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Open AccessEditorial

Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology

by Efstathios Giaouris and Foteini Parlapani

Foods 2026, 15(7), 1175; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15071175 - 31 Mar 2026

Viewed by 474

Abstract

The connection between food microbiology, safety, and human health has never been more important to food science, industry, and society [...] Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

Review

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28 pages, 708 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in Shotgun Metagenomics for Cheese Microbiology: From Microbial Dynamics to Functional Insights

by Natalia Tsouggou, Evagelina Korozi, Violeta Pemaj, Eleftherios H. Drosinos, John Kapolos, Marina Papadelli, Panagiotis N. Skandamis and Konstantinos Papadimitriou

Foods 2026, 15(2), 259; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods15020259 - 10 Jan 2026

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1307

Abstract

The cheese microbiome is a complex ecosystem strongly influenced by both technological practices and the processing environment. Moving beyond traditional cultured-based methods, the integration of shotgun metagenomics into cheese microbiology has enabled in-depth resolution of microbial communities at the species and strain levels. [...] Read more.

The cheese microbiome is a complex ecosystem strongly influenced by both technological practices and the processing environment. Moving beyond traditional cultured-based methods, the integration of shotgun metagenomics into cheese microbiology has enabled in-depth resolution of microbial communities at the species and strain levels. The aim of the present study was to review recent applications of shotgun metagenomics in cheese research, underscoring its role in tracking microbial dynamics during production and in discovering genes of technological importance. In addition, the review highlights how shotgun metagenomics enables the identification of key metabolic pathways, including amino acid catabolism, lipid metabolism, and citrate degradation, among others, which are central to flavor formation and ripening. Results of the discussed literature demonstrate how microbial composition, functional traits, and overall quality of cheese are determined by factors such as raw materials, the cheesemaking environment, and artisanal practices. Moreover, it highlights the analytical potentials of shotgun metagenomics, including metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) reconstruction, characterization of various genes contributing to flavor-related biosynthetic pathways, bacteriocin production, antimicrobial resistance, and virulence, as well as the identification of phages and CRISPR-Cas systems. These insights obtained are crucial for ensuring product’s authenticity, enabling traceability, and improving the assessment of safety and quality. Despite shotgun metagenomics’ advantages, there are still analytical restrictions concerning data handling and interpretation, which need to be addressed by importing standardization steps and moving towards integrating multi-omics approaches. Such strategies will lead to more accurate and reproducible results across studies and improved resolution of active ecosystems. Ultimately, shotgun metagenomics has shifted the field from descriptive surveys to a more detailed understanding of the underlying mechanisms shaping the overall quality and safety of cheese, thus bringing innovation in modern dairy microbiology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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22 pages, 748 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Lactic Acid Bacteria Isolated from Traditional Dry-Cured Fermented Foods with Probiotic Effect: Selection, Mechanisms of Action and Applications

by José M. Martín-Miguélez, Belén Peromingo, Cristina Castaño, Juan J. Córdoba, Josué Delgado and Irene Martín

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4332; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244332 - 16 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2158

Abstract

Traditional dry-cured and fermented foods are part of the diet of many countries all over the world. These products are a source of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Some of the LAB isolated from these products have a variety of probiotic effects on the [...] Read more.

Traditional dry-cured and fermented foods are part of the diet of many countries all over the world. These products are a source of lactic acid bacteria (LAB). Some of the LAB isolated from these products have a variety of probiotic effects on the consumers, among others, maintaining gastrointestinal homeostasis, enhancing immunity, providing antioxidant effects, preventing vaginal and urinary tract infections, and treating obesity. In addition, LAB has antagonistic properties against human pathogens and foodborne bacteria. This review summarizes methods for isolation, characterization, and selection of LAB with probiotic effects. Besides the effect of the selected probiotic LAB, focusing on gastrointestinal adhesion and colonization, and the described mechanisms of action, emphasizing their potential to advance nutritional innovations, will also be discussed. Furthermore, the advantages of the application of selected probiotic LAB in traditional dry-cured and fermented foods and in plant-based analogues will also be reviewed. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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44 pages, 1766 KB

Open AccessReview

On the Role of Food in the Transmission of Helicobacter pylori Infection: A Narrative Review

by Markus Schuppler

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4325; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244325 - 15 Dec 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 3890

Abstract

Helicobacter pylori is one of the most common human pathogens, infecting up to 50% of the global population. The bacterium colonizes the mucus layer overlying gastric epithelial cells and causes chronic infection, which can lead to peptic ulcers, lymphoma, and gastric cancer. Epidemiological [...] Read more.

Helicobacter pylori is one of the most common human pathogens, infecting up to 50% of the global population. The bacterium colonizes the mucus layer overlying gastric epithelial cells and causes chronic infection, which can lead to peptic ulcers, lymphoma, and gastric cancer. Epidemiological studies showed that regions with poor sanitation have higher prevalence rates of H. pylori, suggesting possible environmental or food-related transmission routes in addition to the well-established person-to-person pathways. This assumption is supported by the detection of H. pylori and/or its DNA in a variety of food. Experimental studies further demonstrate that H. pylori can survive in food with certain properties, such as milk, meat, and vegetables, suggesting that such products may serve as potential reservoirs. However, reliable detection of H. pylori in food remains challenging due to its fastidious nature, the ability to enter a viable but non-culturable state, and methodological limitations. While the presence of bacterial DNA and survival across food matrices make foodborne transmission biologically plausible, direct and conclusive proof that ingestion of contaminated food leads to infection is still lacking. Hence, person-to-person transmission currently remains the most firmly established route of transmission. Taken together, the current findings provide substantial indirect evidence that food, particularly under conditions of poor hygiene, may provide a reservoir or vehicle for H. pylori transmission. However, further research is needed to definitively clarify the role of food in the transmission of H. pylori infection and identify appropriate measures to promote public health. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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34 pages, 1728 KB

Open AccessReview

Advances in GABA-Enriched Yogurt and Frozen Yogurt: Microbial Biosynthesis, Functional Properties, and Health Perspectives—A Comprehensive Review

by Muhammad Ameer Ushidee-Radzi, Chong Shin Yee, Raja Balqis Raja-Razali, Nur Asyiqin Zahia-Azizan, Tiziana Di Renzo, Anna Reale, Stefania Nazzaro, Pasquale Marena, Zul Ilham, Nur ‘Aliaa Abd Rahman and Wan Abd Al Qadr Imad Wan-Mohtar

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4254; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244254 - 10 Dec 2025

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2426

Abstract

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a bioactive, non-protein amino acid recognized for its role as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the human central nervous system. Increasing interest in functional foods has increased attention on GABA due to its potential health benefits, including antihypertensive, anxiolytic, antidepressant, [...] Read more.

Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) is a bioactive, non-protein amino acid recognized for its role as an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the human central nervous system. Increasing interest in functional foods has increased attention on GABA due to its potential health benefits, including antihypertensive, anxiolytic, antidepressant, and neuroprotective effects. This review summarizes the natural dietary sources of GABA and explores advanced strategies for enriching dairy products, particularly yogurt and frozen yogurt (froyo), with GABA. Key microbial species capable of GABA biosynthesis via the glutamate decarboxylase (GAD) pathway are discussed, alongside enzymatic production techniques that support controlled GABA synthesis. A major focus of this review is the evaluation of various methods for incorporating GABA into dairy matrices, including direct GABA fortification and in situ fermentation using GABA-producing strains, with comparisons of yield, sensory attributes, and product stability. Physicochemical analyses and sensory evaluations are presented as essential tools for assessing product performance. Furthermore, the review outlines the therapeutic effects of GABA-fortified foods and their potential roles in managing hypertension, stress, and neurodegenerative disorders. Key challenges, including strain-dependent variability in GABA-production, storage stability, and regulatory compliance are addressed, along with market and legislative considerations for GABA-fortified foods. Future perspectives include the development of novel high GABA-producing strains, process optimization to improve product stability and sensory acceptance, and expanded applications within the functional food sector. Overall, this review provides an integrated, up-to-date overview of technological, functional and regulatory aspects, offering a clear scientific foundation for the development and commercialization of GABA-fortified dairy products. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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26 pages, 4119 KB

Open AccessReview

The ‘Criaderas and Solera’ System in Sherry Wines: Biological Aging, Flor Yeast Dynamics, Industrial Applications and Emerging Challenges—A Review

by Juan C. García-García, Juan C. Mauricio, Teresa García-Martínez and Juan Carbonero-Pacheco

Foods 2025, 14(24), 4211; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14244211 - 8 Dec 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1264

Abstract

The Criaderas and Solera system represents one of the most sophisticated aging methodologies in winemaking, producing distinctive Sherry wines through dynamic blending and biological aging processes. This traditional Spanish system, combined with the unique metabolic activities of flor yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), [...] Read more.

The Criaderas and Solera system represents one of the most sophisticated aging methodologies in winemaking, producing distinctive Sherry wines through dynamic blending and biological aging processes. This traditional Spanish system, combined with the unique metabolic activities of flor yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae), creates wines of exceptional complexity and consistency. This comprehensive review synthesizes current literature on the Criaderas and Solera system, focusing on biological aging mechanisms, flor yeast dynamics, industrial applications, and contemporary challenges. Recent advances in genomic, proteomic and metabolomic studies of flor yeasts have been analyzed, alongside modern analytical approaches to the characterization of Sherry wine. The Criaderas and Solera system enables consistent wine quality through fractional blending across multiple aging levels. Flor yeasts exhibit specialized metabolic adaptations, including enhanced ethanol oxidation capacity, biofilm formation abilities, and stress resistance mechanisms. Modern applications extend beyond traditional winemaking to include biotechnological uses, immobilization techniques, and sustainable production methods. Current challenges include climate change impacts, maintaining genetic diversity, adapting to new technologies and meeting evolving consumer preferences. The integration of traditional knowledge with modern biotechnology offers promising opportunities for optimizing Sherry production. Understanding flor yeast ecology and metabolic pathways provides insights for developing innovative applications while preserving the authenticity of this centuries-old winemaking tradition. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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38 pages, 1376 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Incorporation of Edible Plant Extracts as Natural Food Preservatives: Green Extraction Methods, Antibacterial Mechanisms and Applications

by Zafeiria Lemoni, Konstantinos Evangeliou, Theopisti Lymperopoulou and Diomi Mamma

Foods 2025, 14(23), 4000; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14234000 - 22 Nov 2025

Cited by 7 | Viewed by 3663

Abstract

The review article critically evaluates the application of edible plant extracts as natural preservatives in food systems, with a particular focus on environmentally sustainable extraction methodologies. It examines green extraction methods designed to enhance the yield of bioactive compounds responsible for plants’ strong [...] Read more.

The review article critically evaluates the application of edible plant extracts as natural preservatives in food systems, with a particular focus on environmentally sustainable extraction methodologies. It examines green extraction methods designed to enhance the yield of bioactive compounds responsible for plants’ strong antibacterial properties. The biochemical mechanisms underlying antibacterial activity are studied, namely disruption of bacterial cell walls and membranes; inhibition of metabolic enzymes; interference with nucleic acid synthesis; induction of oxidative stress; and suppression of quorum sensing, biofilm formation, efflux pumps, and β-lactamase activity, along with standardized methodologies for efficacy assessment and extracts’ incorporation into food matrices. Recent research demonstrates the potential of plant extracts to extend the shelf life of meat, seafood, dairy, and fresh products while meeting consumer demand for clean-label products. Although large-scale application remains limited due to challenges, future research should focus on optimizing green extraction approaches, establishing standardized evaluation protocols, and developing regulatory frameworks to facilitate their safe and sustainable use in the food industry. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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35 pages, 1962 KB

Open AccessReview

Polyphenols Bioactive Metabolites, and Their Anti-Biofilm and Neuroprotective Potential

by Filomena Nazzaro, Francesca Coppola, Florinda Fratianni, Manar Abdalrazeq, Maria Neve Ombra, Beatrice De Giulio, Raffaele Coppola and Gokhan Zengin

Foods 2025, 14(22), 3976; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14223976 - 20 Nov 2025

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 3798

Abstract

Polyphenols are widely studied phytochemicals with well-known antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. They are commonly present in fruits, vegetables, and plant-based foods. Beyond these classical roles, growing evidence shows that polyphenol-derived bioactive metabolites—produced or modified by the gut microbiota—can promote host health. These metabolites [...] Read more.

Polyphenols are widely studied phytochemicals with well-known antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. They are commonly present in fruits, vegetables, and plant-based foods. Beyond these classical roles, growing evidence shows that polyphenol-derived bioactive metabolites—produced or modified by the gut microbiota—can promote host health. These metabolites are increasingly recognized for shaping host–microbe interactions and influencing neurophysiological functions via the gut–brain axis. This review provides an overview of polyphenol transformation rates by the gut microbiome, highlighting their microbial transformation, anti-biofilm effects, and neuroprotective potential. In our opinion, a deeper understanding of the properties of these metabolites can significantly impact food science and biotechnology. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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22 pages, 820 KB

Open AccessReview

An Asset for Food Safety: The Knowledge Behind the Physiological Alterations Induced by ETEC Enterotoxins

by Maria Margarida Barros, Ana Maria Campos, Joana Castro, Ricardo Oliveira, Daniela Araújo, Divanildo Outor-Monteiro and Carina Almeida

Foods 2025, 14(21), 3651; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14213651 - 26 Oct 2025

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1188

Abstract

Foodborne pathogens represent a significant public health risk in both developed and developing countries. Among these pathogens, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a major cause of diarrhea in humans and one of the leading causes of mortality in newly weaned pigs. The main [...] Read more.

Foodborne pathogens represent a significant public health risk in both developed and developing countries. Among these pathogens, enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) is a major cause of diarrhea in humans and one of the leading causes of mortality in newly weaned pigs. The main sources of ETEC contamination include environments with poor hygiene and contaminated water, meat, cereals, and vegetables. Therefore, this review manuscript focuses on the pathogenesis of ETEC in humans and pigs. The main virulence factors responsible for ETEC-associated infections, such as colonization factors and toxins, will be described for both species, with particular emphasis on the toxins as well as, their classification and structural characterization. More specifically, this study will outline the main physiological alterations and adaptive mechanisms induced by these enterotoxins, namely heat-stable toxin (ST) and heat-labile toxin (LT), in the three most affected systems: the gastrointestinal system, the enteric nervous system (ENS), and the immune system. This set of findings provides a deeper insight into the pathogenesis of this relevant foodborne pathogen, which is crucial for empowering food scientists and stakeholders to more effectively mitigate associated risks. As such, it provides valuable understanding of toxin activity, serving as a means to raise awareness of food safety practices and strengthening risk communication, surveillance and intervention strategies, thereby ensuring consumer protection. Additionally, this knowledge enables the development of preventive strategies to reduce ETEC infections, thereby decreasing the need for clinical management among consumers exposed to this bacterium. Ultimately, it contributes to the preservation of public health, the reduction of antimicrobial use, and the lowering of antimicrobial resistance gene prevalence. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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32 pages, 1104 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Vegetable By-Products from Industrial Processing: From Waste to Functional Ingredient Through Fermentation

by Andrea Marcelli, Andrea Osimani and Lucia Aquilanti

Foods 2025, 14(15), 2704; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14152704 - 31 Jul 2025

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 4089

Abstract

In recent decades, the rapid expansion of the food processing industry has led to significant losses and waste, with the fruit and vegetable sector among the most affected. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), losses in this [...] Read more.

In recent decades, the rapid expansion of the food processing industry has led to significant losses and waste, with the fruit and vegetable sector among the most affected. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), losses in this category can reach up to 60%. Vegetable waste includes edible parts discarded during processing, packaging, distribution, and consumption, often comprising by-products rich in bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, dietary fibers, vitamins, and enzymes. The underutilization of these resources constitutes both an economic drawback and an environmental and ethical concern. Current recovery practices, including their use in animal feed or bioenergy production, contribute to a circular economy but are often limited by high operational costs. In this context, fermentation has emerged as a promising, sustainable approach for converting vegetable by-products into value-added food ingredients. This process improves digestibility, reduces undesirable compounds, and introduces probiotics beneficial to human health. The present review examines how fermentation can improve the nutritional, sensory, and functional properties of plant-based foods. By presenting several case studies, it illustrates how fermentation can effectively valorize vegetable processing by-products, supporting the development of novel, health-promoting food products with improved technological qualities. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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23 pages, 2900 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Type I Sourdough Preservation Strategies and the Contribution of Microbial Biological Resource Centers to Biodiversity Protection: A Narrative Review

by Roberta Coronas, Angela Bianco, Anna Maria Laura Sanna, Giacomo Zara and Marilena Budroni

Foods 2025, 14(15), 2624; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14152624 - 26 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 2692

Abstract

Traditional type I sourdoughs are being rediscovered and increasingly used in artisanal and industrial bakeries due to the unique taste and texture, potential health benefits, and longer shelf life they confer on to baked products. These unique properties are attributed to the diverse [...] Read more.

Traditional type I sourdoughs are being rediscovered and increasingly used in artisanal and industrial bakeries due to the unique taste and texture, potential health benefits, and longer shelf life they confer on to baked products. These unique properties are attributed to the diverse microbial communities of sourdough, comprising both yeasts and bacteria. The traditional preservation method for type I sourdough (i.e., continuous backslopping) may lead, over time, to taxonomic and functional rearrangements of its microbial communities. Consequently, significant deviations in the characteristics of baked products can occur. In this context, this review aims to summarize the recent literature on the long-term preservation and maintenance strategies for type I sourdough and highlight the essential role that microbial biological resource centers (mBRCs) could play in the preservation and sharing of sourdough microbiomes. Specifically, the identification of appropriate preservation methods, implementation of well-defined access and benefit-sharing protocols, and development of microbiome-specific datasets, should be encouraged within the context of mBRCs. These infrastructures are expected to play a pivotal role in preserving the microbiota of fermented foods, serving as a crucial element for innovation and the safeguarding of traditional foods and culinary heritage. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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11 pages, 223 KB

Open AccessReview

Review of Foodborne Botulism in the UK: 2006–2024

by Corinne Francoise Laurence Amar, Burhan Ahmed, Jonathan Finch, Dunstan Rajendram, Vanessa K. Wong and Gauri Godbole

Foods 2025, 14(15), 2584; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14152584 - 23 Jul 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 4150

Abstract

Food-borne botulism is a rare but serious disease caused by ingestion of botulinum neurotoxin pre-formed in food by Clostridium botulinum. Between 2006 and 2009, no foodborne botulism cases were reported in the UK. However, the period from 2010 to 2024 saw 13 cases, [...] Read more.

Food-borne botulism is a rare but serious disease caused by ingestion of botulinum neurotoxin pre-formed in food by Clostridium botulinum. Between 2006 and 2009, no foodborne botulism cases were reported in the UK. However, the period from 2010 to 2024 saw 13 cases, encompassing seven separate incidents and two outbreaks, with no reported fatalities. Cases were predominantly linked to imported, home-made, and artisanal foods, occasionally to commercial products. Diagnostic and public health challenges include delayed clinical diagnosis, delayed sample collection, inadequate specimen volumes, and the frequent unavailability of suspected food sources, hampering epidemiological investigations. The UK has an extremely low incidence of foodborne botulism with an estimated rate of 0.001 cases per 100,000 people per year, but despite this low occurrence, food botulism remains a public health emergency as it requires timely treatment and rapid reactive intervention to be undertaken by multiple regulatory agencies. Continuous professional training of medical staff, up-to-date clinical guidance, rapid diagnostic, and food investigations are essential for optimising patient outcomes and prevention. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

23 pages, 1179 KB

Open AccessReview

Sustainable Innovations in Food Microbiology: Fermentation, Biocontrol, and Functional Foods

by Amanda Priscila Silva Nascimento and Ana Novo Barros

Foods 2025, 14(13), 2320; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132320 - 30 Jun 2025

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 7807

Abstract

The growing demand for more sustainable food systems has driven the development of solutions based on food microbiology, capable of integrating safety, functionality, and environmental responsibility. This paper presents a critical and up-to-date review of the most relevant advances at the interface between [...] Read more.

The growing demand for more sustainable food systems has driven the development of solutions based on food microbiology, capable of integrating safety, functionality, and environmental responsibility. This paper presents a critical and up-to-date review of the most relevant advances at the interface between microbiology, sustainability, and food innovation. The analysis is structured around three main axes: (i) microbial fermentation, with a focus on traditional practices and precision technologies aimed at valorizing agro-industrial waste and producing functional foods; (ii) microbial biocontrol, including the use of bacteriocins, protective cultures, bacteriophages, and CRISPR-Cas (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats–CRISPR-associated)-based tools as alternatives to synthetic preservatives; and (iii) the development of functional foods containing probiotics, prebiotics, synbiotics, and postbiotics, with the potential to modulate the gut microbiota and promote metabolic, immune, and cognitive health. In addition to reviewing the microbiological and technological mechanisms involved, the paper discusses international regulatory milestones, scalability challenges, and market trends related to consumer acceptance and clean labeling. Finally, emerging trends and research gaps are addressed, including the use of omics technologies, artificial intelligence, and unexplored microbial resources. Food microbiology, by incorporating sustainable practices and advanced technologies, is positioned as a strategic pillar for building a healthy, circular, science-based food model. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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16 pages, 450 KB

Open AccessReview

Risk Profile of Bacteriophages in the Food Chain

by Monika Trząskowska, Eyesun Eedo Naammo, Muhammad Salman, Ayomide Afolabi, Catherine W. Y. Wong and Danuta Kołożyn-Krajewska

Foods 2025, 14(13), 2257; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132257 - 26 Jun 2025

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2063

Abstract

Phages are considered effective biocontrol agents for improving food safety due to their specific interaction with pathogens. It is essential to recognise that zero risk does not exist, and as biological agents, phages must be continuously evaluated for potential adverse effects on human [...] Read more.

Phages are considered effective biocontrol agents for improving food safety due to their specific interaction with pathogens. It is essential to recognise that zero risk does not exist, and as biological agents, phages must be continuously evaluated for potential adverse effects on human health in both food and clinical contexts. This is the first bacteriophage risk profile performed according to the methodology recommended by FAO/WHO and EFSA. Key safety concerns regarding phage use in the food sector include the risk of horizontal gene transfer, especially regarding antibiotic resistance genes among bacteria. While such occurrences are contextually dependent and rare, they warrant further scrutiny. Moreover, improper phage application during food processing could lead to the emergence of resistant bacterial strains, compromising the long-term efficacy of phage interventions. Currently, there is limited evidence indicating any health risks linked to phage consumption or pathogenic behaviour (e.g., possible association between bacteriophages and Parkinson’s disease). Despite numerous studies affirming the safety and efficacy of phages in the food chain, continuous monitoring remains crucial. In particular, the responses of susceptible populations to phage exposure should be carefully examined. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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22 pages, 4383 KB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceReview

Polyphosphate from Lactic Acid Bacteria: A Functional Molecule for Food and Health Applications

by Daniela Corrales, Cristina Alcántara, Vicente Monedero and Manuel Zúñiga

Foods 2025, 14(13), 2211; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14132211 - 23 Jun 2025

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 3008

Abstract

The linear polymer polyphosphate (polyP) is found across all three domains of life and fulfills diverse physiological functions, including phosphorus storage, chaperone activity, and stress tolerance. In bacteria, polyP synthesis is catalyzed by polyphosphate kinase (Ppk), whereas its degradation is carried out by [...] Read more.

The linear polymer polyphosphate (polyP) is found across all three domains of life and fulfills diverse physiological functions, including phosphorus storage, chaperone activity, and stress tolerance. In bacteria, polyP synthesis is catalyzed by polyphosphate kinase (Ppk), whereas its degradation is carried out by exopolyphosphatases (Ppx). Intracellular polyP levels are determined by the balance between these opposing enzymatic activities, although the regulatory mechanisms governing this balance remain incompletely understood. In higher eukaryotes, polyP participates in diverse physiological processes from cell signaling to blood clotting. In relation to this, polyP from Levilactobacillus brevis has been identified as a protective factor against intestinal damage in a mouse model of acute colitis. Subsequent evidence has confirmed that polyP can confer beneficial effects on human intestinal health, prompting an increased interest in the production of polyP by probiotic lactic acid bacteria. Furthermore, polyP is extensively used in the food industry to enhance food quality, preservation, and nutritional value. This review summarizes the current knowledge on polyP metabolism in these bacteria and explores its functional properties and potential applications. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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34 pages, 1390 KB

Open AccessReview

A Comprehensive Review of Edible Flowers with a Focus on Microbiological, Nutritional, and Potential Health Aspects

by Angela Daniela Carboni, Tiziana Di Renzo, Stefania Nazzaro, Pasquale Marena, Maria Cecilia Puppo and Anna Reale

Foods 2025, 14(10), 1719; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14101719 - 12 May 2025

Cited by 17 | Viewed by 8790

Abstract

Edible flowers have been used since ancient times directly as food, flavoring agents, and garnish in food products, and are now reappearing in modern cuisine. Edible flowers have gained popularity due to changing consumer habits focused on healthier food options. In addition to [...] Read more.

Edible flowers have been used since ancient times directly as food, flavoring agents, and garnish in food products, and are now reappearing in modern cuisine. Edible flowers have gained popularity due to changing consumer habits focused on healthier food options. In addition to contributing to the esthetics and flavor of various dishes, edible flowers are now recognized for their nutritional value, as they contain bioactive components with different health benefits. However, a significant concern regarding edible flowers is the potential contamination by undesirable microorganisms. Since edible flowers are often consumed fresh or minimally processed, they can pose a microbiological risk. Edible flowers may be susceptible to contamination by various pathogenic microorganisms, particularly Bacillus spp., Enterobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and Staphylococcus aureus. In addition, mycotoxin-producing fungi, such as Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, or Fusarium, can be found in various flowers. Good agricultural practices, hygienic handling, and appropriate storage are essential to reduce contamination and guarantee the safe consumption of edible flowers. Since current investigations on the microbiological safety aspects of edible flowers are scarce, this review aims to provide an overview of the consumption of edible flowers and a discussion of their uses, health benefits, and risks, focusing on microbiological aspects. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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19 pages, 1021 KB

Open AccessReview

Synergistic Approaches to Foodborne Pathogen Control: A Narrative Review of Essential Oils and Bacteriophages

by Rafail Fokas, Nikolaos Giormezis and Apostolos Vantarakis

Foods 2025, 14(9), 1508; https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14091508 - 25 Apr 2025

Cited by 15 | Viewed by 2662

Abstract

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance among foodborne pathogens has intensified the search for alternative biocontrol strategies. Among these, essential oils (EOs) and bacteriophages have gained increasing attention, due to their natural origin and antimicrobial potential. This narrative review investigates their individual and combined [...] Read more.

The emergence of antimicrobial resistance among foodborne pathogens has intensified the search for alternative biocontrol strategies. Among these, essential oils (EOs) and bacteriophages have gained increasing attention, due to their natural origin and antimicrobial potential. This narrative review investigates their individual and combined use as innovative tools for improving food safety. We discuss the mechanisms of action, current food applications, and regulatory or technical limitations associated with both EOs and phages. Particular emphasis is placed on their complementary characteristics, which may enhance efficacy when used together. An in-depth analysis of five key studies investigating synergistic EO–phage combinations against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella Typhimurium is presented. These studies, conducted in both in vitro and food-based systems, reveal that antimicrobial synergy is often dose- and temperature-dependent. Optimized combinations lead to enhanced bacterial reduction and reduced resistance development. However, several challenges remain, including sensory alterations in food products, phage inactivation by EO compounds, and host cell destruction at high EO doses. The review concludes that while EOs and phages face limitations when applied independently, their strategic combination shows substantial promise. Future research should focus on formulation development, delivery systems, and regulatory alignment to unlock their full synergistic potential. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Feature Reviews on Food Microbiology)

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