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Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation
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Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation

A special issue of Materials (ISSN 1996-1944). This special issue belongs to the section "Construction and Building Materials".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (10 November 2023) | Viewed by 33918

Special Issue Editor

Prof. Dr. Qingfeng Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
State Key Laboratory of Ocean Engineering, School of Naval Architecture, Ocean & Civil Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
Interests: concrete durability; civil engineering materials; structural engineering; computational materials science; deterioration mechanism of concrete; transport in porous media; microstructures of cementitious materials; numerical modelling; electrochemical rehabilitation; sustainable construction materials
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Concrete is the most widely used man-made material in the modern construction industry. However, the service life of concrete constructions has been seriously shortened due to various durability problems, particularly when serving in non-ideal environment and subjected to internal/external attacks, such as chloride penetration, rebar corrosion, carbonation, freeze-thaw, alkali aggregate reactions, sulphate attack, calcium leaching, creep and fatigue damage, etc. The durability properties are difficult to predict or control due to the heterogeneous natures and complex microstructures of cement-based materials. Therefore, it is extremely significant to better understand the mechanisms during the deterioration processes and then to reliably enhance the long-term performance of concrete in practice.

This Special Issue aims to present new findings on mechanism studies in the subject area and to bring innovative solutions for prediction and protection/rehabilitation of concrete durability. Contributions by using modelling approaches and experimental techniques are both welcome. Work based on a more precise description of concrete/cement at meso-, micro- or nanoscales is of particular interest.

Potential topics include but are not limited to the following:

  • Deterioration mechanisms of concrete;
  • Microstructures of cementitious materials;
  • Prediction of degradation process;
  • Prediction of durability properties;
  • Numerical modelling and investigation;
  • Long-term performance of concrete structures;
  • Strengthening, protection and rehabilitation.

Dr. Qing-feng Liu
Guest Editor

Manuscript Submission Information

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Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • chloride
  • corrosion
  • carbonation
  • freeze–thaw
  • alkali aggregate reactions
  • sulfate attack
  • leaching
  • cracking
  • creep
  • fatigue loading

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Published Papers (21 papers)

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23 pages, 12126 KiB  
Article
Two-Dimensional Damage Localization Using a Piezoelectric Smart Aggregate Approach—Implementation on Arbitrary Shaped Concrete Plates
by Nemanja Marković, Dušan Grdić, Nenad Stojković, Gordana Topličić-Ćurčić and Darko Živković
Materials 2024, 17(1), 218; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17010218 - 30 Dec 2023
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 860
Abstract
This paper presents the application of a hybrid approach for damage localization in concrete plates of arbitrary geometric shapes and a constant thickness. The hybrid algorithm utilizes fast discrete wavelet transformation, energy approach and time of flight criteria for the purpose of the [...] Read more.
This paper presents the application of a hybrid approach for damage localization in concrete plates of arbitrary geometric shapes and a constant thickness. The hybrid algorithm utilizes fast discrete wavelet transformation, energy approach and time of flight criteria for the purpose of the localization of single- and multi-damage problems inside or on the periphery of concrete plates. A brief theoretical background of the hybrid method as well as numerical procedures for modeling the piezoelectric smart aggregate and ultrasonic wave propagation are presented. Experimental and numerical verification of the damage localization were performed on square samples/models with one or two damages and with 16 positions of piezoelectric smart actuator/sensor aggregates. After the verification of the hybrid method, a numerical simulation was performed on models with one or two damages for plates of arbitrary geometric shapes. Based on the obtained results, it was concluded that the proposed method can be applied to damage localization in concrete plates of arbitrary geometric shapes. The presented method and numerical procedure can be further used in research through varying the geometry, number and position of damages as well as the number and position of piezoelectric smart aggregates. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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16 pages, 20806 KiB  
Article
Study on Dynamic Crack Expansion and Size Effect of Back–Filling Concrete under Uniaxial Compression
by Xicai Gao, Huan Xia, Kai Fan, Leilei Yi and Jianhui Yin
Materials 2023, 16(23), 7503; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16237503 - 04 Dec 2023
Viewed by 835
Abstract
With the continuous expansion of the application range of gob–side entry retaining technology, the depth, height, and advancing speed of coal seams also increase, which brings great problems to the stability control of surrounding rock structures of gob–side entry retaining. As one of [...] Read more.
With the continuous expansion of the application range of gob–side entry retaining technology, the depth, height, and advancing speed of coal seams also increase, which brings great problems to the stability control of surrounding rock structures of gob–side entry retaining. As one of the main bearing structures of the surrounding rock, the stability of the roadway–side support body is a key factor for the success of gob–side entry retaining. In order to study the deformation characteristics and instability mechanism of roadway-side support body, based on the roadway–side support materials of gob-side entry retaining, the dynamic expansion test of back–filling concrete cracks under uniaxial compression was carried out. The YOLOv5 algorithm was applied to establish the fine identification and quantitative characterization method of macroscopic cracks of the samples, and the dynamic expansion rule of roadway-side support body cracks and its dimensional effect were revealed by combining the fractal theory. The results show that the F1 value and average precision mean of the intelligent dynamic crack identification model reached 75% and 71%, respectively, the GIoU loss value tends to fit around 0.038, and the model reached the overall optimal solution. During the uniaxial compression process, micro cracks on the surface of the back–filling concrete first initiated at the end, and after reaching the yield stress, the macroscopic cracks developed significantly. Moreover, several secondary cracks expanded, pooled, and connected from the middle of the specimen to the two ends, inducing the overall instability of the specimen. The surface crack expansion rate, density, and fractal dimension all show stage change characteristics with the increase in stress, and the main crack expansion rate has obvious precursor characteristics. With the increase in the size, the decrease in crack density after back–filling concrete failures gradually decreases from 93.19% to 4.08%, the surface crack network develops from complex to simple, and the failure mode transits from tensile failure to shear failure. The above research results provide a basic experimental basis for design optimization and instability prediction of a roadway–side support body for engineering-scale applications. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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15 pages, 9833 KiB  
Article
Effect of De-Icing Chemicals on Concrete Scaling: The Role of Storage Water
by Petr Misák, Dalibor Kocáb, Patrik Bayer, Tomáš Vymazal and Pavla Rovnaníková
Materials 2023, 16(14), 4928; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16144928 - 10 Jul 2023
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 671
Abstract
This paper deals with the effect of the character of the water used for the water storage of concrete test specimens on the results of tests for resistance to de-icing chemicals. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of the content of [...] Read more.
This paper deals with the effect of the character of the water used for the water storage of concrete test specimens on the results of tests for resistance to de-icing chemicals. Two experiments were conducted to investigate the effect of the content of free CO2 in water and leaching of calcium hydroxide from concrete on the test results. In the first experiment, the resistance of mortars to water and de-icing chemicals was investigated. It was found that the character of the water storage, i.e., fresh water vs. previously used water, can significantly affect the test results. The second experiment focused on investigating the effect of the content of free CO2 in water on the test results. It was found that the content of free CO2 in the water can statistically significantly influence the test results. In conclusion, the paper shows that the character of the water used for water storage of concrete test specimens and the content of free CO2 in water are essential factors that can significantly affect the results of concrete resistance tests to de-icing chemicals. Further research is needed to understand these influences and their potential use to improve the resistance of concrete. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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13 pages, 9196 KiB  
Article
Compressive Strength and Chloride Resistance of Slag/Metakaolin-Based Ultra-High-Performance Geopolymer Concrete
by Yufei Zhang, Jiejing Chen and Jin Xia
Materials 2023, 16(1), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16010181 - 25 Dec 2022
Cited by 5 | Viewed by 1546
Abstract
Ultra-high performance geopolymer concrete (UHPGC) has been favored due to its excellent sustainability and outstanding mechanical properties. This study was conducted to explore the mechanical and durability properties of slag/metakaolin-based UHPGC with steel fibers reinforcement. The uniaxial compression test and rapid chloride migration [...] Read more.
Ultra-high performance geopolymer concrete (UHPGC) has been favored due to its excellent sustainability and outstanding mechanical properties. This study was conducted to explore the mechanical and durability properties of slag/metakaolin-based UHPGC with steel fibers reinforcement. The uniaxial compression test and rapid chloride migration test were conducted to measure the compressive strength and chloride penetration resistance of UHPGC. A total of nine groups of mixture proportions were designed and tested to investigate the influences of steel fiber dosage and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution concentration. The results showed that an increased steel fiber dosage and alkali concentration can improve compressive strength, and the maximum compressive strength can reach more than 140 MPa. In addition, the rapid chloride migration test showed that the chloride penetration resistance of the slag/metakaolin-based concrete was moderate, with a non-steady chloride migration coefficient ranging from 6.5 × 10−12 m2/s to 14.1 × 10−12 m2/s. The increase in steel fiber volume content slightly enlarged chloride penetration depth, while the higher concentration of sodium hydroxide solution was beneficial as it improved chloride penetration resistance. The results suggest that although ultra-high compressive strength can be achieved, the durability issues of steel fiber reinforced slag/metakaolin-based geopolymer concrete still need considerable attention. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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22 pages, 7013 KiB  
Article
A Cross-Scale Framework for Modelling Chloride Ions Diffusion in C-S-H: Combined Effects of Slip, Electric Double Layer and Ion Correlation
by Yunchao Qi, Weihong Peng, Wei Zhang, Yawen Jing and Liangyu Hu
Materials 2022, 15(22), 8253; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15228253 - 21 Nov 2022
Viewed by 1403
Abstract
Water and chloride ions within pores of cementitious materials plays a crucial role in the damage processes of cement pastes, particularly in the binding material comprising calcium-silicate-hydrates (C-S-H). The migration mechanism of water and chloride ions restricted in C-S-H nanopores is complicated due [...] Read more.
Water and chloride ions within pores of cementitious materials plays a crucial role in the damage processes of cement pastes, particularly in the binding material comprising calcium-silicate-hydrates (C-S-H). The migration mechanism of water and chloride ions restricted in C-S-H nanopores is complicated due to the presence of interfacial effects. The special mechanical properties of the solid–liquid interface determine the importance of boundary slip and Electric Double Layer (EDL) and ion diversity in pore solutions determines the difference of the EDL and the stability of water film slip. A cross-scale model covering slip effects, time-varying of EDL and ion correlation needs to be developed so that the interfacial effects concentrated at the pore scale can be extended to affect the overall diffusivity of C-S-H. The statistics of pore size distribution and fractal dimension were used to quantitatively compare the similarities between model and C-S-H structure, thus proving the reliability of cross-scale reconstructed C-S-H transmission model. The results show that the slip effect is the dominant factor affecting the diffusion ability of C-S-H, the contribution of the slip effect is up to 60% and the contribution rate of EDL time-varying only up to about 15%. Moreover, the slip effect is sensitive to both ion correlation and C-S-H inhomogeneity and EDL time-varying is almost insensitive to ion correlation changes. This quantification provides a necessary benchmark for understanding the destructiveness of cement-based materials in the salt rich environment and provides new insights into improving the durability of concrete by changing the solid–liquid interface on the micro-nanoscale. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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10 pages, 2593 KiB  
Article
Effect of NaCl Solution and Simulated Concrete Pore Solution Environment on the Efficiency of Steel Bar Energized Corrosion
by Yang Jianyu, Ye Xin, Jiang Cong and Yang Weijun
Materials 2022, 15(19), 7040; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15197040 - 10 Oct 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1298
Abstract
As the main problem of the durability deterioration of concrete structures, the corrosion of steel bars is usually made by the method of electrified corrosion with a short cycle and low cost. However, there is a big difference between the actual corrosion depth [...] Read more.
As the main problem of the durability deterioration of concrete structures, the corrosion of steel bars is usually made by the method of electrified corrosion with a short cycle and low cost. However, there is a big difference between the actual corrosion depth and the theoretical corrosion depth after the reinforcement is electrified. In this paper, through the accelerated corrosion test of steel bars, the change law and influence factors of corrosion efficiency of steel bars in concrete simulated pore solution and NaCl solution are studied. The test results show that the corrosion efficiency of reinforcement in the NaCl solution is higher than that in the concrete simulated pore solution, and the corrosion efficiency in the NaCl solution changes in two stages with the corrosion degree of reinforcement. The corrosion efficiency of concrete in the simulated pore solution decreases with the increase of corrosion degree of reinforcement, which is more significant than that in the NaCl solution. Under the same conditions, the corrosion efficiency is higher in the chloride ion solution with high concentration, and the influence of chloride ion concentration change in the simulated pore solution of concrete on the corrosion efficiency is more significant. The corrosion efficiency of reinforcement under low current density is higher than that under high current density. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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18 pages, 3397 KiB  
Article
The Influence of Freeze–Thaw Cycles and Corrosion on Reinforced Concrete and the Relationship between the Evolutions of the Microstructure and Mechanical Properties
by Shuhua Zhang, Bin Tian, Bofu Chen, Xiaochun Lu, Bobo Xiong and Ning Shuang
Materials 2022, 15(18), 6215; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186215 - 07 Sep 2022
Cited by 10 | Viewed by 1622
Abstract
Freeze–thaw cycles (FTCs) and steel bar corrosion (SBC) are the most common service conditions of hydraulic concrete and have significant impacts on its durability. Using pullout and microscopic tests of different FTC and SBC rates, we selected the mass loss rate, ultrasonic velocity, [...] Read more.
Freeze–thaw cycles (FTCs) and steel bar corrosion (SBC) are the most common service conditions of hydraulic concrete and have significant impacts on its durability. Using pullout and microscopic tests of different FTC and SBC rates, we selected the mass loss rate, ultrasonic velocity, bond strength and bond slip in order to describe the changes in the macro-properties, and also selected the porosity and pore size distribution as micro-parameters in order to explore the influence of FTCs and SBC on the mechanical properties of hydraulic concrete. The results showed that the bond strength decreased as the FTCs increased due to the microstructure damage caused by FTC and SBC, which affects the mechanical properties. A corrosion rate of ≤3% offset the damage caused by 50 FTCs. FTCs and SBC resulted in superimposed damage effects on the concrete. In addition, we established a bond strength damage model based on the joint FTCs and SBC and quantitatively described the degradation law of the macro-mechanical properties. The analysis shows that the influence of FTCs on the bond strength was greater than that of the SBC. These research results can provide a reference and experimental support for the frost-resistant design and durability prediction of hydraulic concrete structures in cold environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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20 pages, 9142 KiB  
Article
Durability of Nano-Reinforced Recycled Aggregate Concrete under Load and Chloride Ingress
by Yongdong Yan, Youdong Si, Yulong Zheng and Xin Wang
Materials 2022, 15(18), 6194; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15186194 - 06 Sep 2022
Viewed by 1119
Abstract
The improved performance of recycled aggregate has an important impact on its use in engineering. In this study, to improve the weak surface properties, recycled aggregates were treated by nano-silica slurry and applied to concrete beam specimens. Under the action of cracks caused [...] Read more.
The improved performance of recycled aggregate has an important impact on its use in engineering. In this study, to improve the weak surface properties, recycled aggregates were treated by nano-silica slurry and applied to concrete beam specimens. Under the action of cracks caused by continuous load and drying-wetting cycles with chloride ingress, the effects of different recycled aggregate additions, nano-silica contents and crack widths on the self-healing performance of cracks and the resistance to chloride ingress of the recycled concrete beams were investigated. It was found that the self-healing rate of cracks increased first and then decreased with increased nano-silica content, reaching a maximum when the content reached 0.4%. Greater amounts of additive in the recycled aggregate increased the concentration of free chloride ions in cracks. However, this concentration was found to be weakened in nano-reinforced aggregate. From a comprehensive perspective, the relative chloride ion concentration can be effectively reduced by controlling the crack width to be smaller than 0.12 mm and using improved recycled aggregates treated with 0.2% nano-silica material. This study provides a reference for the application of recycled aggregate concrete under severe environmental and load conditions. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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15 pages, 3528 KiB  
Article
Research on the Evolution of Shield Segment Cracks Based on Acoustic Emission and CMOD
by Junwei Li, Fei Xu, Tianmu Wang and Songtao Shi
Materials 2022, 15(17), 5829; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15175829 - 24 Aug 2022
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1135
Abstract
In order to explore the cracking law and failure characteristics of segments, a model test of shield segment cracking was conducted. The microscopic and macroscopic crack evolution process of the segment is studied by using acoustic emission detection technology and crack opening displacement [...] Read more.
In order to explore the cracking law and failure characteristics of segments, a model test of shield segment cracking was conducted. The microscopic and macroscopic crack evolution process of the segment is studied by using acoustic emission detection technology and crack opening displacement (CMOD). According to the acoustic emission signal and CMOD, characteristics generated in the process of segment cracking, in the form of numerical value, the evolution characteristics of each stage of segment cracking are directly reflected. Based on acoustic emission energy and CMOD, the segment cracking damage model was established to determine the segment fracture damage degree. The result shows that segment cracking can be divided into three stages, and the acoustic emission detection results and CMOD have different degrees of change in each cracking stage. This proves that both the acoustic emission acquisition results and CMOD can be used as evaluation indicators of damage degree. Acoustic emission can accurately identify the crack evolution process, and the yield strengthening is an important stage of crack damage evolution. The damage data points in this stage account for 76.83% of all the damage data points, the occurrence rate of damage data points is 0.225 s, and the density of data points in the damaged area is 3.219 × 10−4 mm3, which is larger than the other two stages. The segment cracking damage model can effectively reflect the segment cracking degree and provide a reference for the actual segment cracking assessment. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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17 pages, 4780 KiB  
Article
Simulation Approach for Random Diffusion of Chloride in Concrete under Sustained Load with Cellular Automata
by Junjun Ma and Pengzhen Lin
Materials 2022, 15(13), 4384; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15134384 - 21 Jun 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1396
Abstract
Steel bar corrosion caused by chloride is the major reason for concrete structure durability failures in a corrosive environment. An accurate simulation of chloride ion diffusion in concrete is hence critical to durability design, maintenance, and reinforcement of concretes in erosive environments. To [...] Read more.
Steel bar corrosion caused by chloride is the major reason for concrete structure durability failures in a corrosive environment. An accurate simulation of chloride ion diffusion in concrete is hence critical to durability design, maintenance, and reinforcement of concretes in erosive environments. To accurately simulate actual chloride ion diffusion in concretes, an improved three-dimensional neighborhood type is proposed according to the mechanism of chloride ion diffusion in concrete, and a three-dimensional cellular automaton model (3D CA model) for describing the diffusion process of chloride in concrete is established based on this neighborhood type. The accuracy and correctness of simulation results obtained from the 3D CA model were verified by comparison with Fick’s second law analytical solutions. Based on the 3D CA model, an improved modified 3D CA model is developed (3D RTCA model) which takes into account random chloride ion distribution in concrete, the time dependence of the coefficient of chloride ion diffusion, and the structure stress level effect on chloride ion diffusion. Numerical simulation results reveal that the 3D RTCA model has higher calculation accuracy in predicting long-term concentration of chloride in concretes, and the simulation results are closer to experimental findings than analytical results obtained based on Fick’s second law. Compared with Fick’s second law analytical solutions, the 3D RTCA model can reflect more truly the cross-sectional stress level effect on chloride ion diffusion through simple local evolution rules. Besides, the 3D RTCA model can genuinely describe the randomness and uncertainty of the chloride diffusion process. The 3D RTCA model developed in the current study provides a novel perspective and method to investigate chloride ion diffusion in concrete from structural level. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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13 pages, 7332 KiB  
Article
Effect of Interface Transition Zone and Coarse Aggregate on Microscopic Diffusion Behavior of Chloride Ion
by Jing Liu, Xuandong Chen, Hua Rong, Aiping Yu, Yang Ming and Ke Li
Materials 2022, 15(12), 4171; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15124171 - 12 Jun 2022
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1227
Abstract
Concrete is a multiphase composite material composed of coarse aggregate, cement mortar, and interface transition zone (ITZ). It is of great significance to study the effect of ITZ and coarse aggregate on chloride microscopic diffusion behavior for predicting the service life of reinforced [...] Read more.
Concrete is a multiphase composite material composed of coarse aggregate, cement mortar, and interface transition zone (ITZ). It is of great significance to study the effect of ITZ and coarse aggregate on chloride microscopic diffusion behavior for predicting the service life of reinforced concrete (RC) structures. By introducing the random distribution function, a random coarse aggregate model considering the randomness of the thickness of the ITZ was established. Furthermore, a two-dimensional (2D) chloride ion diffusion mesoscopic model was developed by specifying different diffusion properties for different phase materials of concrete. Moreover, the effects of coarse aggregate rate, ITZ thickness, and ITZ diffusion property on chloride ion diffusion behavior were investigated in this paper. The research showed that the aggregate has hindrance and agglomeration action on chloride ion diffusion. Although the volume content of the ITZ was very small, less than 0.2% of the total volume of concrete, the effect of the ITZ on the chloride diffusion in concrete cannot be ignored. More importantly, the mechanism of promoting chloride diffusion in the ITZ was revealed through the chloride diffusion trajectory. The research revealed the transmission mechanism of chloride ions in the meso-structure of concrete and provides theoretical support for the design of RC structures in coastal areas. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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18 pages, 39445 KiB  
Article
External Sulfate Attack on Cementitious Binders: Limitations and Effects of Sample Geometry on the Quantification of Expansion Stress
by Matthias Wagner, Anne Heisig, Alisa Machner, Robin Beddoe and Detlef Heinz
Materials 2022, 15(10), 3677; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15103677 - 20 May 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1430
Abstract
The hollow cylinder method was used to estimate the expansion stress that can occur in concrete due to the crystallisation pressure caused by the formation of ettringite and/or gypsum during external sulphate attack. Hardened cement paste hollow cylinders prepared with Portland cement were [...] Read more.
The hollow cylinder method was used to estimate the expansion stress that can occur in concrete due to the crystallisation pressure caused by the formation of ettringite and/or gypsum during external sulphate attack. Hardened cement paste hollow cylinders prepared with Portland cement were mounted in stress cells and exposed to sodium sulphate solutions with two different concentrations (3.0 g L SO42− and 30.0 g L SO42−). Microstructural analysis and finite element modelling was used to evaluate the experimental observations. The expansion stress calculation was verified for a range of diameter/length ratios (0.43–0.60). Thermodynamically predicted maximum expansion stresses are larger than expansion stresses observed in experiments because the latter are affected by the sample geometry, degree of restraint, pore size distribution and relaxation processes. The results indicate that differences in self-constraint at the concave inner and convex outer surfaces of the hollow cylinder lead to an asymmetric expansion stress when ettringite is formed. This leads to macroscopic longitudinal cracks and ultimately failure. Heavy structural components made of concrete are likely to support larger maximum expansion stresses than observed by the hollow cylinder method due to their self-constraint. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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12 pages, 2324 KiB  
Article
Statistical Modelling of Carbonation Process in Reinforced Concrete Structure
by Yinglong Liu, Pengzhen Lin, Zhigang He and Junjun Ma
Materials 2022, 15(8), 2711; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15082711 - 07 Apr 2022
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1634
Abstract
In order to quantitatively analyze the factors affecting the carbonation of reinforced concrete structures, the carbonation coefficient model is established based on 1834 groups of test data from natural carbonation and indoor accelerated tests in this paper. The main factors considered in the [...] Read more.
In order to quantitatively analyze the factors affecting the carbonation of reinforced concrete structures, the carbonation coefficient model is established based on 1834 groups of test data from natural carbonation and indoor accelerated tests in this paper. The main factors considered in the statistical model are the environmental temperature, the concentration of carbon dioxide, relative humidity, water–cement ratio, fly ash replacement, compressive strength of 28 days, curing time, compaction type, exposure to a salt environment, and environmental exposure classes. Based on the multiple nonlinear regression method, the carbonation coefficient model is fitted in two sections according to the different environmental exposures of the concrete structure. To analyze the applicability of the formula, the statistical formulas of relative humidity less than 70% and relative humidity higher than 70% are verified by the test data, and satisfactory results are obtained. Based on the quantitative analysis of the statistical model, the specific effects of relative humidity, strength, carbon dioxide content, fly ash, and curing time on concrete carbonation are clarified. The results show that the factors affecting carbonation are also different with different humidity values in the exposed environment of the concrete structure. When the relative humidity of the exposed environment is less than 70%, the parameters that have a great impact on concrete carbonation are fly ash replacement, compressive strength of 28 days, relative humidity, and the concentration of carbon dioxide. Among them, fly ash replacement, relative humidity, and the concentration of carbon dioxide can promote the carbonation of concrete. When the relative humidity of the exposed environment is higher than 70%, the parameters that have a great impact on concrete carbonation are the concentration of carbon dioxide, relative humidity, compressive strength of 28 days, curing time, and exposure classes. Only the concentration of carbon dioxide is conducive to the carbonation of concrete, and relative humidity has a very significant effect on concrete carbonation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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15 pages, 7846 KiB  
Article
Effect of Equal Volume Replacement of Fine Aggregate with Fly Ash on Carbonation Resistance of Concrete
by Dongsheng Zhang, Yafan Wang, Mingxiao Ma, Xiangjun Guo, Shuangquan Zhao, Shuxiang Zhang and Qiuning Yang
Materials 2022, 15(4), 1550; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041550 - 18 Feb 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 1603
Abstract
Concrete is prepared by substituting an equal volume of fly ash for fine aggregate, and the effect of substitution rate on its carbonation resistance is studied. Using a rapid carbonation test, the distribution law of the internal pH value of concrete with fly [...] Read more.
Concrete is prepared by substituting an equal volume of fly ash for fine aggregate, and the effect of substitution rate on its carbonation resistance is studied. Using a rapid carbonation test, the distribution law of the internal pH value of concrete with fly ash as fine aggregate (CFA) along the carbonation depth under different substitution rates (10%, 20%, 30%, and 40%) after carbonation is studied and compared with the test results of phenolphthalein solution. Then, to further clarify the damage mechanism of fly ash replacing fine aggregate on concrete carbonation, the changes in the pore structure and micromorphology of CFA after carbonation are studied by means of mercury intrusion pressure and electron microscope scanning tests. The results indicate that the carbonation depth of CFA increases gradually with increasing carbonation time. In particular, in the later stage of carbonation, the carbonation rate of concrete decreases significantly with an increase in the substitution rate. The carbonation depth XC of CFA measured by phenolphthalein solution is approximately 0.24–0.39 times of the complete noncarbonation depth measured by the pH method. The pH value test is a reliable test method that can reveal the carbonation mechanism of CFA. Carbonation can significantly reduce the proportion of more harmful holes in concrete with a large amount of fly ash, but it can also increase the proportion of less harmful and harmful holes. In general, the pore size distribution and micromorphology of concrete can be improved by replacing fine aggregates with fly ash. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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20 pages, 7366 KiB  
Article
Prediction of Temperature Distribution in Concrete under Variable Environmental Factors through a Three-Dimensional Heat Transfer Model
by Haoyu Zeng, Chao Lu, Li Zhang, Tianran Yang, Ming Jin, Yuefeng Ma and Jiaping Liu
Materials 2022, 15(4), 1510; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15041510 - 17 Feb 2022
Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2826
Abstract
Temperature distribution in concrete is significant to the concrete structure’s macro properties and different factors affect the heat transfer in concrete, and therefore influence the temperature distribution. This work established a three-dimensional transient heat transfer model coupled with various environmental factors, using the [...] Read more.
Temperature distribution in concrete is significant to the concrete structure’s macro properties and different factors affect the heat transfer in concrete, and therefore influence the temperature distribution. This work established a three-dimensional transient heat transfer model coupled with various environmental factors, using the finite element method for calculating the results and real-measured data for testing accuracy. In addition, a sensitivity evaluation of various factors was conducted. Due to various environmental factors, the results revealed that the prediction of temperature distribution in concrete by the three-dimensional model had great accuracy with an error of less than 4%. A particular hysteresis effect of temperature response in the concrete existed. Considering heat transfer in different spatial directions, the model can predict the temperature change of each spatial point instead of the spatial surface in different depths, proving the shortcomings of a one-dimensional heat transfer model. A greater solar radiation intensity caused a more significant temperature difference on the concrete surface: the surface temperature difference in July was twice as significant as that in December. Wind speed had a cooling effect on the concrete surface, and stronger wind speed accompanied with a stronger cooling effect made the surface temperature closer to the ambient temperature. Material properties had different effects on the temperature distribution of the surface part and internal part: the specific heat capacity determined the speed of the outer layer temperature change while the thermal conductivity determined the speed of the inner layer temperature change. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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15 pages, 4398 KiB  
Article
A Methodology to Evaluate Long Term Durability of Dam Concrete Due to Calcium Leaching through Microscopic Tests and Numerical Analysis
by Ding Nie, Haoyu Wang, Pengfei Li, Xun Han, Jingbin Zhang and Chengzhi Wang
Materials 2021, 14(24), 7819; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247819 - 17 Dec 2021
Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2101
Abstract
Hydropower dams are subjected to soft water penetration during their service lives. Concrete deterioration due to calcium leaching will decrease the durability of concrete and affect dam safety. The long-term performance of concrete dams due to calcium leaching should be evaluated and predicted [...] Read more.
Hydropower dams are subjected to soft water penetration during their service lives. Concrete deterioration due to calcium leaching will decrease the durability of concrete and affect dam safety. The long-term performance of concrete dams due to calcium leaching should be evaluated and predicted accurately to complete reinforcement work in a timely manner. In this paper, a methodology that combined microscopic tests and numerical analysis to evaluate the long-term performance of dam concrete due to calcium leaching is proposed. The current state of concrete is evaluated by analyzing the components of sediments and seepage water through microscopic and spectroscopic tests, such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The long-term degradation of concrete was predicted by utilizing a multi-scale model of calcium leaching, which considered the micro-pore structure of cement hydrates flux with time. The simulated results using this calcium leaching model showed a good agreement with other experiments. Finally, a real case study including field inspection was performed and the long-term durability of dam concrete was predicted through microscopic tests and finite element analysis method. It implies that the proposed method could provide calculation and theoretical basis for the durability analysis of concrete dams due to calcium leaching. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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15 pages, 7788 KiB  
Article
Experimental and Numerical Studies on the Behaviors of Autoclaved Aerated Concrete Panels with Insulation Boards Subjected to Wind Loading
by Junkai Lu, Jie Chen, Kun Zhu, Hang Xu, Wenjia Zhang and Qing Deng
Materials 2021, 14(24), 7651; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14247651 - 12 Dec 2021
Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1969
Abstract
Autoclaved aerated concrete panels (AACP) are lightweight elements in civil engineering design. In this paper, experiments and numerical analyses were conducted to study the flexural behavior of an enclosure system that consisted of AACPs and a decorative plate. A full-scale test was conducted [...] Read more.
Autoclaved aerated concrete panels (AACP) are lightweight elements in civil engineering design. In this paper, experiments and numerical analyses were conducted to study the flexural behavior of an enclosure system that consisted of AACPs and a decorative plate. A full-scale test was conducted to investigate the behavior of the enclosure system under wind suction. Load–deflection curves and load–strain relationships under different wind pressures were recorded and discussed. The effects of thickness, reinforcement ratio, and strength grade on the flexural behavior of AACPs were numerically investigated. Based on the numerical results, we found that the flexural behavior of AACPs can be improved by increasing the thickness or the reinforcement ratio. A comparison of finite element and theoretical results calculated using American and Chinese design formulae was conducted, and the results indicated the existing design formulae can conservatively estimate the major mechanical indices of AACPs. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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15 pages, 4164 KiB  
Article
Combined Freeze-Thaw and Chloride Attack Resistance of Concrete Made with Recycled Brick-Concrete Aggregate
by Yao Yu, Jian Wang, Ninghui Wang, Chenjie Wu, Xiaojing Zhang, Dezhi Wang and Zhipeng Ma
Materials 2021, 14(23), 7267; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14237267 - 28 Nov 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 1722
Abstract
The objective of this study was to investigate the physico-chemical properties of concrete made with recycled brick-concrete aggregate, which was the mixture from waste concrete and waste clay brick in a 7:3 ratio. Specifically, this paper investigated the mechanical properties, freeze-thaw resistance, and [...] Read more.
The objective of this study was to investigate the physico-chemical properties of concrete made with recycled brick-concrete aggregate, which was the mixture from waste concrete and waste clay brick in a 7:3 ratio. Specifically, this paper investigated the mechanical properties, freeze-thaw resistance, and distribution of water-soluble chloride ions of concrete containing RBCA and fly ash (FA) against combined freeze-thaw and sodium chloride attack. Concrete containing RBCA replacement of natural coarse aggregate and fly ash replacement of Portland cement was subjected to 45 freeze-thaw cycles containing sodium chloride solution. It was discovered that the mechanical properties and freeze-thaw resistance to sodium chloride attack gradually decreased with increasing RBCA content. At the same time, a replacement level of 15% FA by weight resulted in significant improvements in compressive strength and resistance to combined freeze-thaw and chloride attack. Furthermore, using a replacement of 30% FA by weight markedly improved the resistance to chloride ion penetration of concrete due to the lowest water-soluble chloride content. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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12 pages, 1929 KiB  
Article
Analytical Solution for Chloride Diffusivity of Concrete with Aggregate Shape Effect
by Jian Zhang, Zhuo-Xuan Ying, Zhi-Wei Chen, Hai-Long Wang, Jian-Hua Li, Hui Yue and Jian-Jun Zheng
Materials 2021, 14(14), 3957; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143957 - 15 Jul 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1562
Abstract
In view of the key role of chloride diffusivity in evaluating concrete durability, it is very important to determine this parameter accurately by an effective approach. This paper establishes an analytical solution for chloride diffusivity of concrete that can consider the aggregate shape. [...] Read more.
In view of the key role of chloride diffusivity in evaluating concrete durability, it is very important to determine this parameter accurately by an effective approach. This paper establishes an analytical solution for chloride diffusivity of concrete that can consider the aggregate shape. In this approach, the aggregate shape is simulated as an ellipse and the equivalent model is applied to calculate the chloride diffusivity of equivalent aggregate composed of interface transition zone (ITZ) and aggregate. With resort to this model, at the meso scale, the concrete can be reduced from the original three-phase composition to the two-phase one (i.e., equivalent aggregates and cement paste). Based on the mesostructure of concrete that consisted of randomly dispersed equivalent elliptical aggregates and cement paste, the generalized Maxwell’s approach is formed to determine the chloride diffusivity of concrete. The corresponding chloride diffusion test is conducted and the thickness of ITZ is reasonably determined as 0.04 mm by SEM test. By comparing with the experimental data, the accuracy of the analytical solution is confirmed. Finally, the impact of aggregate shape on chloride diffusivity is discussed. The analytical results show that the chloride diffusivity has a reduction with the increase of aggregate content or decrease of aspect ratio. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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21 pages, 5211 KiB  
Article
Prediction Model for Compressive Strength of Porous Concrete with Low-Grade Recycled Aggregate
by Junshi Liu, Fumin Ren and Hongzhu Quan
Materials 2021, 14(14), 3871; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma14143871 - 11 Jul 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2818
Abstract
As the first batch of products after the resource utilization of construction and demolition waste, low-grade recycled aggregate (RA) has not been fully utilized, which hinders the development of the comprehensive recycling industry of construction waste. Therefore, this paper studies the mechanical properties [...] Read more.
As the first batch of products after the resource utilization of construction and demolition waste, low-grade recycled aggregate (RA) has not been fully utilized, which hinders the development of the comprehensive recycling industry of construction waste. Therefore, this paper studies the mechanical properties of porous concrete (POC) with low-grade RA. An improved relationship between porosity and compressive strength of brittle, porous materials is used to express the compressive strength of POC with recycled aggregate (RPOC), and the prediction for compressive strength of porous concrete with low-grade RA is constructed by analyzing the mechanism of compressive damage. The results show: the compressive strength of porous concrete decreases with the addition of low-grade recycled aggregate, but the effect is not obvious when the replacement rate is less than 25%. The error range of the relationship between porosity and compressive strength of RPOC is basically within 15% after improvement. The prediction model for compressive strength based on the ideal sphere model of aggregate can accurately reflect the compressive strength of porous concrete with low-grade RA. The results of this study can provide a reference for the staff to learn about the functional characteristics of recycled products in advance and provide security for the actual project. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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Review

Jump to: Research

18 pages, 1426 KiB  
Review
Unraveling the Interplay of Physical-Chemical Factors Impacting the Carbonation Performance of Recycled Aggregate Concrete
by Carlos Pico-Cortés and Yury Villagrán-Zaccardi
Materials 2023, 16(16), 5692; https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16165692 - 19 Aug 2023
Viewed by 1099
Abstract
Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) includes recycled concrete aggregates (coarse and/or fine) as substitutes for natural aggregates as an approach to achieving a circular economy. Some concerns remain about its performance, including the carbonation resistance. The higher porosity of recycled concrete aggregates is logically [...] Read more.
Recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) includes recycled concrete aggregates (coarse and/or fine) as substitutes for natural aggregates as an approach to achieving a circular economy. Some concerns remain about its performance, including the carbonation resistance. The higher porosity of recycled concrete aggregates is logically a disadvantage, but the analysis must address many other factors. This paper provides an in-depth examination of recent advances in the carbonation performance of RAC. The emphasis is on factors that influence CO2 diffusion and the carbonation rate, e.g., the replacement ratio, source concrete quality, interfacial transition zone features, residual portlandite content, and porosity. The influences of previous treatments, combined action with supplementary cementitious materials, and loading conditions are also discussed. The replacement ratio has a significant impact on the carbonation performance of concrete, but it is also dependent on other factors. During carbonation, the physical effects of the porosity of the aggregate and the physical–chemical effects of the portlandite content in the adhered mortar are particularly important. The residual portlandite is especially significant because it is the primary hydration product responsible for the alkaline reserve for carbonation and the potential pozzolanic reaction, which are per se competing factors that determine the carbonation rate. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Concrete Durability: Deterioration Mechanisms, Prediction and Rehabilitation)
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