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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073).

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (20 December 2020) | Viewed by 34784

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Prof. Sławomir Pietrowicz

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Guest Editor

Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
Interests: thermodynamics; heat transfer; computational fluid dynamics; capillary flow at microgravity conditions; pulsation/oscillation heat pipes; superfluid helium; superconducting magnet

Prof. Dr. Izabela Sówka

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Guest Editor

Department of Environment Protection Engineering, Faculty of Environmental Engineering, Wroclaw University of Science and Technology, 27 Wybrzeże Wyspiańskiego st., 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
Interests: methods standardization; odor emission regulation; air quality monitoring; dynamic olfactometry; odor mapping; odor modeling
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Prof. Dr. Piotr Kolasiński

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Department of Thermodynamics and Renewable Energy Sources, Faculty of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, 50-370 Wrocław, Poland
Interests: organic Rankine cycle (ORC) systems; thermodynamics; heat transfer; waste energy recovery; renewable energy; energy management; volumetric machines
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Since the beginning of humankind, energy has been the most important need for each human and living being. Thus, the development of different ways of energy conversion that can be applied to cover growing energy needs has become a crucial challenge for scientists and engineers around the world, making the power industry, in which operation is based on subsequent energy conversion processes, one of the most important fields of the local, national, and global economy today. Progress in precise description, modeling, and optimization of physical phenomena related to the energy conversion processes bounded to large and dispersed power systems is a key research and development field of the economy. It should be also noted here that detailed analysis related to individual input parameters and components that are directly or indirectly influencing the energy conversion chains should be conducted in order to achieve the final effect of high-efficient power industry. Legal and social issues that are affecting the key aspects and problems related to energy conversion and power sector are also significant and worth investigating.

This Special Issue aims to publish selected papers from the XV Scientific Conference POL-EMIS 2020: Current Trends in Air and Climate Protection—Control Monitoring, Forecasting, and Reduction of Emissions (June 29 – July 1, 2020, Wroclaw).

Conference page: http://pol-emis.pwr.edu.pl/en/

Conference publications offer: http://pol-emis.pwr.edu.pl/en/programme/call-for-papers

Topics include but are not limited to:

Fuels and their applications;
Thermal energy and energy storage;
Thermal and flow processes—mathematical and numerical modeling;
Systems optimization;
Ecological and legal aspects directly related to the usage and generation of heat and electricity.

Prof. Sławomir Pietrowicz
Prof. Izabela Sowka
Prof. Piotr Kolasiński
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

Manuscripts should be submitted online at www.mdpi.com by registering and logging in to this website. Once you are registered, click here to go to the submission form. Manuscripts can be submitted until the deadline. All submissions that pass pre-check are peer-reviewed. Accepted papers will be published continuously in the journal (as soon as accepted) and will be listed together on the special issue website. Research articles, review articles as well as short communications are invited. For planned papers, a title and short abstract (about 100 words) can be sent to the Editorial Office for announcement on this website.

Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Energies is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2600 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

Energy conversion
Fuels
Energy storage
Ecological and legal aspects

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Editorial

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4 pages, 204 KiB

Open AccessEditorial

Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment

by Izabela Sówka, Sławomir Pietrowicz and Piotr Kolasiński

Energies 2021, 14(6), 1701; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14061701 - 18 Mar 2021

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1296

Abstract

The scientific and technical issues related to energy harvesting and conversion are inseparably bound to the issues of environmental protection. Energy conversion systems and devices that are applied for converting the chemical energy contained in different fuels into heat, electricity, and cold in industry and housing are sources of different gases and solid particle emissions. Thus, the development of different technologies for energy conversion and environmental protection that can be jointly applied to cover growing energy needs has become a crucial challenge for scientists and engineers around the world. Progress in the precise description, modeling, and optimization of physical and chemical phenomena related to these energy conversion systems is a key research and development field for the economy. Legal and social issues that are affecting key aspects and problems related to the energy conversion and power sector are also significant and worth investigating. The aim of Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment Special Issue is to publish selected high-quality papers from the XV Scientific Conference POL-EMIS 2020: Current Trends in Air and Climate Protection—Control Monitoring, Forecasting, and Reduction of Emissions (29–31 March 2021, Wrocław) and other papers related to the field of energy conversion. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

Research

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23 pages, 13658 KiB

Open AccessArticle

New HFC/HFO Blends as Refrigerants for the Vapor-Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)

by Bartosz Gil, Anna Szczepanowska and Sabina Rosiek

Energies 2021, 14(4), 946; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14040946 - 11 Feb 2021

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2861

Abstract

In this work, which is related to the current European Parliament Regulation on restrictions affecting refrigeration, four new three-component refrigerants have been proposed; all were created using low Global Warming Potential(GWP) synthetic and natural refrigerants. The considered mixtures consisted of R32, R41, R161, R152a, R1234ze (E), R1234yf, R1243zf, and RE170. These mixtures were theoretically tested with a 10% step in mass fraction using a triangular design. The analysis covered two theoretical cooling cycles at evaporating temperatures of 0 and −30 °C, and a 30 °C constant condensing temperature. The final stage of the work was the determination of the best mixture compositions by thermodynamic and operational parameters. R1234yf–R152a–RE170 with a weight share of 0.1/0.5/0.4 was determined to be the optimal mixture for potentially replacing the existing refrigerants. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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27 pages, 41723 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Use of Capsuled Paraffin Wax in Low-Temperature Thermal Energy Storage Applications: An Experimental and Numerical Investigation

by Agnieszka Ochman, Wei-Qin Chen, Przemysław Błasiak, Michał Pomorski and Sławomir Pietrowicz

Energies 2021, 14(3), 538; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030538 - 21 Jan 2021

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3356

Abstract

The article deals with the experimental and numerical thermal-flow behaviours of a low-temperature Phase Change Material (PCM) used in Thermal Energy Storage (TES) industrial applications. The investigated PCM is a composition that consists of a mixture of paraffin wax capsuled in a melamine-formaldehyde membrane and water, for which a phase change process occurs within the temperature range of 4 °C to 6 °C and the maximum heat storage capacity is equal to 72 kJ/kg. To test the TES capabilities of the PCM for operating conditions close to real ones, a series of experimental tests were performed on cylindrical modules with fixed heights of 250 mm and different outer diameters of 15, 22, and 28 mm, respectively. The module was tested in a specially designed wind tunnel where the Reynolds numbers of between 15,250 to 52,750 were achieved. In addition, a mathematical model of the analysed processes, based on the enthalpy porosity method, was proposed and validated. The temperature changes during the phase transitions that were obtained from the numerical analyses in comparison with the experimental results have not exceeded 20% of the relative error for the phase change region and no more than 10% for the rest. Additionally, the PCM was examined while using a Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), which indicated no changes in the internal structure during phase transitions and a homogeneous structure, regardless of the tested temperature ranges. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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17 pages, 5244 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Thermodynamic Efficiency Maximum of Simple Organic Rankine Cycles

by Aram Mohammed Ahmed, László Kondor and Attila R. Imre

Energies 2021, 14(2), 307; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14020307 - 08 Jan 2021

Cited by 18 | Viewed by 3011

Abstract

The increase of the maximal cycle temperature is considered as one of the best tools to increase cycle efficiency for all thermodynamic cycles, including Organic Rankine Cycles (ORC). Technically, this can be done in various ways, but probably the best solution is the use of hybrid systems, i.e., using an added high-temperature heat source to the existing low-temperature heat source. Obviously, this kind of improvement has technical difficulties and added costs; therefore, the increase of efficiency by increasing the maximal temperature sometimes has technical and/or financial limits. In this paper, we would like to show that for an ideal, simple-layout ORC system, a thermodynamic efficiency-maximum can also exist. It means that for several working fluids, the thermodynamic efficiency vs. maximal cycle temperature function has a maximum, located in the sub-critical temperature range. A proof will be given by comparing ORC efficiencies with TFC (Trilateral Flash Cycle) efficiencies; for wet working fluids, further theoretical evidence can be given. The group of working fluids with this kind of maximum will be defined. Generalization for normal (steam) Rankine cycles and CO₂ subcritical Rankine cycles will also be shown. Based on these results, one can conclude that the increase of the maximal cycle temperature is not always a useful tool for efficiency-increase; this result can be especially important for hybrid systems. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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15 pages, 3601 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Users’ Behavior and Real Weather Conditions on the Energy Consumption of Tenement Houses in Wroclaw, Poland: Energy Performance Gap Simulation Based on a Model Calibrated by Field Measurements

by Małgorzata Szulgowska-Zgrzywa, Ewelina Stefanowicz, Krzysztof Piechurski, Agnieszka Chmielewska and Marek Kowalczyk

Energies 2020, 13(24), 6707; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13246707 - 18 Dec 2020

Cited by 16 | Viewed by 2152

Abstract

This paper presents the results of measuring the final energy consumption for heating and domestic hot water (DHW) preparation and indoor conditions in 15 apartments located in pre-war tenement houses. The measurements were compared to the computed energy consumption. The calculations ware made based on the model calibrated by field measurements. The discrepancies between measurements and calculations were assessed using the energy performance gap (EPG). Calculations were made separately for energy for heating and for DHW preparation. Additionally, the results of EPG calculations for different levels of analysis are presented aiming at assessing the impact of weather, temperature in the surrounding zones and users’ behavior. Users’ behaviors influencing the size of the EPG were divided into typical (energy saving or excessive energy consumption) and forced (energy poverty, response to the apartment’s surroundings, technical limitations. The connection between the heating sources and the heating habits has been clearly observed in the research. The former (typical) behaviors were the origin of the energy gap in the apartments heated with natural gas and district heating. The latter (forced) were the origin of the gap in the apartments heated with mostly electricity and solid fuel (with one exception: one apartment that utilized the district heating). Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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16 pages, 4150 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Are BBQs Significantly Polluting Air in Poland? A Simple Comparison of Barbecues vs. Domestic Stoves and Boilers Emissions

by Artur Badyda, Piotr Krawczyk, Jan Stefan Bihałowicz, Karolina Bralewska, Wioletta Rogula-Kozłowska, Grzegorz Majewski, Przemysław Oberbek, Andrzej Marciniak and Mariusz Rogulski

Energies 2020, 13(23), 6245; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13236245 - 26 Nov 2020

Cited by 11 | Viewed by 2429

Abstract

The study attempts to compare the total annual emissions of selected air pollutants emitted during occasional grilling and the emission of the same pollutants from small domestic heating installations. For this purpose, in the absence of any data on the emission of pollutants during grilling processes, tests were carried out consisting of measuring the concentration of air pollutants in exhaust streams from two types of grills (solid fuel grill powered by charcoal briquette and gas grill powered by liquid propane), using popularly prepared dishes (previously marinated meat and raw, seasoned mixed vegetables). The concentrations of PM_2.5, CH₄, CO, CO₂, H₂O, NH₃, N₂O, NO, NO₂, SO₂ were measured in the exhaust stream from both grills using a particulate matter (PM) measuring device and a portable spectrometer, separately while grilling the same portions of meat and vegetables. Then, considering the available data on Poles’ barbecue habits, the emissions that are released into the air during occasional grilling were estimated. The calculated emissions were compared with the data on emissions from domestic heating installations used in Poland. It has been shown that during grilling, as much as 2.30, 92.07, 4.11, 3.83, 2.96, and 9.81 Gg of PM_2.5, CO, NO_x, SO₂, NH₃, and CH₄ may be released into the atmosphere in Poland, respectively. In the case of PM, the amount of the pollutant emitted to the air is over 100 times lower than the emissions caused by the operation of small heating installations. In the case of other pollutants, the differences are smaller. Nevertheless, emissions from grills should not be underestimated as, in certain periods of the year, these sources may be responsible for not meeting the air quality standards in selected areas of the country, and thus the excessive exposure of people to pollutants resulting in negative health consequences. Therefore, attention was paid to the legitimacy of abandoning the use of charcoal and charcoal briquette grills and replacing them with gas-powered grills or electric ones, not only due to the health benefits of food and lower human exposure, but also by the reason of ecological values. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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35 pages, 36799 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Analysis of the Effectiveness of Implementing Emission Reduction Measures in Improving Air Quality and Health of the Residents of a Selected Area of the Lower Silesian Voivodship

by Izabela Sówka, Małgorzata Paciorek, Krzysztof Skotak, Dominik Kobus, Maciej Zathey and Krzysztof Klejnowski

Energies 2020, 13(15), 4001; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13154001 - 03 Aug 2020

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 2079

Abstract

The case study selected in order to analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of implemented solutions for improving air quality with the WRF-CALMET/CALPUFF modeling system as an element of decision support was the subject of this paper. Its character can be considered unique due to its geographical location, topography and the functioning PGE GiEK S.A. Turów Power Complex (ELT), and, in particular, the PGE GiEK S.A. Turów Coal Mine (KWBT). The conducted analyses have defined three scenarios of emission changes: (1) scenario related to the activities of the energy complex resulting from the minimizing measures indicated in the report on the environmental impact of the mine, (2) scenario resulting from the so-called “anti-smog” regional resolution and (3) scenario compiling the abovementioned scenarios. According to the analyses, the lowest values of the annual mean PM_2.5 concentration were noted in the eastern part of the studied area and did not exceed 14 µg/m³ (56% of the permissible level). The best results in improving air quality were proven for scenario 3, i.e., a 10% reduction in concentration values over the entire analyzed area of the commune. In the case of this scenario, as the most effective and health-promoting solution, only in 25% of the area was the improvement in the residents’ health below 5%, while the reduction in the estimated number of premature deaths by over 15% was observed in nearly one third of the studied area. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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22 pages, 3134 KiB

Open AccessFeature PaperArticle

Domestic Organic Rankine Cycle-Based Cogeneration Systems as a Way to Reduce Dust Emissions in Municipal Heating

by Piotr Kolasiński

Energies 2020, 13(15), 3983; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13153983 - 02 Aug 2020

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2365

Abstract

Environmental issues are nowadays of great importance. In particular air and water quality should be kept at as high levels as possible. Energy conversion systems and devices which are applied for converting the chemical energy contained in different fuels into heat, electricity and cold in the industry and housing are sources of different gases and solid particle emissions. Medical data show PM_2.5 dust in particular is highly dangerous for human health. Therefore, limiting the number of low-quality fuel combustion processes is a key issue of modern energy policy. Statistical data show that domestic heating systems account for a large share of the total emissions of PM_2.5 and PM₁₀ dust. For example in Poland in 2017, the share of households in the total annual emissions of PM_2.5 dust was equal to ca. 35.8%, while the share of PM_2.5 emission in industry (i.e., power generating plants, industrial power plants and technologies) was equal to only 23.6%. A possible way of solving this problem is by the successful replacement of old domestic furnaces by combined heat and power (CHP) or multigeneration boilers which can be used for heating the rooms and sanitary water and generating electricity and cold. Such systems can possibly contribute in the future to significant reductions of dust emissions and air pollution in urban and rural areas by limiting the number of low-quality fuel combustion processes. This article presents design considerations and experimental results related to a domestic micro-CHP unit which is based on organic Rankine cycle (ORC) technology. The main aim of the design works and experiments was therefore the analysis of the possibility of integrating the ORC system with a standard domestic central heating gas-fired boiler. The specially designed micro-ORC system was implemented in the laboratory and experiments were performed using this test stand. The main design aims of the test-stand were: low operating pressure, small working fluid flow, low price and compact dimensions. To meet these aims, volumetric machines were chosen as the expander and working fluid pump. The experimental results were positive and show that it is possible to integrate an ORC system with a standard domestic central heating gas boiler. For different heat source temperatures, the obtained expander power ranged from 109 W to 241 W and the thermodynamic cycle efficiency ranged from 4.3% to 8.8%. These positive research results were achieved partly thanks to the positive features of the different system subassemblies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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19 pages, 2613 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Theoretical and Economic Evaluation of Low-Cost Deep Eutectic Solvents for Effective Biogas Upgrading to Bio-Methane

by Edyta Słupek, Patrycja Makoś and Jacek Gębicki

Energies 2020, 13(13), 3379; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13133379 - 01 Jul 2020

Cited by 40 | Viewed by 2997

Abstract

This paper presents the theoretical screening of 23 low-cost deep eutectic solvents (DESs) as absorbents for effective removal of the main impurities from biogas streams using a conductor-like screening model for real solvents (COSMO-RS). Based on thermodynamic parameters, i.e., the activity coefficient, excess enthalpy, and Henry’s constant, two DESs composed of choline chloride: urea in a 1:2 molar ratio (ChCl:U 1:2), and choline chloride: oxalic acid in a 1:2 molar ratio (ChCl:OA 1:2) were selected as the most effective absorbents. The σ-profile and σ-potential were used in order to explain the mechanism of the absorptive removal of CO₂, H₂S, and siloxanes from a biogas stream. In addition, an economic analysis was prepared to demonstrate the competitiveness of new DESs in the sorbents market. The unit cost of 1 m³ of pure bio-methane was estimated to be in the range of 0.35–0.37 EUR, which is comparable to currently used technologies. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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21 pages, 8752 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Lightweight Equipment Using Multiple Torches for Fast Speed Asphalt Roofing

by Alberto Barragán-García, Miguel Fernández-Muñoz and Efrén Díez-Jiménez

Energies 2020, 13(9), 2216; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13092216 - 02 May 2020

Cited by 2 | Viewed by 1847

Abstract

In this work, we describe the design and test of a new piece of equipment, developed in order to enhance speed, gas consumption and safety during the manual asphalt roofing process. The novelty of the equipment is based on the use of a set of five parallel gas burners located in front of the roll to maximize heat transfer. The equipment is light and can be used by any worker on any type of roof. It also includes a thermal insulation cover to significantly reduce gas consumption and, thus, to reduce CO₂, SO₂, and other non-eco-friendly emissions. In this paper, we present the mechanical and thermal design and analysis of the equipment, Computer Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations for heat transfer calculation, a description of the manufacturing and assembly, a preliminary thermal test, and an operational test. The results demonstrate an installation speed of 1.75 m²/min, for 3 kg/m² rolls, which translates to around 700–735 m² per person per day, more than twice the usual manual roofing rate. Nevertheless, some issues need to be resolved, such as the nonuniform heat distribution and the low heat transfer at the end of the roll installation. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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Review

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47 pages, 8673 KiB

Open AccessReview

Modern Small and Microcogeneration Systems—A Review

by Marcin Wołowicz, Piotr Kolasiński and Krzysztof Badyda

Energies 2021, 14(3), 785; https://doi.org/10.3390/en14030785 - 02 Feb 2021

Cited by 13 | Viewed by 5333

Abstract

Small and micro energy sources are becoming increasingly important in the current environmental conditions. Especially, the production of electricity and heat in so-called cogeneration systems allows for significant primary energy savings thanks to their high generation efficiency (up to 90%). This article provides an overview of the currently used and developed technologies applied in small and micro cogeneration systems i.e., Stirling engines, gas and steam microturbines, various types of volumetric expanders (vane, lobe, screw, piston, Wankel, gerotor) and fuel cells. Their basic features, power ranges and examples of implemented installations based on these technologies are presented in this paper. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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10 pages, 2093 KiB

Open AccessReview

Adsorptive Biogas Purification from Siloxanes—A Critical Review

by Kazimierz Gaj

Energies 2020, 13(10), 2605; https://doi.org/10.3390/en13102605 - 20 May 2020

Cited by 31 | Viewed by 3048

Abstract

Siloxanes are among the most technologically troublesome trace compounds present in biogas. As a result of their combustion, hard-to-remove sediments are formed, blocking biogas energy processing devices and reducing the efficiency of biogas plants. The purpose of this study was to help investors and designers to choose the optimal technology for the adsorptive removal of volatile methylsiloxanes (VMSs) from biogas and to identify adsorbents worth further development. This paper critically reviews and discusses the state-of-the-art technologies for the adsorption removal of siloxanes from biogas, indicating potentially beneficial directions in their development and deficiencies in the state of knowledge. The origin of VMSs in biogas, their selected physicochemical properties, technological problems that they can cause and their typical versus limit concentrations in biogases are presented. Both the already implemented methods of adsorptive VMSs removal from landfill and sewage gases and the ones being under development are verified and systematized. The parameters and effectiveness of adsorption processes are discussed, and individual adsorbents are compared. Possible ways of regenerating spent adsorbents are evaluated and prospects for their application are assessed. Finally, zeolite-based adsorbents—which can also be used for biogas desulfurization—and adsorbents based on polymer resins, as being particularly active against VMSs and most amenable to multiple regeneration, are identified. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Processes, Systems and Equipment)

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