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Cells
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Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition
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Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition

A special issue of Cells (ISSN 2073-4409). This special issue belongs to the section "Cellular Pathology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (31 December 2021) | Viewed by 39589

Special Issue Editors

Prof. Kai Sun

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Guest Editor
Center for Metabolic and Degenerative Diseases, Brown Foundation Institute of Molecular Medicine for the Prevention of Human Diseases, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
Interests: adipose tissue remodeling; brown fat activation; sympathetic innervation; lipolysis; thermogenesis; energy expenditure
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Prof. Dr. Jae Bum Kim

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Biological Sciences Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Seoul National University, Gwanak-Gu, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
Interests: mechanism of adipocyte differentiation; gene expression regulation of lipogenesis and insulin-dependent genes; molecular mechanisms for obesity and diabetes

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

Over the past decades, emerging evidence has accumulated to support the notion that adipose tissue is not just an inert site for lipid storage. It is also an active endocrine organ, which dynamically secrets multiple adipocyte-derived factors that exert a function on the local- and whole-body metabolism. Furthermore, adipose tissue is actively involved in a complex network of endocrine, paracrine, and autocrine signals, which influence other tissues and organs, including the brain, heart, liver, skeletal muscle, pancreas, and immune system. Adipose tissue has two types—white and brown. The adipocytes in these two types exhibit different a morphology and functions. While the white adipose tissue is the major site to store the lipids and secret adipokines/hormones, the brown adipose tissue is responsible for lipid burning and thermogenesis. During the development of obesity, adipose tissue loses its proper functions. Under the dysfunctional condition, fatty acids, together with other pathological factors, may cause cell stress, local hypoxia, and inflammation, which eventually lead to systemic insulin resistance, the hallmark of type-2 diabetes.

The primary focus of the Special Issue will be focused on a new understanding of adipose tissue biology/pathology, and its central role in the interplay with other tissues and organs. As such, the research articles and/or reviews will explore the mechanisms governing adipose tissue remodelling during obesity, and a potential link between dysfunctional adipose tissue and whole-body metabolic disorders. Findings here will therefore provide novel insights into the signalling pathways that potentially serve as targets to treat obesity and the related metabolic diseases.

Prof. Kai Sun
Prof. Dr. Jae Kim
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Submitted manuscripts should not have been published previously, nor be under consideration for publication elsewhere (except conference proceedings papers). All manuscripts are thoroughly refereed through a single-blind peer-review process. A guide for authors and other relevant information for submission of manuscripts is available on the Instructions for Authors page. Cells is an international peer-reviewed open access semimonthly journal published by MDPI.

Please visit the Instructions for Authors page before submitting a manuscript. The Article Processing Charge (APC) for publication in this open access journal is 2700 CHF (Swiss Francs). Submitted papers should be well formatted and use good English. Authors may use MDPI's English editing service prior to publication or during author revisions.

Keywords

  • obesity
  • adipose tissue remodeling
  • energy expenditure
  • lipolysis
  • lipid signaling
  • lipogenesis
  • adipogenesis
  • inflammation
  • insulin resistance

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Related Special Issue

Published Papers (10 papers)

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Research

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13 pages, 2808 KiB  
Article
Adipocyte Utx Deficiency Promotes High-Fat Diet-Induced Metabolic Dysfunction in Mice
by Fenfen Li, Shirong Wang, Xin Cui, Jia Jing, Liqing Yu, Bingzhong Xue and Hang Shi
Cells 2022, 11(2), 181; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11020181 - 6 Jan 2022
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2039
Abstract
While the main function of white adipose tissue (WAT) is to store surplus of energy as triacylglycerol, that of brown adipose tissue (BAT) is to burn energy as heat. Epigenetic mechanisms participate prominently in both WAT and BAT energy metabolism. We previously reported [...] Read more.
While the main function of white adipose tissue (WAT) is to store surplus of energy as triacylglycerol, that of brown adipose tissue (BAT) is to burn energy as heat. Epigenetic mechanisms participate prominently in both WAT and BAT energy metabolism. We previously reported that the histone demethylase ubiquitously transcribed tetratricopeptide (Utx) is a positive regulator of brown adipocyte thermogenesis. Here, we aimed to investigate whether Utx also regulates WAT metabolism in vivo. We generated a mouse model with Utx deficiency in adipocytes (AUTXKO). AUTXKO animals fed a chow diet had higher body weight, more fat mass and impaired glucose tolerance. AUTXKO mice also exhibited cold intolerance with an impaired brown fat thermogenic program. When challenged with high-fat diet (HFD), AUTXKO mice displayed adipose dysfunction featured by suppressed lipogenic pathways, exacerbated inflammation and fibrosis with less fat storage in adipose tissues and more lipid storage in the liver; as a result, AUTXKO mice showed a disturbance in whole body glucose homeostasis and hepatic steatosis. Our data demonstrate that Utx deficiency in adipocytes limits adipose tissue expansion under HFD challenge and induces metabolic dysfunction via adipose tissue remodeling. We conclude that adipocyte Utx is a key regulator of systemic metabolic homeostasis. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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20 pages, 4533 KiB  
Article
Adipose-Specific PPARα Knockout Mice Have Increased Lipogenesis by PASK–SREBP1 Signaling and a Polarity Shift to Inflammatory Macrophages in White Adipose Tissue
by Terry D. Hinds, Jr., Zachary A. Kipp, Mei Xu, Frederique B. Yiannikouris, Andrew J. Morris, Donald F. Stec, Walter Wahli and David E. Stec
Cells 2022, 11(1), 4; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11010004 - 21 Dec 2021
Cited by 39 | Viewed by 6331
Abstract
The nuclear receptor PPARα is associated with reducing adiposity, especially in the liver, where it transactivates genes for β-oxidation. Contrarily, the function of PPARα in extrahepatic tissues is less known. Therefore, we established the first adipose-specific PPARα knockout (PparaFatKO) mice [...] Read more.
The nuclear receptor PPARα is associated with reducing adiposity, especially in the liver, where it transactivates genes for β-oxidation. Contrarily, the function of PPARα in extrahepatic tissues is less known. Therefore, we established the first adipose-specific PPARα knockout (PparaFatKO) mice to determine the signaling position of PPARα in adipose tissue expansion that occurs during the development of obesity. To assess the function of PPARα in adiposity, female and male mice were placed on a high-fat diet (HFD) or normal chow for 30 weeks. Only the male PparaFatKO animals had significantly more adiposity in the inguinal white adipose tissue (iWAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT) with HFD, compared to control littermates. No changes in adiposity were observed in female mice compared to control littermates. In the males, the loss of PPARα signaling in adipocytes caused significantly higher cholesterol esters, activation of the transcription factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1 (SREBP-1), and a shift in macrophage polarity from M2 to M1 macrophages. We found that the loss of adipocyte PPARα caused significantly higher expression of the Per-Arnt-Sim kinase (PASK), a kinase that activates SREBP-1. The hyperactivity of the PASK–SREBP-1 axis significantly increased the lipogenesis proteins fatty acid synthase (FAS) and stearoyl-Coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1) and raised the expression of genes for cholesterol metabolism (Scarb1, Abcg1, and Abca1). The loss of adipocyte PPARα increased Nos2 in the males, an M1 macrophage marker indicating that the population of macrophages had changed to proinflammatory. Our results demonstrate the first adipose-specific actions for PPARα in protecting against lipogenesis, inflammation, and cholesterol ester accumulation that leads to adipocyte tissue expansion in obesity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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14 pages, 1616 KiB  
Article
NPC1L1 Deficiency Suppresses Ileal Fibroblast Growth Factor 15 Expression and Increases Bile Acid Pool Size in High-Fat-Diet-Fed Mice
by Lin Jia, Yinyan Ma, Jamie Haywood, Long Jiang, Bingzhong Xue, Hang Shi, Paul A. Dawson and Liqing Yu
Cells 2021, 10(12), 3468; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10123468 - 9 Dec 2021
Cited by 6 | Viewed by 2868
Abstract
Niemann–Pick C1-like 1 (NPC1L1) mediates intestinal uptake of dietary and biliary cholesterol and is the target of ezetimibe, a cholesterol absorption inhibitor used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Genetic deletion of NPC1L1 or ezetimibe treatment protects mice from high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity; however, the molecular [...] Read more.
Niemann–Pick C1-like 1 (NPC1L1) mediates intestinal uptake of dietary and biliary cholesterol and is the target of ezetimibe, a cholesterol absorption inhibitor used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Genetic deletion of NPC1L1 or ezetimibe treatment protects mice from high-fat diet (HFD)-induced obesity; however, the molecular mechanisms responsible for this therapeutic benefit remain unknown. A major metabolic fate of cholesterol is its conversion to bile acids. We found that NPC1L1 knockout (L1-KO) mice fed an HFD had increased energy expenditure, bile acid pool size, and fecal bile acid excretion rates. The elevated bile acid pool in the HFD-fed L1-KO mice was enriched with tauro-β-muricholic acid. These changes in the L1-KO mice were associated with reduced ileal mRNA expression of fibroblast growth factor 15 (FGF15) and increased hepatic mRNA expression of cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase (Cyp7A1) and mitochondrial sterol 27-hydroxylase (Cyp27A1). In addition, mRNA expression of the membrane bile acid receptor Takeda G protein-coupled receptor 5 (TGR5) and type 2 iodothyronine deiodinase (Dio2) were elevated in brown adipose tissue of L1-KO mice, which is known to promote energy expenditure. Thus, altered bile acid homeostasis and signaling may play a role in protecting L1-KO mice against HFD-induced obesity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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15 pages, 25215 KiB  
Article
IL-1β and TNFα Cooperativity in Regulating IL-6 Expression in Adipocytes Depends on CREB Binding and H3K14 Acetylation
by Areej Al-Roub, Ashraf Al Madhoun, Nadeem Akhter, Reeby Thomas, Lavina Miranda, Texy Jacob, Ebaa Al-Ozairi, Fahd Al-Mulla, Sardar Sindhu and Rasheed Ahmad
Cells 2021, 10(11), 3228; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10113228 - 19 Nov 2021
Cited by 19 | Viewed by 3215
Abstract
IL-6 was found to be overexpressed in the adipose tissue of obese individuals, which may cause insulin resistance. However, the regulation of IL-6 in adipocytes in obesity setting remains to be explored. Since IL-1β and TNFα are increased in obese adipose tissue and [...] Read more.
IL-6 was found to be overexpressed in the adipose tissue of obese individuals, which may cause insulin resistance. However, the regulation of IL-6 in adipocytes in obesity setting remains to be explored. Since IL-1β and TNFα are increased in obese adipose tissue and promote inflammation, we investigated whether cooperation between IL-1β and TNFα influences the production of IL-6. Our data show that IL-1β and TNFα cooperatively enhance IL-6 expression in 3T3L-1 adipocytes. Similar results were seen in human adipocytes isolated from subcutaneous and visceral fat. Although adipocytes isolated from lean and obese adipose tissues showed similar responses for production of IL-6 when incubated with IL-1β/TNFα, secretion of IL-6 was higher in adipocytes from obese tissue. TNFα treatment enhanced CREB binding at CRE locus, which was further enhanced with IL-1β, and was associated with elevated histone acetylation at CRE locus. On the other hand, IL-1β treatments mediated C/EBPβ binding to NF-IL-6 consensus, but not sufficiently to mediate significant histone acetylation. Interestingly, treatment with both stimulatory factors amplifies CREB binding and H3K14 acetylation. Furthermore, histone acetylation inhibition by anacardic acid or curcumin reduces IL-6 production. Notably, inhibition of histone deacetylase (HDAC) activity by trichostatin A (TSA) resulted in the further elevation of IL-6 expression in response to combined treatment of adipocytes with IL-1β and TNFα. In conclusion, our results show that there is an additive interaction between IL-1β and TNFα that depends on CREB binding and H3K14 acetylation, and leads to the elevation of IL-6 expression in adipocytes, providing interesting pathophysiological connection among IL-1β, TNFα, and IL-6 in settings such as obesity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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15 pages, 2003 KiB  
Article
Adipose Tissue Steroid Receptor RNA Activator 1 (SRA1) Expression Is Associated with Obesity, Insulin Resistance, and Inflammation
by Shihab Kochumon, Hossein Arefanian, Sardar Sindhu, Steve Shenouda, Reeby Thomas, Fahd Al-Mulla, Jaakko Tuomilehto and Rasheed Ahmad
Cells 2021, 10(10), 2602; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10102602 - 30 Sep 2021
Cited by 8 | Viewed by 2882
Abstract
Steroid receptor RNA activator 1 (SRA1) is involved in pathophysiological responses of adipose tissue (AT) in obesity. In vitro and animal studies have elucidated its role in meta-inflammation. Since SRA1 AT expression in obesity/type 2 diabetes (T2D) and the relationship with [...] Read more.
Steroid receptor RNA activator 1 (SRA1) is involved in pathophysiological responses of adipose tissue (AT) in obesity. In vitro and animal studies have elucidated its role in meta-inflammation. Since SRA1 AT expression in obesity/type 2 diabetes (T2D) and the relationship with immune-metabolic signatures remains unclear, we assessed AT SRA1 expression and its association with immune–metabolic markers in individuals with obesity/T2D. For this, 55 non-diabetic and 53 T2D individuals classified as normal weight (NW; lean), overweight, and obese were recruited and fasting blood and subcutaneous fat biopsy samples were collected. Plasma metabolic markers were assessed using commercial kits and AT expression of SRA1 and selected immune markers using RT-qPCR. SRA1 expression was significantly higher in non-diabetic obese compared with NW individuals. SRA1 expression associated with BMI, PBF, serum insulin, and HOMA-IR in the total study population and people without diabetes. SRA1 associated with waist circumference in people without diabetes and NW participants, whereas it associated inversely with HbA1c in overweight participants. In most study subgroups AT SRA1 expression associated directly with CXCL9, CXCL10, CXCL11, TNF-α, TGF-β, IL2RA, and IL18, but inversely with CCL19 and CCR2. TGF-β/IL18 independently predicted the SRA1 expression in people without diabetes and in the total study population, while TNF-α/IL-2RA predicted SRA1 only in people with diabetes. TNF-α also predicted SRA1 in both NW and obese people regardless of the diabetes status. In conclusion, AT SRA1 expression is elevated in people with obesity which associates with typical immunometabolic markers of obesity/T2D, implying that SRA1 may have potential as a biomarker of metabolic derangements. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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25 pages, 5493 KiB  
Article
CXCR1/2 Inhibitor Ladarixin Ameliorates the Insulin Resistance of 3T3-L1 Adipocytes by Inhibiting Inflammation and Improving Insulin Signaling
by Vanessa Castelli, Laura Brandolini, Michele d’Angelo, Cristina Giorgio, Margherita Alfonsetti, Pasquale Cocchiaro, Francesca Lombardi, Annamaria Cimini and Marcello Allegretti
Cells 2021, 10(9), 2324; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10092324 - 6 Sep 2021
Cited by 9 | Viewed by 3660
Abstract
Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a severe public health issue worldwide. It displays a harmful effect on different organs as the eyes, kidneys and neural cells due to insulin resistance and high blood glucose concentrations. To date, the available treatments for this disorder [...] Read more.
Type 2 diabetes mellitus is a severe public health issue worldwide. It displays a harmful effect on different organs as the eyes, kidneys and neural cells due to insulin resistance and high blood glucose concentrations. To date, the available treatments for this disorder remain limited. Several reports have correlated obesity with type 2 diabetes. Mainly, dysfunctional adipocytes and the regulation of high secretion of inflammatory cytokines are the crucial links between obesity and insulin resistance. Several clinical and epidemiological studies have also correlated the onset of type 2 diabetes with inflammation, which is now indicated as a new target for type 2 diabetes treatment. Thus, it appears essential to discover new drugs able to inhibit the secretion of proinflammatory adipocytokines in type 2 diabetes. Adipocytes produce inflammatory cytokines in response to inflammation or high glucose levels. Once activated by a specific ligand, CXCR1 and CXCR2 mediate some cytokines’ effects by activating an intracellular signal cascade once activated by a specific ligand. Therefore, it is conceivable to hypothesize that a specific antagonist of these receptors may ameliorate type 2 diabetes and glucose metabolism. Herein, differentiated 3T3-L1-adipocytes were subjected to high glucose or inflammatory conditions or the combination of both and then treated with ladarixin, a CXCR1/2 inhibitor. The results obtained point towards the positive regulation by ladarixin on insulin sensitivity, glucose transporters GLUT1 and GLUT4, cytokine proteome profile and lipid metabolism, thus suggesting ladarixin as a potentially helpful treatment in type 2 diabetes mellitus and obesity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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14 pages, 5748 KiB  
Article
Anti-Obesity Drug Orlistat Alleviates Western-Diet-Driven Colitis-Associated Colon Cancer via Inhibition of STAT3 and NF-κB-Mediated Signaling
by Bo-Ram Jin, Hyo-Jung Kim, Seo-Ah Sim, Minho Lee and Hyo-Jin An
Cells 2021, 10(8), 2060; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10082060 - 11 Aug 2021
Cited by 23 | Viewed by 4704
Abstract
Many researchers have argued that Western diet (WD)-induced obesity accelerates inflammation and that inflammation is a link between obesity and colorectal cancer (CRC). This study investigated the effect of WDs on the development and progression of colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC) and the efficacy [...] Read more.
Many researchers have argued that Western diet (WD)-induced obesity accelerates inflammation and that inflammation is a link between obesity and colorectal cancer (CRC). This study investigated the effect of WDs on the development and progression of colitis-associated colon cancer (CAC) and the efficacy of the anti-obesity agent orlistat on WD-driven CAC in mice. The results revealed that the WD exacerbated CAC in azoxymethane (AOM)/dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced mice, which showed increased mortality, tumor formation, and aggravation of tumor progression. Furthermore, WD feeding also upregulated inflammation, hyperplasia, and tumorigenicity levels through the activation of STAT3 and NF-κB signaling in an AOM/DSS-induced mouse model. In contrast, treatment with orlistat increased the survival rate and alleviated the symptoms of CAC, including a recovery in colon length and tumor production decreases in WD-driven AOM/DSS-induced mice. Additionally, orlistat inhibited the extent of inflammation, hyperplasia, and tumor progression via the inhibition of STAT3 and NF-κB activation. Treatment with orlistat also suppressed the β-catenin, slug, XIAP, Cdk4, cyclin D, and Bcl-2 protein levels in WD-driven AOM/DSS-induced mice. The results of this study indicate that orlistat alleviates colon cancer promotion in WD-driven CAC mice by suppressing inflammation, especially by inhibiting STAT3 and NF-κB activation. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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15 pages, 2663 KiB  
Article
Impact of the Uncoupling Protein 1 on Cardiovascular Risk in Patients with Rheumatoid Arthritis
by Lovisa I. Lyngfelt, Malin C. Erlandsson, Mitra Nadali, Shahram Hedjazifar, Rille Pullerits, Karin M. Andersson, Petra Brembeck, Sofia Töyrä Silfverswärd, Ulf Smith and Maria I. Bokarewa
Cells 2021, 10(5), 1131; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10051131 - 7 May 2021
Cited by 4 | Viewed by 2432
Abstract
Adiposity is strongly associated with cardiovascular (CV) morbidity. Uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) increases energy expenditure in adipocytes and may counteract adiposity. Our objective was to investigate a connection between UCP1 expression and cardiovascular health in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in a longitudinal [...] Read more.
Adiposity is strongly associated with cardiovascular (CV) morbidity. Uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1) increases energy expenditure in adipocytes and may counteract adiposity. Our objective was to investigate a connection between UCP1 expression and cardiovascular health in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in a longitudinal observational study. Transcription of UCP1 was measured by qPCR in the subcutaneous adipose tissue of 125 female RA patients and analyzed with respect to clinical parameters and the estimated CV risk. Development of new CV events and diabetes mellitus was followed for five years. Transcription of UCP1 was identified in 89 (71%) patients. UCP1 positive patients had often active RA disease (p = 0.017), high serum levels of IL6 (p = 0.0025) and were frequently overweight (p = 0.015). IL-6hiBMIhi patients and patients treated with IL6 receptor inhibitor tocilizumab had significantly higher levels of UCP1 compared to other RA patients (p < 0.0001, p = 0.032, respectively). Both UCP1hi groups displayed unfavorable metabolic profiles with high plasma glucose levels and high triglyceride-to-HDL ratios, which indicated insulin resistance. Prospective follow-up revealed no significant difference in the incidence of new CV and metabolic events in the UCP1hi groups and remaining RA patients. The study shows that high transcription of UCP1 in adipose tissue is related to IL6-driven processes and reflects primarily metabolic CV risk in female RA patients. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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Review

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23 pages, 3109 KiB  
Review
Apelin, APJ, and ELABELA: Role in Placental Function, Pregnancy, and Foetal Development—An Overview
by Monika Dawid, Ewa Mlyczyńska, Małgorzata Jurek, Natalia Respekta, Karolina Pich, Patrycja Kurowska, Wiktoria Gieras, Tomasz Milewicz, Małgorzata Kotula-Balak and Agnieszka Rak
Cells 2022, 11(1), 99; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells11010099 - 29 Dec 2021
Cited by 24 | Viewed by 4081
Abstract
The apelinergic system, which includes the apelin receptor (APJ) as well as its two specific ligands, namely apelin and ELABELA (ELA/APELA/Toddler), have been the subject of many recent studies due to their pleiotropic effects in humans and other animals. Expression of these factors [...] Read more.
The apelinergic system, which includes the apelin receptor (APJ) as well as its two specific ligands, namely apelin and ELABELA (ELA/APELA/Toddler), have been the subject of many recent studies due to their pleiotropic effects in humans and other animals. Expression of these factors has been investigated in numerous tissues and organs—for example, the lungs, heart, uterus, and ovary. Moreover, a number of studies have been devoted to understanding the role of apelin and the entire apelinergic system in the most important processes in the body, starting from early stages of human life with regulation of placental function and the proper course of pregnancy. Disturbances in the balance of placental processes such as proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, or hormone secretion may lead to specific pregnancy pathologies; therefore, there is a great need to search for substances that would help in their early diagnosis or treatment. A number of studies have indicated that compounds of the apelinergic system could serve this purpose. Hence, in this review, we summarized the most important reports about the role of apelin and the entire apelinergic system in the regulation of placental physiology and pregnancy. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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17 pages, 7717 KiB  
Review
T Cell Immunosenescence in Aging, Obesity, and Cardiovascular Disease
by Kohsuke Shirakawa and Motoaki Sano
Cells 2021, 10(9), 2435; https://doi.org/10.3390/cells10092435 - 15 Sep 2021
Cited by 43 | Viewed by 6280
Abstract
Although advances in preventive medicine have greatly improved prognosis, cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death worldwide. This clearly indicates that there remain residual cardiovascular risks that have not been targeted by conventional therapies. The results of multiple animal studies and [...] Read more.
Although advances in preventive medicine have greatly improved prognosis, cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death worldwide. This clearly indicates that there remain residual cardiovascular risks that have not been targeted by conventional therapies. The results of multiple animal studies and clinical trials clearly indicate that inflammation is the most important residual risk and a potential target for CVD prevention. The immune cell network is intricately regulated to maintain homeostasis. Ageing associated changes to the immune system occurs in both innate and adaptive immune cells, however T cells are most susceptible to this process. T-cell changes due to thymic degeneration and homeostatic proliferation, metabolic abnormalities, telomere length shortening, and epigenetic changes associated with aging and obesity may not only reduce normal immune function, but also induce inflammatory tendencies, a process referred to as immunosenescence. Since the disruption of biological homeostasis by T cell immunosenescence is closely related to the development and progression of CVD via inflammation, senescent T cells are attracting attention as a new therapeutic target. In this review, we discuss the relationship between CVD and T cell immunosenescence associated with aging and obesity. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Adipocytes and Metabolic Health - Second Edition)
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