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Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition

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A special issue of Energies (ISSN 1996-1073). This special issue belongs to the section "C: Energy Economics and Policy".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (30 September 2024) | Viewed by 23969

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Dr. Tomasz Rokicki

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Institute of Economics and Finance, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
Interests: energy economy; (micro- and macro-economy); economic geography; logistics (above all transport problems); management of information
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Prof. Dr. Bogdan Klepacki

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Institute of Economics and Finance, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warszawa, Poland
Interests: energy economy; (micro and macro economy); economic geography; logistics (above all transport problems); management of information
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Dr. Aneta Bełdycka-Bórawska

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Department of Agrotechnology and Agribusiness, Faculty of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Michała Oczapowskiego 8, 10-718 Olsztyn, Poland
Interests: energy consumption; energy economic; energy market
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Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Energy is a basic good necessary to fulfill demand for electricity used in heating systems, cooling systems, and others. Particular attention is paid to renewable energy sources, which provide clean energy. The use of traditional fossil fuel is the rising because of the increasing demand for energy. Moreover, GHG emissions and other emissions created by heating gases threaten the environment and have caused a worldwide increase in temperature, have polluted water resources and decreased food security.

The only way to solve the problem of reducing GHG emissions is through the production and consumption of clean energy. These are the possible topics of this Special Issue; however, we encourage authors to send other related works for possible publication. The topic can be extended for other works contributing to energy consumption in general.

Dr. Tomasz Rokicki
Prof. Dr. Bogdan Klepacki
Dr. Aneta Bełdycka-Bórawska
Guest Editors

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Keywords

energy consumption
energy production
consumers and producers of energy
clean energy
renewable energy
energy market
energy security
energy efficiency
circular economy
impact of energy consumption on the environment
social and economic aspects of energy
directions of energy development

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Related Special Issues

Energy Consumption in the EU Countries II in Energies (14 articles)
Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 4th Edition in Energies

Published Papers (12 papers)

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Research

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20 pages, 1748 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Electrification of Public Urban Transport: Funding Opportunities, Bus Fleet, and Energy Use Forecasts for Poland

by Jacek Batóg, Barbara Batóg, Magdalena Mojsiewicz and Przemysław Pluskota

Energies 2024, 17(23), 6140; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17236140 - 5 Dec 2024

Viewed by 1134

Abstract

Diverse measures related to the electrification of transport fleets have been implemented in many countries due to the increasing consumption of fossil fuels and their negative impact on the climate and human health. Such transformation is effective if electric energy is sourced from renewable sources. The rate of transport electrification is determined mainly by legislative and financial incentives, charging infrastructure density, and fuel price. The main aims of the study are to present financial support for investments in low-emission transport infrastructure and to provide forecasts of the fleet of urban electric buses and the expected demand for electricity consumed by them in Poland. The main source of data was statistical reports published by Statistics Poland. Because the available sample was short, basic statistical models were used. The results obtained indicate the stable growth of investments in regional low-emission transport infrastructure, characterized by strong heterogeneity. The foreseen number of electric buses in urban public transport in the realistic variants ranges between 1486 and 1626. In the optimistic variants, the forecast values are significantly higher. However, they can only be achieved if there is a significant increase in investment. The electricity demand forecast for the realistic variant shows a demand of 341,266.50 MWh. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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22 pages, 7762 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Power Loss and Electrothermal Characterization of Hybrid Power Integrated Modules for Industrial Servo Motor Drives

by Hsien-Chie Cheng, Yan-Cheng Liu, Wen-You Jhu, Po-Kai Chiu, Tao-Chih Chang and Kuo-Ning Chiang

Energies 2024, 17(23), 6036; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17236036 - 30 Nov 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 964

Abstract

This study aims to facilitate the assessment of the electromagnetic-electrical-thermal coupled response of a developed 30 kHz/12 kW silicon carbide (SiC)/silicon (Si) hybrid power-integrated module (hPIM) during load operation. To achieve this goal, an efficient electromagnetic-circuit-thermal coupling (ECTC) analysis methodology is introduced. This ECTC methodology incorporates a fully integrated electromagnetic-circuit coupling (EMCC) analysis model for parasitic extraction in order to addressing their effects on power losses, and a simplified electrothermal coupling (SETC) analysis model for temperature evaluation in order to consider the coupling influence of the instantaneous junction temperature on instantaneous power losses. The SETC model couples a simple lookup table that maps the power loss (P) in terms of the temperature (T) constructed using the developed EMCC model, and an equivalent Foster thermal network model established through three-dimensional (3D) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) thermal flow analysis. This PT lookup table, replacing the tedious and time-consuming EMCC simulation, is responsible for fast estimation of temperature-dependent power losses. The proposed analysis models, namely the CFD, EMCC, and SETC analysis models, are validated through thermal experiments and detailed modeling. Finally, the influence of various operation conditions on the power losses of the hPIM during the power conversion operation is explored through parametric analysis. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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17 pages, 1206 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Causal Nexus Among Energy Dependency, Human Capital, and Renewable Energy: An Empirical Analysis for EU Members

by Gamze Sart, Halil Özekicioğlu, Marina Danilina, Levent Aytemiz and Yilmaz Bayar

Energies 2024, 17(21), 5305; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17215305 - 25 Oct 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 985

Abstract

Countries have turned to developing renewable energy production, avoiding the risks posed by the disruptions in global energy trade, the high volatility in energy prices, and the remarkable environmental impairment. Numerous economic, environmental, institutional, and social factors have been put forward as driving factors toward renewable energy. The goal of this research article is to study the causal nexus among energy dependency, human capital, real GDP per capita, CO₂ emissions, and renewable energy of the 27 EU members between 2000 and 2020 through Emirmahmutoglu and Kose causality test. The results of the panel-level causality tests demonstrate feedback interplay among energy dependency, human capital, real GDP per capita, CO₂ emissions, and renewable energy use. However, the results of the country-level causality analysis unveil that the interplay among renewable energy utilization, energy dependency, real GDP per capita, CO₂ emissions, and human capital remarkably varies among EU members. The results of this study suggest that renewable energy investments are significant instruments to make progress in energy security, human capital, real GDP per capita, and CO₂ emissions. Furthermore, energy security, human capital, real GDP per capita, and CO₂ emissions are significant drivers of renewable energy development. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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17 pages, 724 KiB

Open AccessArticle

The Convergence of Energy Poverty across Countries in the European Union

by Magdalena Cyrek, Piotr Cyrek, Wioletta Bieńkowska-Gołasa and Piotr Gołasa

Energies 2024, 17(19), 4957; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17194957 - 3 Oct 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1250

Abstract

With growing attention being paid to the problems of sustainable development and just transition, energy poverty emerges as a focal issue to be addressed by the Common Policy. However, the dynamics of this phenomenon across the EU still appear to be insufficiently recognised. Therefore, this study deals with the problem of energy poverty convergence and aims to test it for the 27 EU countries over the period 2010–2022. Contrary to limited studies of energy poverty convergence that use a simple indicator, it uses aggregate measures based on consensual consequential indicators of energy poverty to verify the hypothesis of convergence. Absolute and conditional beta convergence are considered. Potential determinants of energy poverty are incorporated into a model of conditional convergence. The analysis confirms the existence of beta convergence of energy poverty in the EU, indicating the progressing socio-economic cohesion of the member states. The results, thus, deliver some arguments supporting an integrative approach to the energy policy of the EU. The research reveals that, among the factors influencing EP dynamics, an important role may be attributed to technological catch-up and income distribution across a society. Sustainable development should thus be supported with energy modernisation efforts of an inclusive character. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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19 pages, 2492 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Transport Fleet Electrification Development Conditions—Perspective of Transport, Shipping, and Logistics Industry in Poland

by Marta Raźniewska and Anna Wronka

Energies 2024, 17(17), 4288; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17174288 - 27 Aug 2024

Viewed by 1035

Abstract

The development of electric vehicle fleets is an important element of today’s economic, social, and ecological development. This multidimensional sustainable process, although not easy, generates many tangible benefits for various stakeholders, ranging from environmental to financial and competence issues. Despite the fact that the phenomenon of transformation toward rational energy management is gaining momentum on a global scale, there is a significant disproportion in terms of development levels depending on the origin of the economy. The aim of this research article is to identify the key factors affecting the development of fleet electrification in the transport, shipping, and logistics (TSL) sector in Poland. Based on a literature review, a fleet development framework was developed using a PESTEL (political, economic, social, technological, environmental, and legal) analysis and evaluated by TSL companies. According to the conclusions drawn, the most important stimulants are economic factors and technological factors, which limit the development of electrified transport fleets in the TSL industry. Based on this, the authors propose various solutions to improve economic profitability and technological conditions. In addition, it was found that the attitudes of the decision makers at transport companies and cooperation within the TSL sector are also important. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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14 pages, 798 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Fundamental Barriers to Green Energy Production in Selected EU Countries

by Witold Jan Wardal, Kamila Mazur, Jan Barwicki and Mikhail Tseyko

Energies 2024, 17(15), 3664; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17153664 - 25 Jul 2024

Cited by 6 | Viewed by 1404

Abstract

Most EU countries are trying to develop new sources of energy to meet local power requirements due to energy shortages. The most popular renewable energy developments include biogas stations, wind turbines, water turbines, and solar systems. This article focuses on reviewing studies concerning the utilization of solar energy systems, especially photovoltaic (PV) ones, in European countries such as Germany, Italy, Spain, and Poland, which are leaders in PV installations. The review identifies factors influencing the development of PV investments and the energy situation in these countries. Economic, market, environmental, and infrastructural barriers, as well as driving factors, are presented. In all countries, the majority of installations were in the prosumer sector, with only a very small percentage in the state-owned sector. The methodology of the study covered the mentioned barriers, which were identified using scientific databases such as Scopus, Web of Science, and branch organizations websites like the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA). The novelty of the article lies in its examination of special barriers concerning green energy production in chosen EU countries. Normally, when reading articles on PV installations, as presented in the References section, one primarily observes a description of the construction process without deep involvement in the presented ideas. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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15 pages, 2153 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Evaluation of Energy-Production Preferences Using ANP Methodology Based on a Comprehensive Residential Survey

by Veronika Groma, Endre Börcsök, Christian Oltra, Chiara Bustreo, Adrián T. Terjék and János Osán

Energies 2024, 17(15), 3608; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17153608 - 23 Jul 2024

Cited by 1 | Viewed by 857

Abstract

Public opinion significantly influences discussions on the selection of technologies for future energy systems. Our goal was to support the development of energy scenarios by evaluating decision-making criteria and energy-production alternatives at a national level. The importance of the criteria and the determination of energy-production preferences were based on a social survey conducted in European countries. However, public opinions on specific technologies are frequently based on limited knowledge and can vary depending on the context. In our study, we analyzed the comparative data sets from an international survey on energy sources using three approaches: direct ranking, a comparison using various criteria, and classifying the knowledge of technologies. The evaluated results not only provide an excellent opportunity for the development of energy scenarios but also enable policymakers to develop more effective communication strategies to inform the public about technological choices and raise awareness of the need for modifications to the energy system. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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31 pages, 1230 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Changes in Gross Nuclear Electricity Production in the European Union

by Piotr Bórawski, Aneta Bełdycka-Bórawska, Bogdan Klepacki, Lisa Holden, Tomasz Rokicki and Andrzej Parzonko

Energies 2024, 17(14), 3554; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17143554 - 19 Jul 2024

Cited by 3 | Viewed by 1633

Abstract

Economic development requires a constant supply of energy. The utilization of fossil fuels causes environmental pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. The effects of fossil fuel use have impacted global warming, which may affect the world. The problem of environmental degradation can be decreased by using renewable energy sources and nuclear energy. The role of nuclear energy is increasing. More than 10% of electric energy is now produced from nuclear energy worldwide. However, the share varies by country. For example, in France, it is 70%, in Slovakia, it is 55%, and in Ukraine, it is 53%. Many countries do not have nuclear energy at all. This study aims to investigate the development of gross nuclear electricity production both in the world and in the European Union (EU) in terms of stationarity and prognosis. To achieve the goal of this study, the authors utilized descriptive statistics. The time range included the period 1990–2022. This long time period enabled us to conduct the ADF (Augmented Dickey Fuller) test. According to our analysis, gross nuclear electricity production in the European Union (EU) was stationary. We also evaluated future prognosis using the ARIMA (Autoregressive Moving Average) model. We also used the Vector Autoregressive (VAR) model to evaluate changes within nuclear electricity production. Based on our research, we can conclude that the data were stationary. Finally, we concluded that gross nuclear electricity production in the European Union (EU) will increase in eight countries. In 2022, countries such as Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Spain, France, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, and Finland increased their gross nuclear electricity production compared to 1990. Based on the ARIMA model prognosis, the following countries will increase their gross nuclear electricity production in the period 2023–2032: Belgium, Bulgaria, Czechia, Finland, Hungary, the Netherlands, Romania, Slovakia, and Slovenia. Based on the VAR model, we elaborated the prognosis, according to which countries such as France, Romania, Spain, and Sweden will increase their gross nuclear electricity production in the period 2023–2032. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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24 pages, 2243 KiB

Open AccessEditor’s ChoiceArticle

Energy Consumption Prediction in Residential Buildings—An Accurate and Interpretable Machine Learning Approach Combining Fuzzy Systems with Evolutionary Optimization

by Marian B. Gorzałczany and Filip Rudziński

Energies 2024, 17(13), 3242; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17133242 - 1 Jul 2024

Cited by 4 | Viewed by 1829

Abstract

This paper addresses the problem of accurate and interpretable prediction of energy consumption in residential buildings. The solution that we propose in this work employs the knowledge discovery machine learning approach combining fuzzy systems with evolutionary optimization. The contribution of this work is twofold, including both methodology and experimental investigations. As far as methodological contribution is concerned, in this paper, we present an original designing procedure of fuzzy rule-based prediction systems (FRBPSs) for accurate and transparent energy consumption prediction in residential buildings. The proposed FRBPSs are characterized by a genetically optimized accuracy–interpretability trade-off. The trade-off optimization is carried out by means of multi-objective evolutionary optimization algorithms—in particular, by our generalization of the well-known strength Pareto evolutionary algorithm 2 (SPEA2). The proposed FRBPSs’ designing procedure is our original extension and generalization (for regression problems operating on continuous outputs) of an approach to designing fuzzy rule-based classifiers (FRBCs) we developed earlier and published in 2020 in this journal. FRBCs operate on discrete outputs, i.e., class labels. The experimental contribution of this work includes designing the collection of FRBPSs for residential building energy consumption prediction using the data set published in 2024 and available from Kaggle Database Repository. Moreover, the comparison with 20 available alternative approaches is carried out, demonstrating that our approach significantly outperforms alternative methods in terms of interpretability and transparency of the energy consumption predictions made while remaining comparable or slightly superior in terms of the accuracy of those predictions. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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14 pages, 1802 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Leading Point Multi-Regression Model for Detection of Anomalous Days in German Energy System

by Krzysztof Karpio, Piotr Łukasiewicz and Tomasz Ząbkowski

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2531; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112531 - 24 May 2024

Viewed by 791

Abstract

In this article, the Leading Point Multi-Regression model was applied to identify days with anomalous energy consumption profiles. The data for the analysis come from the German energy system and they represent the hourly energy demand observed between 2006 and 2015. Days with abnormal daily profiles were identified based on the statistical analysis of the errors observed for the model. The accuracy of the model is very high and comparable with other models, e.g., LSTM, K-means, Recurrent NN, and tree-based ML methods. However, these methods rely on external factors (e.g., humidity, temperature, and sunshine) impacting energy consumption while our model uses only the energy consumption at specific fixed hours, regardless of external factors, thus being universal. Days with anomalous energy consumption profiles were identified as days related to celebration of New Year’s Eve and the New Year. Also, anomalies were identified for some other days, which were not that obvious, including Good Friday, National Day of Mourning, and, interestingly, the day of the Germany–Turkey match during the European Championship in 2008. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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31 pages, 539 KiB

Open AccessArticle

Impact of Economic Awareness on Sustainable Energy Consumption: Results of Research in a Segment of Polish Households

by Bożena Gajdzik, Magdalena Jaciow, Kinga Hoffmann-Burdzińska, Robert Wolny, Radosław Wolniak and Wiesław Wes Grebski

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2483; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112483 - 22 May 2024

Cited by 9 | Viewed by 2432

Abstract

This manuscript explores the relationship between the economic awareness (as a part of energy awareness) of Polish households and their sustainable energy consumption practices. Sustainable consumption is measured by the frequency of behaviors such as turning off electrical devices when not in use, removing mobile device chargers from sockets, switching off lights when leaving a room, preferring showers over baths, using washing machines and dishwashers only when full, and purchasing energy-efficient appliances and light bulbs. Economic awareness is gauged through variables such as knowledge of electricity tariffs, understanding of electric bill components, awareness of electricity prices, exact knowledge of electricity expenses, electricity usage in kWh, knowledge of effective energy-saving methods, and familiarity with the energy efficiency classes of appliances and light bulbs. This study presents profiles of households with high and low economic awareness regarding their electricity expenditures and examines how these profiles differ in their sustainable energy consumption behaviors. This research is based on a survey of 1407 Polish households conducted online in 2023. Data collected from the survey were subjected to statistical analysis and are presented in tables and graphs. The findings are discussed in the context of the existing literature in the field, highlighting the implications of economic awareness on sustainable energy consumption practices. This research contributes to understanding how economic knowledge influences energy-saving behaviors among Polish households, providing insights for policymakers and energy conservation initiatives. One of the key findings of this paper is the significant association between economic awareness, energy-saving knowledge, and the adoption of sustainable energy consumption behaviors among Polish households. This study reveals that households with higher levels of economic awareness demonstrate a notably higher frequency of practices related to sustainable energy consumption compared to those with lower economic awareness. Similarly, households equipped with greater knowledge about energy-saving techniques exhibit a higher propensity to adopt energy-efficient behaviors. This underscores important roles of economic literacy and education in fostering behavioral changes towards more sustainable energy practices, highlighting the importance of targeted interventions and educational campaigns aimed at enhancing economic awareness and promoting energy-saving knowledge among consumers. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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Review

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34 pages, 5617 KiB

Open AccessReview

Trends in Hybrid Renewable Energy System (HRES) Applications: A Review

by Daniel Alejandro Pérez Uc, Susana Estefany de León Aldaco and Jesús Aguayo Alquicira

Energies 2024, 17(11), 2578; https://doi.org/10.3390/en17112578 - 26 May 2024

Cited by 8 | Viewed by 3812

Abstract

Microgrids and hybrid renewable energy systems play a crucial role in today’s energy transition. They enable local power generation and distribution, reducing dependence on large centralized infrastructures, can operate independently or connected to a grid, and can provide backup power, thus increasing system resilience. In addition, they combine multiple renewable energy sources, such as solar, wind, hydro, and biomass, to maximize the efficiency and reliability of the supply, and are also adaptable to location-specific conditions, taking advantage of locally available energy resources and reducing the need for energy imports. Moreover, they contribute to decarbonization goals by offering a cleaner and more sustainable alternative. In this article, a documentary review is presented on the interaction of Homer Pro software 3.16.2 (July 2023), used for the design of hybrid renewable energy systems (HRES), with other methods of optimization or sizing. Allusion is made to the type of architecture in the most prominent clean and fossil source configurations, the levelized cost, net annual cost, and maintenance and capital investment cost. A comparison is made among the works reported in the last five years regarding the use of this software tool, based on load demand, geographical area, renewable energy sources, fossil sources, and objective functions, applied to the educational, rural, and industrial sectors. It is shown that India is one of the countries that has reported the most number of HRES techno-economic environmental analysis works, and that the case studies have focused approximately 47% on rural areas, 20% on educational agencies, 14% on commerce and industry, and 29% on urban buildings. Full article

(This article belongs to the Special Issue Energy Consumption in the EU Countries: 3rd Edition)

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