial solid waste in China, and usually is used as a coarse aggregate to produce low-strength coal-gangue-based concrete. In this paper, in order to prove the possibility to obtain a higher-strength concrete with a higher CG utilization rate, reactive powder concrete (RPC) with coal gangue as a sand replacement at different replacement ratios was studied. RPC samples were prepared by replacing natural river sand (RS) with CG sand at different CG/RS weight ratios from 0–100% at intervals of 25%. Mechanical tests were carried out, and the microstructure features of RPC samples at 28 days were characterized. The test results showed that strong back shrinkage of strength existed. On days 7 and 14, the flexural strengths of samples with CG/RS replacement ratios of 0–75% fluctuated around the mean value. Strengths of samples with a CG/RS replacement ratio of 100% dropped off. However, on day 28, the flexural strengths of samples with CG were all lower than the strengths of samples on days 7 and 14. The flexural strengths and compressive strengths of the RPC with a CG/RS replacement ratio of 100% on day 14 were 14.09 MPa and 37.03 MPa, respectively, which decreased to 6.42 MPa and 28.44 MPa, respectively, on day 28. Compared with natural river sand, CG sand reduced the working performance, compressive strength, and flexural strength of RPC. Microscopic analysis showed that on day 28, increasing the CG replacement ratio could inhibit cement hydration, weaken the interface transition zone, and lead to the degradation of the RPC’s performance. Modification of CG sand would be helpful to obtain higher-strength concrete. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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20 pages, 5819 KiB  
Article
Investigation of the Impact of Graphene Nanoplatelets (GnP) on the Bond Stress of High-Performance Concrete Using Pullout Testing
by Fouad Ismail Ismail, Yassir M. Abbas, Nasir Shafiq, Galal Fares, Montasir Osman, Lotfi A. Hussain and Mohammad Iqbal Khan
Materials 2021, 14(22), 7054; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14227054 - 20 Nov 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 2349
Abstract
Efficient load transmission between concrete and steel reinforcement by bonding action is a key factor in the process of the design procedure of bar-reinforced concrete structures. To enhance the bond strength of steel/concrete composites, the impact of graphene nanoplatelets (GnP) on the bond [...] Read more.
Efficient load transmission between concrete and steel reinforcement by bonding action is a key factor in the process of the design procedure of bar-reinforced concrete structures. To enhance the bond strength of steel/concrete composites, the impact of graphene nanoplatelets (GnP) on the bond stress and bond stress–slip response of deformed reinforcement bars, embedded in high-performance concrete (HPC), was investigated using bar pullout tests. In the current study, 36 samples were produced and examined. The main variables were the percentages of GnP, the steel reinforcement bar diameter, and embedded length. Bond behavior, failure mode, and bond stress-slip response were studied. Based on the experimental findings, the inclusion of GnP had a significant favorable influence on the bar-matrix interactions due to the bridging action of GnP as a nano reinforcement. For 0.02 wt.% of GnP, the bond strength was enhanced by more than 41.28% and 53.90% for steel bar diameters of 10 and 16 mm, respectively. The HPC-GnP mixture displayed a reduction in the initial slippage in comparison to the control sample. The test findings were compared to the prediction models created by other researchers and the ACI 408R-12 code. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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12 pages, 5572 KiB  
Article
Study on Fractal Characteristics of Mineral Particles in Undisturbed Loess and Lime-Treated Loess
by Jian Song, Jiaxin Ma, Fengyan Li, Lina Chai, Wenfu Chen, Shi Dong and Xiaojun Li
Materials 2021, 14(21), 6549; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216549 - 1 Nov 2021
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1263
Abstract
In order to explore the fractal characteristics of particle size distribution (PSD) of various minerals in loess and lime-treated loess, the Q4 undisturbed loess and lime-treated loess were studied. From the perspective of multi-scaled microstructure, the internal characteristics of loess were observed and [...] Read more.
In order to explore the fractal characteristics of particle size distribution (PSD) of various minerals in loess and lime-treated loess, the Q4 undisturbed loess and lime-treated loess were studied. From the perspective of multi-scaled microstructure, the internal characteristics of loess were observed and the regularity statistics were carried out from a macroscopic view. Fractal theory was used to quantitatively study the distribution of mineral particles in undisturbed loess and lime-treated loess. It was found that the skeleton particles of undisturbed loess were obvious and the structure of soil was loose. While that of lime-treated loess decreased, the fine particles were connected with each other, and the structure of soil changed from loose to dense. The three mineral particles in the undisturbed loess and lime-treated loess did not accord with the single fractal distribution characteristics, but the total particles had fractal characteristics. The percentage content of the mineral particles in the soil varied greatly with the particle size. In addition, the non-uniform degrees of mineral particles in the two soils from large to small were carbonate minerals of lime-treated loess, carbonate minerals of undisturbed loess, quartz minerals of lime-treated loess, feldspar mineral of lime-treated loess, feldspar mineral of the undisturbed loess, and the quartz mineral of the undisturbed loess. This paper provided a basis for the future study of the different soil mechanical properties of undisturbed loess and lime-treated loess. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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16 pages, 5007 KiB  
Article
The Relationship of Compressive Strength and Chemically Bound Water Content of High-Volume Fly Ash-Cement Mortar
by Chunping Gu, Jikai Yao, Yang Yang, Jie Huang, Linhao Ma, Tongyuan Ni and Jintao Liu
Materials 2021, 14(21), 6273; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14216273 - 21 Oct 2021
Cited by 13 | Viewed by 1754
Abstract
Fly ash (FA) has been widely used in cement-based materials, but limited work has been conducted to establish the relationship between the compressive strength and hydration process of high-volume FA (HVFA)-cement-based material. In this study, the compressive strength and chemically bound water contents [...] Read more.
Fly ash (FA) has been widely used in cement-based materials, but limited work has been conducted to establish the relationship between the compressive strength and hydration process of high-volume FA (HVFA)-cement-based material. In this study, the compressive strength and chemically bound water contents of FA-cement-based materials with different water-to-binder ratios (0.4, 0.5, and 0.6) and FA contents (0%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, and 70%) were tested. Replacing more cement with FA reduced the compressive strength and of HVFA-cement-based materials. The compressive strength and chemically bound water content reduced by about 60–70% when 70% cement was replaced by FA. Water-to-binder ratio showed more significant influence on the chemically bonded water at later ages than that at early ages. Based on test results, the prediction equation of chemically bound water content was established, and its accuracy was verified. The error was less than 10%. The relationship between the compressive strength and chemically bound water content was also fitted. The compressive strength and chemically bound water content showed linear relationships for different water-to-binder ratios, hence the compressive strength of HVFA-cement mortar could be predicted with the chemically bound water content and water-to-binder ratios. The results of this study could be used for the prediction of the compressive strength development of HVFA-cement mortars, and is helpful to develop the mix design method of HVFA-cement-based materials. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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Review

Jump to: Research

21 pages, 1081 KiB  
Review
A Review on the Incorporation of Diatomaceous Earth as a Geopolymer-Based Concrete Building Resource
by Janet J. Kipsanai, Paul M. Wambua, Saul S. Namango and Sofiane Amziane
Materials 2022, 15(20), 7130; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15207130 - 13 Oct 2022
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2701
Abstract
The development of geopolymer building composites at a lower cost with a smaller carbon footprint may lessen the growing concerns about global warming brought on by emissions of a critical greenhouse gas (CO2) paired with the high production costs in the [...] Read more.
The development of geopolymer building composites at a lower cost with a smaller carbon footprint may lessen the growing concerns about global warming brought on by emissions of a critical greenhouse gas (CO2) paired with the high production costs in the cement sector. Diatomaceous earth, commonly used as an admixture or partial replacement of cement owing to its most effective pozzolanic properties, has been investigated as a precursor in geopolymer concrete development. Several studies have been examined to develop a greater understanding of its characterization, inclusion status, and impacts on the performance aspects of concrete. The literature review showed that using diatomaceous earth is one of the effective ways to create sustainable, insulating, lightweight building materials while minimizing the harmful economic and environmental effects of industrial solid wastes. However, since most studies have focused on its integration as a partial cement substitute or a replacement for fine aggregate, further research on diatomaceous earth-based clinker-free concrete is required. A lack of research on geopolymer concrete’s reinforcement with either natural or synthetic fibers, or a combination of the two, was also discovered. This review also showed that there has been remarkably little effort made towards theoretical property correlation modeling for predicting concrete performance. It is anticipated that the detailed overview presented herein will guide potential researchers in defining their future paths in the study area. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Cement, Gypsum, and Lime Composites: Methods, Models, Kinetics, and Recent Advances)
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