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Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives

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A special issue of Foods (ISSN 2304-8158). This special issue belongs to the section "Food Engineering and Technology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 April 2020) | Viewed by 69684

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Special Issue Editors

Dr. Beatriz Gandul-Rojas

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Guest Editor

Group of Chlorophylls and Carotenoids in Foods,Food Phytochemistry Department, Instituto de la Grasa, CSIC, Edif. 46, Ctra. de Utrera km. 1, 41013 Seville, Spain
Interests: chlorophylls; chlorophyll derivatives; carotenoids; changes in food processing; chemistry and biochemistry of pigments; colorants; metal-chlorophyll complexes; metabolic process; table olives; olive oil

Dr. Lourdes Gallardo-Guerrero

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Guest Editor

Group of Chlorophylls and Carotenoids in Foods,Food Phytochemistry Department, Instituto de la Grasa, CSIC, Edif. 46, Ctra. de Utrera km. 1, 41013 Seville, Spain
Interests: chloroplastic pigments; chlorophylls and derivatives; carotenoids; degradation mechanisms; color alteration; color adulteration; pigment-protein complexes; colorants; digestive stability and bioavailability of chlorophylls; table olives; virgin olive oil

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

The olive tree (Olea europea L.) is a widely distributed plant originating in the Mediterranean region. It is the most cultivated fruit tree in the world, surpassing 11 M ha. Although the olive fruits are mostly destined to obtain the highly valued olive oil, 11% of them are processed for direct consumption as table olives. This food of high nutritional value, was sustenance and a source of calcium for the Mediterranean inhabitants in times of scarcity. Table olives are currently consumed as an appetizer and/or highly healthy culinary ingredients for their low sugars content, high monounsaturated fatty acids content, and additional contribution of fiber, minerals, vitamins and bioactive components.

The olive fruit is a bitter drupe that has to be processed to transform it into an appetizing and edible food. There is a wide range of production styles, depending on the variety, ripening degree and type of fruit (whole or split), aimed at hydrolyzing the bitter oleuropein glucoside. The most widespread are those that use an alkaline hydrolysis or a slow acid and enzymatic hydrolysis. In addition, a fermentative process by lactic acid bacteria or yeasts is usually developed to increase palatability.

Producers demand innovative techniques improving the performance and industrial sustainability, as well as the development of new products that respond efficiently to increasingly demanding consumers. Foods with optimal nutritional characteristics, high quality and safety, improved organoleptic characteristics, and with reduction of additives, are highly demanded. Therefore, we would like to invite authors to contribute original research papers or review articles focused on novel aspects related to table olives: characterization of their chemical composition, functional properties and bioavailability of phytochemicals, as well as advances in the processing technology and waste treatment, including emerging techniques and optimized use of starter cultures for the improvement of the different fermentative processes. New strategies are also expected to reduce sodium and additives, to stabilize the organoleptic properties and avoid defects. And conservation methods aimed at extending the shelf life of highly valued artisanal products are also an aim. Likewise, analytical methods and prediction models for the traceability of the products and the detection of fraudulent practices related to the use of unauthorized additives are of interest.

Dr. Beatriz Gandul-Rojas
Dr. Lourdes Gallardo-Guerrero
Guest Editors

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Keywords

food authenticity
food quality
fortified olives
functional properties
fermentation
nutritional characteristics
organoleptic characteristics
prediction models
preservation
waste treatment

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Published Papers (13 papers)

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Editorial

Jump to: Research, Review

7 pages, 208 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Characterization and Processing of Table Olives: A Special Issue

by Beatriz Gandul-Rojas and Lourdes Gallardo-Guerrero

Foods 2020, 9(10), 1469; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9101469 - 15 Oct 2020

Cited by 5 | Viewed by 2610

Abstract

Table olives are recognized as an essential component of the Mediterranean diet, having been explicitly included in the second level of its nutritional pyramid as an aperitif or culinary ingredient, with a recommended daily consumption of one to two portions (15–30 g). Producers demand innovative techniques improving the performance and industrial sustainability, as well as the development of new products that respond efficiently to increasingly demanding consumers. The purpose of this special issue was to publish high-quality papers with the aim to cover the state-of-the-art, recent progress and perspectives related to characterization and processing of table olives. Two reviews offer an overview about the processing and storage effects on the nutritional and sensory properties of table olives, as well as the main technologies used for olive fermentation, and the role of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts characterizing this niche during the fermentation. A total of 10 research papers cover a broad range of aspects such as characterization of their chemical composition, bioavailability, advances in the processing technology, chemical and microbiological changes, optimized use of starter cultures for the improvement of the different fermentative processes, and new strategies to reduce sodium and additives to stabilize the organoleptic properties and avoid defects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

Research

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14 pages, 1530 KiB

Open AccessArticle

A Preliminary Report for the Design of MoS (Micro-Olive-Spreadsheet), a User-Friendly Spreadsheet for the Evaluation of the Microbiological Quality of Spanish-Style Bella di Cerignola Olives from Apulia (Southern Italy)

by Antonio Bevilacqua, Barbara Speranza, Daniela Campaniello, Milena Sinigaglia and Maria Rosaria Corbo

Foods 2020, 9(7), 848; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9070848 - 29 Jun 2020

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2462

Abstract

A user friendly spreadsheet (Excel interface), designated MoS (Micro-Olive-Spreadsheet), is proposed in this paper as a tool to point out spoiling phenomena in Bella di Cerignola olive brines. The spreadsheet was designed as a protected Excel worksheet, where users input values for the microbiological criteria and pH of brines, and the output is a visual code, much like a traffic light: three red cells indicate a spoiling event, while two red cells indicate the possibility of a spoiling event. The input values are: (a) Total Aerobic Count (TAC); (b) Lactic Acid Bacteria (LAB); (c) yeasts; (d) staphylococci; (e) pH. TAC, LAB, yeasts, and pH are the input values for the first section (quality), while staphylococci count is the input for the second section (technological history). The worksheet can be modified by adding other indices or by setting different breakpoints; however, it is a simple tool for an effective application of hazard analysis and predictive microbiology in table olive production. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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17 pages, 2086 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Alkaline Treatment on Structural Modifications of Chlorophyll Pigments in NaOH—Treated Table Olives Preserved without Fermentation

by Marta Berlanga-Del Pozo, Lourdes Gallardo-Guerrero and Beatriz Gandul-Rojas

Foods 2020, 9(6), 701; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9060701 - 1 Jun 2020

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 4768

Abstract

Alkaline treatment is a key stage in the production of green table olives and its main aim is rapid debittering of the fruit. Its action is complex, with structural changes in both the skin and the pulp, and loss of bioactive components in addition to the bitter glycoside oleuropein. One of the components seriously affected are chlorophylls, which are located mainly in the skin of the fresh fruit. Chlorophyll pigments are responsible for the highly-valued green color typical of table olive specialties not preserved by fermentation. Subsequently, the effect on chlorophylls of nine processes, differentiated by NaOH concentration and/or treatment time, after one year of fruit preservation under refrigeration conditions, was investigated. A direct relationship was found between the intensity of the alkali treatment and the degree of chlorophyll degradation, with losses of more than 60% being recorded when NaOH concentration of 4% or greater were used. Oxidation with opening of the isocyclic ring was the main structural change, followed by pheophytinization and degradation to colorless products. To a lesser extent, decarbomethoxylation and dephytylation reactions were detected. An increase in NaOH from 2% to 5% reduced the treatment time from 7 to 4 h, but fostered greater formation of allomerized derivatives, and caused a significant decrease in the chlorophyll content of the olives. However, NaOH concentrations between 6% and 10% did not lead to further time reductions, which remained at 3 h, nor to a significant increase in oxidized compounds, though the proportion of isochlorin e₄-type derivatives was modified. Chlorophyll compounds of series b were more prone to oxidation and degradation reactions to colorless products than those of series a. However, the latter showed a higher degree of pheophytinization, and, exclusively, decarbomethoxylation and dephytylation reactions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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14 pages, 2909 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Table Olives Fermented in Iodized Sea Salt Brines: Nutraceutical/Sensory Properties and Microbial Biodiversity

by Barbara Lanza, Sara Di Marco, Nicola Simone, Carlo Di Marco and Francesco Gabriele

Foods 2020, 9(3), 301; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030301 - 6 Mar 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 3760

Abstract

This research aimed to study the influence of different brining processes with iodized and noniodized salt on mineral content, microbial biodiversity, sensory evaluation and color change of natural fermented table olives. Fresh olives of Olea europaea Carolea and Leucocarpa cvs. were immersed in different brines prepared with two different types of salt: the PGI “Sale marino di Trapani”, a typical sea salt, well known for its taste and specific microelement content, and the same salt enriched with 0.006% of KIO₃. PGI sea salt significantly enriches the olive flesh in macroelements as Na, K and Mg, and microelements such as Fe, Mn, Cu and Zn. Instead, Ca decreases, P remains constant, while iodine is present in trace amounts. In the olives fermented in iodized-PGI sea salt brine, the iodine content reached values of 109 μg/100 g (Carolea cv.) and 38 μg/100 g (Leucocarpa cv.). The relationships between the two varieties and the mineral composition were explained by principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA). Furthermore, analyzing the fermenting brines, iodine significantly reduces the microbial load, represented only by yeasts, both in Carolea cv. and in Leucocarpa cv. Candida is the most representative genus. The sensory and color properties weren’t significantly influenced by iodized brining. Only Carolea cv. showed significative difference for b* parameter and, consequently, for C value. Knowledge of the effects of iodized and noniodized brining on table olives will be useful for developing new functional foods, positively influencing the composition of food products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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17 pages, 1977 KiB

Open AccessArticle

In Vitro Bioaccessibility of Ripe Table Olive Mineral Nutrients

by Antonio López-López, José María Moreno-Baquero and Antonio Garrido-Fernández

Foods 2020, 9(3), 275; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9030275 - 3 Mar 2020

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 2515

Abstract

For the first time, the bioaccessibility of the mineral nutrients in ripe table olives and their contributions to the recommended daily intake (RDI), according to digestion methods (Miller’s vs. Crews’ protocols), digestion type (standard vs. modified, standard plus a post-digest re-extraction), and mineralisation system (wet vs. ashing) were studied. Overall, when the standard application was used, Miller’s protocol resulted in higher bioaccessibilities of Na, K, Ca, Mg, and Fe than the Crews’ method. The modified protocols improved most of these values, but the Crews’ results only approximated the Miller’s levels in the case of Na and K. The bioaccessibility of P was hardly affected by the factors studied, except that the modified Miller’s protocol led to higher levels when ashing. No significant effect of the mineralisation system was found. The modified Miller’s protocol, regardless of the mineralisation system, led to the overall highest bioaccessibility values in ripe olives, which were: Na (96%), K (95%), Ca (20%), Mg (73%), Fe (45%), and P (60%). Their potential contributions to the RDI, based on these bioaccessibilities and 100 g olive flesh service size, were then 29, 0.5, 4, 3, 33, and 1% respectively. The investigation has led to the development of a method for assessing the bioaccessibility of the mineral nutrients not only in ripe but also in the remaining table olive presentations and opens a new research line of great interest for producing healthier products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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15 pages, 1189 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Do Best-Selected Strains Perform Table Olive Fermentation Better than Undefined Biodiverse Starters? A Comparative Study

by Antonio Paba, Luigi Chessa, Elisabetta Daga, Marco Campus, Monica Bulla, Alberto Angioni, Piergiorgio Sedda and Roberta Comunian

Foods 2020, 9(2), 135; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9020135 - 28 Jan 2020

Cited by 10 | Viewed by 3500

Abstract

Twenty-seven Lactobacillus pentosus strains, and the undefined starter for table olives from which they were isolated, were characterised for their technological properties: tolerance to low temperature, high salt concentration, alkaline pH, and olive leaf extract; acidifying ability; oleuropein degradation; hydrogen peroxide and lactic acid production. Two strains with appropriate technological properties were selected. Then, table olive fermentation in vats, with the original starter, the selected strains, and without starter (spontaneous fermentation) were compared. Starters affected some texture profile parameters. The undefined culture resulted in the most effective Enterobacteriaceae reduction, acidification and olive debittering, while the selected strains batch showed the lowest antioxidant activity. Our results show that the best candidate strains cannot guarantee better fermentation performance than the undefined biodiverse mix from which they originate. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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18 pages, 1079 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Influence of Acid Adaptation on the Probability of Germination of Clostridium sporogenes Spores Against pH, NaCl and Time

by Antonio Valero, Elena Olague, Eduardo Medina-Pradas, Antonio Garrido-Fernández, Verónica Romero-Gil, María Jesús Cantalejo, Rosa María García-Gimeno, Fernando Pérez-Rodríguez, Guiomar Denisse Posada-Izquierdo and Francisco Noé Arroyo-López

Foods 2020, 9(2), 127; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9020127 - 24 Jan 2020

Cited by 21 | Viewed by 5226

Abstract

The Clostridium sp. is a large group of spore-forming, facultative or strictly anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria that can produce food poisoning. The table olive industry is demanding alternative formulations to respond to market demand for the reduction of acidity and salt contents in final products. while maintaining the appearance of freshness of fruits. In this work, logistic regression models for non-adapted and acid-adapted Clostridium sp. strains were developed in laboratory medium to study the influence of pH, NaCl (%) and time on the probability of germination of their spores. A Clostridium sporogenes cocktail was not able to germinate at pH < 5.0, although the adaptation of the strains produced an increase in the probability of germination at 5.0–5.5 pH levels and 6% NaCl concentration. At acidic pH values (5.0), the adapted strains germinated after 10 days of incubation, while those which were non-adapted required 15 days. At pH 5.75 and with 4% NaCl, germination of the adapted strains took place before 7 days, while several replicates of the non-adapted strains did not germinate after 42 days of storage. The model was validated in natural green olive brines with good results (>81.7% correct prediction cases). The information will be useful for the industry and administration to assess the safety risk in the formulation of new processing conditions in table olives and other fermented vegetables. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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22 pages, 3567 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Benefits of the Use of Lactic Acid Bacteria Starter in Green Cracked Cypriot Table Olives Fermentation

by Dimitrios A. Anagnostopoulos, Vlasios Goulas, Eleni Xenofontos, Christos Vouras, Nikolaos Nikoloudakis and Dimitrios Tsaltas

Foods 2020, 9(1), 17; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9010017 - 23 Dec 2019

Cited by 22 | Viewed by 7151

Abstract

Table olives are one of the most established Mediterranean vegetables, having an exponential increase consumption year by year. In the natural-style processing, olives are produced by spontaneous fermentation, without any chemical debittering. This natural fermentation process remains empirical and variable since it is strongly influenced by physicochemical parameters and microorganism presence in olive drupes. In the present work, Cypriot green cracked table olives were processed directly in brine (natural olives), using three distinct methods: spontaneous fermentation, inoculation with lactic acid bacteria at a 7% or a 10% NaCl concentration. Sensory, physicochemical, and microbiological alterations were monitored at intervals, and major differences were detected across treatments. Results indicated that the predominant microorganisms in the inoculated treatments were lactic acid bacteria, while yeasts predominated in control. As a consequence, starter culture contributed to a crucial effect on olives fermentation, leading to faster acidification and lower pH. This was attributed to a successful lactic acid fermentation, contrasting the acetic and alcoholic fermentation observed in control. Furthermore, it was established that inhibition of enterobacteria growth was achieved in a shorter period and at a significantly lower salt concentration, compared to the spontaneous fermentation. Even though no significant variances were detected in terms of the total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity, the degradation of oleuropein was achieved faster in inoculated treatments, thus, producing higher levels of hydroxytyrosol. Notably, the reduction of salt concentration, in combination with the use of starter, accented novel organoleptic characteristics in the final product, as confirmed from a sensory panel; hence, it becomes obvious that the production of Cypriot table olives at reduced NaCl levels is feasible. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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22 pages, 3494 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Panel and Panelist Performance in the Sensory Evaluation of Black Ripe Olives from Spanish Manzanilla and Hojiblanca Cultivars

by Antonio López-López, Antonio Higinio Sánchez-Gómez, Alfredo Montaño, Amparo Cortés-Delgado and Antonio Garrido-Fernández

Foods 2019, 8(11), 562; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8110562 - 8 Nov 2019

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 4383

Abstract

There is vast experience in the application of sensory analysis to green Spanish-style olives, but ripe black olives (≈1 × 10⁶ kg for 2016/2017) have received scarce attention and panelists have less experience on the evaluation of this presentation. Therefore, the study of their performance during the assessment of this presentation is critical. Using previously developed lexicon, ripe olives from Manzanilla and Hojiblanca cultivars from different origins were sensory analysed according to the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis (QDA). The panel (eight men and six women) was trained, and the QDA tests were performed following similar recommendations than for green olives. The data were examined while using SensoMineR v.1.07, programmed in R, which provides a diversity of easy to interpret graphical outputs. The repeatability and reproducibility of panel and panelists were good for product characterisation. However, the panel performance investigation was essential in detecting details of panel work (detection of panelists with low discriminant power, those that have interpreted the scale in a different way than the whole panel, the identification of panelists who required training in several/specific descriptors, or those with low discriminant power). Besides, the study identified the descriptors of hard evaluation (skin green, vinegar, bitterness, or natural fruity/floral). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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15 pages, 1384 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Volatile Composition, Sensory Profile and Consumer Acceptability of HydroSOStainable Table Olives

by Lucía Sánchez-Rodríguez, Marina Cano-Lamadrid, Ángel A. Carbonell-Barrachina, Esther Sendra and Francisca Hernández

Foods 2019, 8(10), 470; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8100470 - 10 Oct 2019

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 2944

Abstract

HydroSOStainable table olives (cultivar Manzanilla) are produced from olive trees grown under regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) strategies. Olives produced by RDI are known to have a higher content of some bioactive compounds (e.g. polyphenols), but no information about consumer acceptance (or liking) have been reported so far. In this study, the volatile composition, the sensory profile and the consumer opinion and willingness to pay (at three locations) for HydroSOStainable table olives produced from three RDI treatments and a control were studied. Volatile composition was affected by RDI, by increasing alcohols, ketones and phenolic compounds in some treatments, while others led to a decrease in esters and the content of organic acids. Descriptive sensory analysis (10 panelists) showed an increase of green-olive flavor with a decrease of bitterness in the HydroSOStainable samples. Consumers (study done with 100 consumers in 2-rural and 1-urban locations; n_total = 300), after being informed about the HydroSOStainable concept, preferred HydroSOStainable table olives to the conventional samples and were willing to pay a higher price for them (52% 1.35–1.75 € and 32% 1.75–2.50 € as compared to the regular price of 1.25 € for a 200 g bag). Finally, green-olive flavor, hardness, crunchiness, bitterness, sweetness and saltiness were defined as the attributes driving consumer acceptance of HydroSOStainable table olives. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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17 pages, 1615 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lactic Acid Bacteria and Yeast Inocula Modulate the Volatile Profile of Spanish-Style Green Table Olive Fermentations

by Antonio Benítez-Cabello, Francisco Rodríguez-Gómez, M. Lourdes Morales, Antonio Garrido-Fernández, Rufino Jiménez-Díaz and Francisco Noé Arroyo-López

Foods 2019, 8(8), 280; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods8080280 - 24 Jul 2019

Cited by 30 | Viewed by 4289

Abstract

In this work, Manzanilla Spanish-style green table olive fermentations were inoculated with Lactobacillus pentosus LPG1, Lactobacillus pentosus Lp13, Lactobacillus plantarum Lpl15, the yeast Wickerhanomyces anomalus Y12 and a mixed culture of all them. After fermentation (65 days), their volatile profiles in brines were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. A total of 131 volatile compounds were found, but only 71 showed statistical differences between at least, two fermentation processes. The major chemical groups were alcohols (32), ketones (14), aldehydes (nine), and volatile phenols (nine). Results showed that inoculation with Lactobacillus strains, especially L. pentosus Lp13, reduced the formation of volatile compounds. On the contrary, inoculation with W. anomalus Y12 increased their concentrations with respect to the spontaneous process, mainly of 1-butanol, 2-phenylethyl acetate, ethanol, and 2-methyl-1-butanol. Furthermore, biplot and biclustering analyses segregated fermentations inoculated with Lp13 and Y12 from the rest of the processes. The use of sequential lactic acid bacteria and yeasts inocula, or their mixture, in Spanish-style green table olive fermentation could be advisable practice for producing differentiated and high-quality products with improved aromatic profile. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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Review

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36 pages, 518 KiB

Open AccessReview

Table Olives: An Overview on Effects of Processing on Nutritional and Sensory Quality

by Paola Conte, Costantino Fadda, Alessandra Del Caro, Pietro Paolo Urgeghe and Antonio Piga

Foods 2020, 9(4), 514; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9040514 - 20 Apr 2020

Cited by 60 | Viewed by 10996

Abstract

Table olives are a pickled food product obtained by a partial/total debittering and subsequent fermentation of drupes. Their peculiar sensory properties have led to a their widespread use, especially in Europe, as an appetizer or an ingredient for culinary use. The most relevant literature of the last twenty years has been analyzed in this review with the aim of giving an up-to-date overview of the processing and storage effects on the nutritional and sensory properties of table olives. Analysis of the literature has revealed that the nutritional properties of table olives are mainly influenced by the processing method used, even if preharvest-factors such as irrigation and fruit ripening stage may have a certain weight. Data revealed that the nutritional value of table olives depends mostly on the balanced profile of polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids and the contents of health-promoting phenolic compounds, which are best retained in natural table olives. Studies on the use of low salt brines and of selected starter cultures have shown the possibility of producing table olives with an improved nutritional profile. Sensory characteristics are mostly process-dependent, and a relevant contribute is achieved by starters, not only for reducing the bitterness of fruits, but also for imparting new and typical taste to table olives. Findings reported in this review confirm, in conclusion, that table olives surely constitute an important food source for their balanced nutritional profile and unique sensory characteristics. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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16 pages, 589 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Table Olives More than a Fermented Food

by Giorgia Perpetuini, Roberta Prete, Natalia Garcia-Gonzalez, Mohammad Khairul Alam and Aldo Corsetti

Foods 2020, 9(2), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9020178 - 12 Feb 2020

Cited by 94 | Viewed by 13451

Abstract

Table olives are one of the oldest vegetable fermented foods in the Mediterranean area. Beside their economic impact, fermented table olives represent also an important healthy food in the Mediterranean diet, because of their high content of bioactive and health-promoting compounds. However, olive fermentation is still craft-based following traditional processes, which can lead to a not fully predictable final product with the risk of spontaneous alterations. Nowadays, food industries have to face consumer demands for safe and healthy products. This review offers an overview about the main technologies used for olive fermentation and the role of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts characterizing this niche during the fermentation. Particular attention is offered to the selection and use of microorganisms as starter cultures to fasten and improve the safety of table olives. The development and implementation of multifunctional starter cultures in order to obtain heath-oriented table olives is also discussed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Research on Characterization and Processing of Table Olives)

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