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Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance

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A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 November 2021) | Viewed by 24333

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Special Issue Editors

Prof. Dr. Eduardo Júlio

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Guest Editor

Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources, CERIS & Instituto Superior Técnico, University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: structural concrete; rehabilitation; sustainability; prefabrication; structural-health monitoring

Prof. Dr. Alexandre Bogas

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Guest Editor

1. Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture and Georesources, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001 Lisboa, Portugal
2. Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability (CERIS), University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: new building materials; cement-based materials; low-carbon cements; special concretes; sustainability; service life
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Hugo Costa

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Guest Editor

1. Department of Civil Engineering - Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Coimbra (Polytechnics of Coimbra), Rua Pedro Nunes, 3030-199 Coimbra, Portugal
2. Civil Engineering Research and Innovation for Sustainability (CERIS), University of Lisbon, 1049-001 Lisbon, Portugal
Interests: mix design of cementitious materials; mechanical, time dependent and durability behaviors of special concretes
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The fib Symposium 2021 will be held in Lisbon, from the 14th to the 16th of June 2021, gathering together professionals, researchers, and students from all over the world to discuss ‘Concrete Structures: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance.’

In recent years, structural concrete material has experienced significant advances, rising in response to more demanding requirements in terms of sustainability, durability, and strength. Extremely relevant developments have been achieved regarding constituents (cement, additions, admixtures, and aggregates), mixture design, and production techniques, giving rise to a broad set of new structural concretes, e.g., self-compacting, nanoreinforced, fibre-reinforced, light-weight, ultra-high performance, and sustainable (low-carbon, low-binder, incorporating recycled aggregates), among others.

The scope of this Special Issue covers the latest developments and new challenges in the following main domains: sustainable cementitious-based materials and alternative binders, including geopolymers, waste cements, alkali-activated cements, modified clinkers, and other emerging low-carbon cements; concrete durability and extended lifetime; advanced materials and special concretes; materials characterization.

This Special Issue will include outstanding research based on the best papers submitted to the fib Lisbon Symposium 2021 addressing the topic of structural concrete material: new trends for eco-efficiency and performance. We also welcome other high quality papers on this topic to be submitted to this Special Issue of the Materials journal.

Prof. Dr. Eduardo Júlio
Prof. Dr. Alexandre Bogas
Prof. Dr. Hugo Costa
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Materials is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

materials
structural concrete
eco-efficiency
performance

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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3 pages, 196 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Special Issue: Structural Concrete Material—New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance

by Eduardo Júlio, Alexandre Bogas and Hugo Costa

Materials 2022, 15(23), 8360; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15238360 - 24 Nov 2022

Viewed by 780

Abstract

During the last few years, structural concrete has experienced significant advances, stimulated by the demand for stricter requirements in terms of sustainability, durability and strength [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

Research

Jump to: Editorial

15 pages, 7107 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Finite Boundary Conditions Due to the Bar Presence in the Model of Chloride Penetration

by Fabiano Tavares and Carmen Andrade

Materials 2022, 15(4), 1426; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041426 - 15 Feb 2022

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1356

Abstract

The chloride penetration is usually modelled through the application of a solution of Fick’s second law of diffusion, based on the assumption of semi-infinite boundary conditions. However, the presence of the bars, on whose surface the chlorides accumulate, makes this assumption incorrect. As the time progresses, the chlorides in the steel/concrete interface increase in concentration more than the chlorides overpassing the bar position without obstacles. This circumstance, although previously studied, has not been introduced in common practice, in spite of it supposes early reaching of the chloride threshold. The study in this paper shows a deterministic analysis of the chloride diffusion process by the finite element method (FEM) which numerically solves Fick’s second law, taking into account the accumulation of the chlorides on the bar surface. Several examples are calculated and factors between the finite/semi-infinite solutions are given. These factors depend on the cover depth and the diffusion coefficient, and with less importance, on the diameter of the bar, which make it unfeasible to propose a general trend. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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18 pages, 3267 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Recycled Aggregates Produced from Construction and Demolition Waste for Structural Concrete: Constituents, Properties and Production

by João Pacheco and Jorge de Brito

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5748; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195748 - 01 Oct 2021

Cited by 27 | Viewed by 3086

Abstract

This paper concerns the recovery of construction and demolition waste as coarse recycled aggregates for concrete. Coarse recycled aggregates may be used as a partial or total replacement of natural aggregates, contributing to the circular economy and minimizing landfill disposals as well as the consumption of natural mineral resources. However, construction and demolition waste is a heterogeneous material with undefined quality and the processing of this waste into recycled aggregates needs to ensure that the recycled aggregates have suitable properties for concrete. This paper summarizes several aspects related to coarse recycled aggregates, specifically addressing: (i) the typical composition of construction and demolition waste; (ii) the influence of different types of constituents on the properties of recycled aggregates and recycled aggregate concrete; (iii) requirements for recycled aggregates to be used in concrete; and (iv) production methods of recycled aggregates. It is argued that coarse recycled aggregates are a suitable construction material with adequate quality, even when common equipment is used in their production and preliminary separation as a key operation for ensuring the quality of the aggregates is recommended. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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13 pages, 3330 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Multilayer Casting of Eco-Efficient Self-Compacting Concrete with Reduced Binder Content

by Piotr Dybeł and Milena Kucharska

Materials 2021, 14(19), 5685; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14195685 - 29 Sep 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1448

Abstract

In the study, experiments were performed on two eco-efficient self-compacting concrete mixes of reduced binder content containing supplementary cementitious materials. The behaviour of the eco-efficient self-compacting concrete (SCC) mixture was examined to determine whether it is suitable for multilayer casting. It is recommended that the SCC should be poured in an uninterrupted manner. However, it is not uncommon that contractors are forced to take breaks as a result of delivery delays. Casting the elements in multiple poorly prepared layers may cause the creation of cold joints between them. Two technological variants of the multilayer casting of eco-efficient SCC on beam elements were analysed: pouring the mixture from a minor height on the previously placed layer and placing the subsequent layer on the mechanically disturbed surface of the underlying material. Different delay times were used: 15, 30, 45 and 60 min between the execution of two layers of eco-efficient SCC. The load-bearing capacity of the joint was determined using a splitting tensile strength test on cubic elements. It was observed that, regardless of the mixture and casting variant, the interlayer bond strength decreased as the delay time increased. This effect was less pronounced when the first layer was mechanically disturbed. It was also demonstrated that concrete with reduced binder content is characterized by a lower drop in bond strength between successive layers. Finally, it is noted that the current recommendations and normative guidelines for the multilayer casting of self-compacting concrete should be specified with regard to the time delay allowed for the execution of the next layer in the absence of interference with the previously placed layer. Lack of clarity in this respect may result in the creation of a cold joint and hence a reduction in the load-bearing capacity between layers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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15 pages, 4910 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Environmental and Economic Life Cycle Assessment of Recycled Coarse Aggregates: A Portuguese Case Study

by Adriana B. Dias, João N. Pacheco, José D. Silvestre, Isabel M. Martins and Jorge de Brito

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5452; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185452 - 21 Sep 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2516

Abstract

The incorporation of recycled aggregates in concrete not only reduces the extraction of natural resources, but also decreases landfill disposal of construction and demolition waste. Hence, environmental impacts and costs are reduced, promoting the use of recycled aggregates and circular economy. However, the impacts of transport depend on the distance between facilities and longer distances may result in recycled aggregates being more costly and having larger environmental impact than natural aggregates. This paper discusses this topic, presents a review on the use of life cycle assessment methodology on natural and recycled aggregates for concrete, and applies this methodology in a real context pertaining the procurement of coarse aggregates to ready-mix concrete plants. A case study of two Portuguese regions, Coimbra and Lisbon, is presented. For each region, a quarry, a construction and demolition waste plant, and a ready-mix concrete plant are chosen and a comparative life cycle assessment is made. Different scenarios for the supply of natural and recycled aggregates are studied and the scenarios for recycled aggregates procurement include different hypotheses for the installation (construction and demolition waste plant or quarry) processing the construction and demolition waste into recycled aggregates. For this case study and both regions, it was found that the supply of recycled aggregates produced at the construction and demolition waste plant has lower environmental impact and cost than all other scenarios, including the provision of natural aggregates, except when it is assumed that the quarry is licensed and equipped for receiving unsorted construction and demolition waste and processing it into recycled aggregates. The paper shows that transport distance is a determining factor in the comparison of the impacts of the procurement of natural and recycled aggregates. Moreover, in the Portuguese context, the environmental impacts of the procurement of recycled aggregates may be smaller than those of natural aggregates, but cost may be larger for recycled aggregates, preventing that the most sustainable option is chosen. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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12 pages, 1980 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Apparent Activation Energy of a Novel Low-Calcium Silicate Hydraulic Binder

by Mónica Antunes, Rodrigo Lino Santos, João Pereira, Ricardo Bayão Horta, Patrizia Paradiso and Rogério Colaço

Materials 2021, 14(18), 5347; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14185347 - 16 Sep 2021

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1471

Abstract

In this work, the apparent activation energy (E_a) of a novel low-calcium binder was, for the first time, experimentally determined, using a calorimetric approach. Additionally, a correlation between the E_a, measured at the acceleration period with the C/S ratio of the hydration product is proposed. The E_a of the prepared pastes was determined through isothermal calorimetry tests by calculating the specific rate of reaction at different temperatures, using two different approaches. When comparing the E_a, at the acceleration period of this novel binder with the one published for alite and belite, we observed that its value is higher, which may be a result of a different hydration product formed with a distinct C/S ratio. Finally, to study the temperature effect on the compressive strength at early ages, a set of experiments with mortars was performed. The results showed that the longer the curing time at 35 °C, the higher the compressive strength after 2 days of hydration, which suggests a higher initial development of hydration products. This study also indicated that the novel binder has a higher sensitivity to temperature when compared with ordinary Portland cement (OPC). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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13 pages, 4619 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Evaluation of PIRs Post-Fire Pull-Out Strength in Concrete Exposed to ISO 834-1 Fire

by Nagham Abdelrahman Alhajj Chehade, Amine Lahouar, Omar Al-Mansouri, Nicolas Pinoteau, Marco Abate, Sébastien Remond and Dashnor Hoxha

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4998; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174998 - 01 Sep 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1696

Abstract

Post-installed rebars (PIRs) using mortar can offer bond strength at ambient temperature equal or higher to that of cast-in place rebars. However, high temperatures have the effect of weakening the bond, typically governed by the chemical and physical properties of the mortar which is often sensitive to temperature increase. Therefore, the behavior of PIRs in a fire situation becomes vulnerable. Moreover, after exposure of PIRs to high temperature, the heat transfer continues during the post-fire phase, which might endanger the construction after a fire event. In order to evaluate the evolution of the pull-out capacity during fire, Pinoteau et al. have developed the bond resistance integration method (Pinoteau’s RIM) to predict the bond resistance value of a rebar subjected to various temperatures in accordance with the fire exposure curves. Therefore, accurate temperature profiles during the post-fire phase are needed to ensure a correct calculation of the post-fire behavior of the PIR connection. This paper presents 3D finite element thermal simulations of PIRs in concrete exposed to ISO 834-1 fire conditions then cooled with ambient air. Numerical thermal profiles are then compared to the experimental results (i.e., post-fire pull-out tests). The proposed model provides guidelines for conducting numerical simulations to determine the thermal entry data necessary for predicting thermal profiles in PIRs during heating and cooling phases. Then, the post-fire pull-out capacity of PIRs in concrete is calculated using Pinoteau’s RIM, and compared to experimental post-fire pull-out results. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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22 pages, 5052 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Realization of Clinker-Reduced, Performance-Based Sustainable Concrete by the Micro-Filler, Eco-Filler Concept

by Joachim Juhart, Michael Autischer, Marlene Sakoparnig and Markus Krüger

Materials 2021, 14(17), 4958; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14174958 - 31 Aug 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1737

Abstract

In times of climate change, the reduction in embodied greenhouse gas emissions is a premise for sustainable concrete infrastructure. As Portland cement clinker is mainly responsible for the high CO₂ emissions of concrete, its reduction is necessary. In order to be sustainable, the concrete must meet processing, mechanical and durability properties while taking cost aspects into account. The paper presents (i) the “micro-filler/eco-filler concept” for achieving a clinker reduced, optimised binder and (ii) a performance-based approach to put sustainable “Eco-concrete” into practice. Clinker is substituted by locally available inert fillers by at least two different particle size fractions and supplementary cementitious materials. The method is based on particle packing optimisation, reduction in water demand and optimisation of the mix ratio of the binder blend, which allows the performance requirements to be met. The new Eco-concretes deliver the desired performance in terms of processability, strength and durability (water penetration, frost, carbonation and chloride resistance) while lowering the environmental impact in comparison to standard concrete. One of the new mixes was used for a small animal passage tunnel. The direct comparison of the developed Eco-concrete and standard concrete showed a 24% reduction in CO₂, while achieving satisfactory workability, stripping strength and durability performance. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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18 pages, 4133 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Design and Durability Assessment of Restoring Mortar for Concrete Heritage

by Judite Miranda, Hugo Costa, Jónatas Valença, Ricardo do Carmo and Eduardo Júlio

Materials 2021, 14(16), 4508; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14164508 - 11 Aug 2021

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1858

Abstract

Interventions in concrete heritage deal with challenges related to conservation, and must be performed from an integrated restoration perspective. In addition to the material technical performance, the aesthetic compatibility between the repair and the structure, in terms of colour and texture, needs to be ensured. Therefore, the characterisation of the restoration mortar concerning colour match and aging, and the mechanical and durability performances, is essential. In this article, the long-term behaviour of restoration mortar, previously designed and produced by the addition of pigments to white and grey cement-based reference mortar, is evaluated. The durability properties, colour change due to aging, and service life are estimated and analysed. An experimental program is performed to characterise the following properties: (i) water capillary absorption; (ii) accelerated carbonation; (iii) migration of chloride ions; (iv) electrical resistivity; and (v) shrinkage. The colour evolution, when exposed to carbonation, is measured through image processing. The obtained results allow the establishment of a correlation between durability and design parameters. Finally, service life considering deterioration due to steel corrosion is estimated, considering the carbonation resistance and the chloride diffusion values. It is concluded that the W/C ratio influences not only most of the characterised parameters, but also the type and content of the pigment. Furthermore, no colour variation due to carbonation is detected. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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26 pages, 9526 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Pozzolan, Slag and Recycled Aggregates on the Mechanical and Durability Properties of Low Cement Concrete

by Eliana Soldado, Ana Antunes, Hugo Costa, Ricardo do Carmo and Eduardo Júlio

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4173; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154173 - 27 Jul 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 1442

Abstract

The sustainability of the construction sector demands the reduction of CO₂ emissions. The optimization of the amount of cement in concrete can be achieved either by partially replacing it by additions or by reducing the binder content. The present work aims at optimizing the properties of concrete used in the production of reinforced concrete poles for electrical distribution lines, combining the maximization of compactness with the partial replacement of cement by fly ash, natural pozzolans, and electric furnace slags. Natural aggregates were also partially replaced by recycled ones in mixtures with fly ash. Two types of concrete were studied: a fresh molded one with a dry consistency and a formwork molded one with a plastic consistency. The following properties were characterized: mechanical properties (flexural, tensile splitting, and compressive strengths, as well as Young’s modulus) and durability properties (capillary water absorption, water penetration depth under pressure, resistance to carbonation, chloride migration, and concrete surface resistivity). The service life of structures was estimated, taking the deterioration of reinforcement induced by concrete carbonation or chloride attack into account. Results revealed that mixtures with fly ash exhibit higher mechanical performance and mixtures with fly ash or pozzolans reveal much higher durability results than the full Portland cement-based mixtures. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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21 pages, 6587 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Influence of Rapid Heat Treatment on the Shrinkage and Strength of High-Performance Concrete

by Jan Stindt, Patrick Forman and Peter Mark

Materials 2021, 14(15), 4102; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14154102 - 23 Jul 2021

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 1952

Abstract

Resource-efficient precast concrete elements can be produced using high-performance concrete (HPC). A heat treatment accelerates hardening and thus enables early stripping. To minimise damages to the concrete structure, treatment time and temperature are regulated. This leads to temperature treatment times of more than 24 h, what seems too long for quick serial production (flow production) of HPC. To overcome this shortcoming and to accelerate production speed, the heat treatment is started here immediately after concreting. This in turn influences the shrinkage behaviour and the concrete strength. Therefore, shrinkage is investigated on prisms made from HPC with and without steel fibres, as well as on short beams with reinforcement ratios of 1.8% and 3.1%. Furthermore, the flexural and compressive strengths of the prisms are measured directly after heating and later on after 28 d. The specimens are heat-treated between 1 and 24 h at 80 °C and a relative humidity of 60%. Specimens without heating serve for reference. The results show that the shrinkage strain is pronouncedly reduced with increasing temperature duration and rebar ratio. Moreover, the compressive and flexural strength decrease with decreasing temperature duration, whereby the loss of strength can be compensated by adding steel fibres. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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15 pages, 5671 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Curing Assessment of Concrete with Hyperspectral Imaging

by Lisa Ptacek, Alfred Strauss, Barbara Hinterstoisser and Andreas Zitek

Materials 2021, 14(14), 3848; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143848 - 09 Jul 2021

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2736

Abstract

The curing of concrete significantly influences the hydration process and its strength development. Inadequate curing leads to a loss of quality and has a negative effect on the durability of the concrete. Usually, the effects are not noticed until years later, when the first damage to the structure occurs because of the poor concrete quality. This paper presents a non-destructive measurement method for the determination of the curing quality of young concrete. Hyperspectral imaging in the near infrared is a contactless method that provides information about material properties in an electromagnetic wavelength range that cannot be seen with the human eye. Laboratory tests were carried out with samples with three different curing types at the age of 1, 7, and 27 days. The results showed that differences in the near infrared spectral signatures can be determined depending on the age of the concrete and the type of curing. The data was classified and analyzed by evaluating the results using k-means clustering. This method showed a high level of reliability for the differentiation between the different curing types and concrete ages. A recommendation for hyperspectral measurement and the evaluation of the curing quality of concrete could be made. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Structural Concrete Material: New Trends for Eco-Efficiency and Performance)

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