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Horticulturae
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Optimized Light Management in Controlled-Environment Horticulture
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Optimized Light Management in Controlled-Environment Horticulture

A special issue of Horticulturae (ISSN 2311-7524). This special issue belongs to the section "Protected Culture".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (28 February 2026) | Viewed by 4980

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Xiaolong Yang

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
Interests: controlled-environment horticulture; environmental adaptability of leaf photosynthesis; fruit quality enhancement under adverse conditions; vegetable cultivation in greenhouses
Prof. Dr. Houcheng Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
Interests: physiological ecology of protected horticultural; plant photobiology; plant factory production technology; efficient production technology for horticultural vegetables
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Xingan Liu

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
College of Horticulture, Shenyang Agricultural University, Shenyang 110866, China
Interests: structural design of horticultural facilities; environmental regulation of horticultural facilities; simulation and optimization of light and thermal environments in greenhouses
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In recent years, controlled-environment horticulture (CEH) industry has experienced rapid expansion and, by integrating diverse horticultural facilities—including solar greenhouses, plant factories, and vertical farms—CEH has successfully transcended the inherent limitations of natural environments for horticultural crops. This innovation addresses a global challenge by enabling the year-round production of vegetables, flowers, fruits, and edible fungi, even under adverse seasons or extreme conditions, thereby significantly diversifying human product demands. Notably, CEH has demonstrated remarkable achievements in accelerating breeding innovation, which holds substantial implications for the future development of horticulture. However, the high-efficiency and intensive production paradigm of CEH inevitably entails substantial energy consumption to maintain optimal environmental conditions within confined spaces. Among all environmental variables, light management emerges as the primary factor requiring prioritized attention. Light serves a dual role in plant growth—it functions as an energy source for photosynthetic product synthesis and as a signaling agent regulating photomorphogenesis, developmental processes, and stress responses. Optimizing light management constitutes a critical strategy for achieving high-efficiency and low-carbon goals in CEH production systems. Regardless of whether solar or artificial lighting is utilized, effecting optimal light environments necessitates systematic understanding of (1) photobiological requirements during crop growth stages, (2) the characteristics of light environments in CEH, and (3) intelligent and energy-saving regulation through advanced control systems. This Special Issue will focus on recent advances in optimized light management in CEH and original research articles, reviews, mini reviews, and short communications are welcome.

Dr. Xiaolong Yang
Prof. Dr. Houcheng Liu
Prof. Dr. Xingan Liu
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 250 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for assessment.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Horticulturae is an international peer-reviewed open access monthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2200 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • light microclimate
  • photobiology
  • intelligent light regulation equipment
  • precision light-controlled horticulture

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Published Papers (5 papers)

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Research

18 pages, 8386 KB  
Article
Effects of Stage-Specific Red-to-White Light Ratios on the Growth and Nutritional Properties of Pak Choi
by Xiangyu Wang, Shijun Zhu, Jun Ju, Minggui Zhang, Youzhi Hu, Xiaolong Yang, Jiali Song and Houcheng Liu
Horticulturae 2026, 12(5), 618; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae12050618 - 15 May 2026
Viewed by 278
Abstract
In plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs), spectral regulation serves as the predominant factor governing plant growth and development. The implementation of red-enriched spectral regimens during cultivation promotes biomass accumulation, whereas blue-dominant spectra enhance the biosynthesis of phytochemicals and nutritional compounds in plants. [...] Read more.
In plant factories with artificial lighting (PFALs), spectral regulation serves as the predominant factor governing plant growth and development. The implementation of red-enriched spectral regimens during cultivation promotes biomass accumulation, whereas blue-dominant spectra enhance the biosynthesis of phytochemicals and nutritional compounds in plants. Nevertheless, systematic investigations into the effects of staged spectral regimens on both plant development and secondary metabolite biosynthesis remain limited. This study evaluated four distinct stage-specific dynamic lighting regimens (T1–T4) under a constant total photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of 200 μmol·m−2·s−1. The treatments utilized three distinct red-to-white photon flux ratios (R:W = 3:1, 1:1, and 1:3) administered sequentially during critical developmental phases of Pak choi: the seedling stage, the early growth stage (15 days after transplanting, DAT), and the late growth stage (16–30 DAT). The effects of these treatments on biomass production, morphological development, photosynthetic pigments, nutritional metabolites, antioxidant levels and radical quenching capacity were evaluated. The results demonstrated that the T4 treatment significantly enhanced biomass production, increasing shoot fresh weight by 51.3% compared to the T1 treatment at the late growth stage. The application of a higher red-light proportion (HR, R:W = 3:1) during the seedling stage significantly increased leaf area by 70% compared to the low red-light treatment (LR, R:W = 1:3). Regarding nutritional quality, while carotenoid content showed no significant differences among treatments, higher blue-light proportions selectively stimulated the biosynthesis of chlorophyll, vitamin C, and soluble proteins. Specifically, the T3 treatment enhanced certain traits during the early growth stage, whereas the T2 treatment best maintained specific antioxidant capacities (FRAP and flavonoids) at the late growth stage prior to harvest. Notably, nitrate levels were not significantly affected by the spectral shifts. This study establishes that the temporal modulation of red-to-white spectral ratios enables the targeted optimization of either crop yield (T4) or specific harvest-stage nutritional attributes (T2) in Pak choi. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimized Light Management in Controlled-Environment Horticulture)
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24 pages, 4894 KB  
Article
Influence of Light Quality on the Growth of Machine-Compatible Tomato Seedlings Before and After Grafting
by Yexin Wu, Yinghui Mu, Chongyang Yan, Song Gu, Yichi Wang, Zhiyu Ma and Xingping Chen
Horticulturae 2026, 12(3), 340; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae12030340 - 11 Mar 2026
Viewed by 595
Abstract
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an economically important horticultural crop. The application of mechanical grafting technology enables the efficient, large-scale production of grafted tomato seedlings, which is of great significance for overcoming continuous cropping obstacles and boosting tomato yield. In this study, [...] Read more.
Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) is an economically important horticultural crop. The application of mechanical grafting technology enables the efficient, large-scale production of grafted tomato seedlings, which is of great significance for overcoming continuous cropping obstacles and boosting tomato yield. In this study, tomato cultivar ‘Juxiang 1809’ as the scion and ‘T17-2’ as the rootstock were used to systematically investigate the effects of red-blue light quality pretreatments on tomato grafted seedlings. The rootstock and scion seedlings were cultivated under white (W), pure red (R), pure blue (B), and five mixed red-blue lights (R7B1, R3B1, R1B1, R1B3, R1B7). Our results demonstrated that R3B1 (Red: Blue = 3:1) yielded the highest scion comprehensive score (2.06), promoting balanced growth with robust stem diameter (2.75 mm) and high aboveground dry weight (0.36 g). For rootstocks, R3B1 also excelled, driving optimal root development with maximum root area (26.32 cm2) and dry weight (0.046 g). Post-grafting, R3B1-pre-treated seedlings maintained vigorous growth with enhanced photosynthetic capacity (37.10) and biomass accumulation. These findings demonstrate that R3B1 light quality is highly effective. It optimizes both scion vigor and rootstock root architecture. This offers a practical light-regulation strategy. It is applicable to the production of high-quality, machine-compatible tomato grafted seedlings in controlled environments. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimized Light Management in Controlled-Environment Horticulture)
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22 pages, 6176 KB  
Article
A Study on the Directional Cultivation of Mechanization-Adapted Watermelon Scion Seedlings in a Plant Factory
by Chongyang Yan, Yinghui Mu, Yexin Wu, Song Gu, Yichi Wang, Zhiyu Ma and Xingping Chen
Horticulturae 2026, 12(3), 327; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae12030327 - 9 Mar 2026
Viewed by 351
Abstract
Achieving high morphological uniformity and mechanical strength is critical for the automation of watermelon grafting; yet, specific light protocols targeting these traits are lacking. This study employed LED lighting to regulate the morphological development of watermelon scion seedlings in a controlled plant factory [...] Read more.
Achieving high morphological uniformity and mechanical strength is critical for the automation of watermelon grafting; yet, specific light protocols targeting these traits are lacking. This study employed LED lighting to regulate the morphological development of watermelon scion seedlings in a controlled plant factory environment. Using the watermelon cultivar ‘Heimeiling’ as the experimental material, three sequential experiments were conducted: (1) Under conditions of 95 μmol·m−2·s−1 light intensity and a 12 h photoperiod, seven red/blue light ratios and a white light control were tested to identify the appropriate light quality. (2) Under the R3B1 light quality, gradients of the daily light integral (DLI) ranging from 2.88 to 17.28 mol·m−2·d−1 were established by adjusting the light intensity and photoperiod to determine the optimal DLI. (3) Based on the above results, an orthogonal experiment was designed, with factors including the light quality (R7B1, R3B1, R1B1; where R7B1 represents 87.5% red light and 12.5% blue light), light intensity (120, 160, 200 μmol·m−2·s−1), and photoperiod (16 h, 20 h, 24 h) to identify the optimal light environment combination for mechanical grafting. Results indicated that while monochromatic red light induced excessive elongation and suppressed metabolism, the R3B1 spectrum significantly enhanced the stem diameter, mechanical strength, and carbon–nitrogen accumulation while maintaining hormonal balance. Regarding the daily light integral (DLI), seedlings exhibited an optimal performance at 11.52 mol·m−2·d−1. Lower DLI levels led to etiolation, whereas higher levels caused photoinhibition and PSII damage. Furthermore, orthogonal analysis revealed that light intensity was the dominant factor driving stem thickening and biomass accumulation, while light quality primarily regulated plant height. Consequently, a combination of R3B1 light quality, 200 μmol·m−2·s−1 intensity, and a 20 h photoperiod was identified as the optimal strategy to satisfy the stringent morphological requirements for mechanical grafting. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimized Light Management in Controlled-Environment Horticulture)
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22 pages, 20046 KB  
Article
Towards Understanding the Promotion of Plant Growth Under an Experimental Red-Fluorescent Plastic Film
by Eric J. Stallknecht and Erik S. Runkle
Horticulturae 2025, 11(8), 980; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11080980 - 19 Aug 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1802
Abstract
Semitransparent plastic films containing red-fluorescent pigments can increase the growth of some greenhouse crops despite a lower transmitted photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), but the underlying mechanism by which this occurs is not fully understood. We postulated it can be attributed to a [...] Read more.
Semitransparent plastic films containing red-fluorescent pigments can increase the growth of some greenhouse crops despite a lower transmitted photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD), but the underlying mechanism by which this occurs is not fully understood. We postulated it can be attributed to a lower blue-light environment that increases leaf expansion and thus photon capture. We examined the growth response and photosynthetic capacity of vegetable and ornamental greenhouse crops under a red-fluorescent plastic, plastics with varying transmission percentages of blue light (from 6% to 20%), and an uncovered greenhouse control with a 40% greater PPFD. When the transmitted PPFD was similar, decreasing the percentage of blue light increased the extension growth for some but not all species tested. Transmitted PPFD had a more pronounced effect on extension growth than the percentage of blue light. Lettuce shoot dry mass was greater under the red-fluorescent film than the other covered treatments and similar to the uncovered control with 40% more light. Regardless of the transmission spectrum, decreasing the transmitted PPFD reduced tomato fruit fresh mass and generally decreased the number of flowers ornamental on the species. Maximum photosynthetic rate (Amax), stomatal conductance (gsw), and quantum yield of photosystem II (PhiPSII) consistently decreased as the percentage of blue light transmission decreased, but this did not correlate to biomass accumulation. An experimental red-fluorescent film had cultivar and species-specific effects on growth, highlighting both its potential for leafy greens and potential challenges for greenhouse crops with a greater quantum requirement. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimized Light Management in Controlled-Environment Horticulture)
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19 pages, 4603 KB  
Article
Genome-Wide Identification and Analysis of the CCT Gene Family Contributing to Photoperiodic Flowering in Chinese Cabbage (Brassica rapa L. ssp. pekinensis)
by Wei Fu, Xinyu Jia, Shanyu Li, Yang Zhou, Xinjie Zhang, Lisi Jiang and Lin Hao
Horticulturae 2025, 11(7), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11070848 - 17 Jul 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1246
Abstract
Photoperiod sensitivity significantly affects the reproductive process of plants. The CONSTANS, CONSTANS-LIKE, and TOC1 (CCT) genes play pivotal roles in photoperiod sensitivity and regulating flowering time. However, the function of the CCT gene in regulating flowering varies among different species. [...] Read more.
Photoperiod sensitivity significantly affects the reproductive process of plants. The CONSTANS, CONSTANS-LIKE, and TOC1 (CCT) genes play pivotal roles in photoperiod sensitivity and regulating flowering time. However, the function of the CCT gene in regulating flowering varies among different species. Further research is needed to determine whether it promotes or delays flowering under long-day (LD) or short-day (SD) conditions. CCT MOTIF FAMILY (CMF) belongs to one of the three subfamilies of the CCT gene and has been proven to be involved in the regulation of circadian rhythms and flowering time in cereal crops. In this study, 60 CCT genes in Chinese cabbage were genome-wide identified, and chromosomal localization, gene duplication events, gene structure, conserved domains, co-expression networks, and phylogenetic tree were analyzed by bioinformatics methods. The specific expression patterns of the BrCMF gene in different tissues, as well as the transcriptome and RT-qPCR results under different photoperiodic conditions, were further analyzed. The results showed that BrCMF11 was significantly upregulated in ebm5 under LD conditions, suggesting that BrCMF11 promoted flowering under LD conditions in Chinese cabbage. These findings revealed the function of the BrCCT gene family in photoperiod flowering regulation and provided a prominent theoretical foundation for molecular breeding in Chinese cabbage. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Optimized Light Management in Controlled-Environment Horticulture)
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