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Brain Sciences
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Beyond Boundaries: Current Advances in Developmental Learning Disorders
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Beyond Boundaries: Current Advances in Developmental Learning Disorders

A special issue of Brain Sciences (ISSN 2076-3425). This special issue belongs to the section "Neuropsychology".

Deadline for manuscript submissions: closed (15 January 2026) | Viewed by 5200

Special Issue Editors

Dr. Daniela Traficante

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Guest Editor
Department of Psychology, Catholic University of the Sacred Heart, 20123 Milan, Italy
Interests: dyslexia; cognitive assessment; word morphology
Special Issues, Collections and Topics in MDPI journals
Dr. Luisa Girelli

E-Mail Website
Guest Editor
Department of Psychology, University of Milan-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy
Interests: dyscalculia; neuropsychological assessment; experiential factors and cognitive functioning in development

Special Issue Information

Dear Colleagues,

In the last decade, a wide debate has been raised within scientific and clinical communities about the opportunity to go beyond the discrete categories described in international diagnostic systems by assuming a dimensional approach to the study of neurodevelopmental disorders (Astle et al., 2022). In fact, although most research works in this field assume that the diagnostic criteria reflect an underlying reality, growing evidence suggests that this is not the case. Alternatively, a transdiagnostic approach has been proposed. According to this view, priority should be given to characteristics and mechanisms that can offer useful clues to describe behavioural deficits in detail and to find customized treatments, even when symptoms are not fully consistent with any conventional diagnostic category.

In this Special Issue, research works and systematic reviews on learning disorders, realized and discussed considering the transdiagnostic perspective, are welcomed. In particular, the description of domain-general components underlying different behaviours and the comparison between different types of deficits within the same symptom (dyslexia, poor reading comprehension, dysgraphia, poor text production, low numeracy, poor calculation skills) are expected, as they can provide useful support to the clinical and research work on developmental learning disorders.

Dr. Daniela Traficante
Dr. Luisa Girelli
Guest Editors

Manuscript Submission Information

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Keywords

  • developmental learning disorders
  • transdiagnostic approach
  • comorbidity
  • domain-general components

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Published Papers (4 papers)

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Research

23 pages, 682 KB  
Article
What Lies Behind Diagnostic Labels? High Intra-Individual Variability Is the True Cognitive Signature of University Students with Specific Learning Disorders
by Sara Zonca, Marzia Lucia Bizzaro and Luisa Girelli
Brain Sci. 2026, 16(4), 404; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16040404 - 10 Apr 2026
Viewed by 718
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Specific Learning Disorders are lifelong neurodevelopmental conditions that persist in adulthood, yet research has traditionally focused on children. In adults, there is significant heterogeneity in cognitive profiles and a lack of consensus on how to operationalize these disorders. This study aims [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Specific Learning Disorders are lifelong neurodevelopmental conditions that persist in adulthood, yet research has traditionally focused on children. In adults, there is significant heterogeneity in cognitive profiles and a lack of consensus on how to operationalize these disorders. This study aims to map the variability in cognitive functioning in university students with Specific Learning Disorders and investigate whether cognitive profiles differ across diagnostic categories and comorbidities. Methods: A retrospective analysis was conducted on the clinical documentation of 166 university students with a diagnosis of Specific Learning Disorders. Participants were categorized into three subgroups: predominant reading disorder, predominant arithmetic disorder, and mixed learning disorder. Cognitive functioning was assessed using Wechsler scales indices. Data were analyzed using linear mixed-effects models and Latent Profile Analysis. Results: Across the sample, reasoning abilities were significantly higher than cognitive efficiency, with working memory consistently emerging as a core weakness. The mixed-disorder group exhibited the lowest cognitive scores and the greatest working memory deficits. Latent Profile Analysis identified two distinct latent subgroups: a “Low Profile” characterized by weaker working memory and a “High Profile” characterized by stronger reasoning and balanced efficiency. Diagnostic labels were only partially aligned with these profiles; while the mixed-disorder group was overrepresented in the “Low Profile,” substantial intra-individual variability existed across all diagnostic categories. Conclusions: The findings suggest that traditional categorical labels for Specific Learning Disorders have limited explanatory power in adulthood, given the high heterogeneity of cognitive functioning. Cognitive weaknesses, particularly in working memory, persist even in high-achieving university students. Clinical and educational support should shift from a label-based approach toward a dimensional, profile-based model to better address the unique strengths and vulnerabilities of adults with Specific Learning Disorders. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beyond Boundaries: Current Advances in Developmental Learning Disorders)
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23 pages, 1473 KB  
Article
Associations Between Language, Speech Sound, and Learning Disorders
by Chiara Valeria Marinelli, Emiliano Pizzicannella, Marinella De Salvatore, Daniela Sarti, Vincenza Tommasi, Pierluigi Zoccolotti, Luca Andreoli and Elisa Granocchio
Brain Sci. 2026, 16(3), 341; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16030341 - 21 Mar 2026
Viewed by 664
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Children with specific learning disorders (SLD) often present a history of speech and language deficits. However, systematic evidence on the co-occurrence among distinct learning and communication disorders remains limited. This study aimed to describe the associations among reading, spelling, and [...] Read more.
Background and Objectives: Children with specific learning disorders (SLD) often present a history of speech and language deficits. However, systematic evidence on the co-occurrence among distinct learning and communication disorders remains limited. This study aimed to describe the associations among reading, spelling, and math disorders and their relationships with clinically diagnosed speech sound and language disorders and speech sound disorders in a large, well-characterized clinical sample. Methods: 235 3rd- to 8th-grade Italian children with SLD participated in the study. They were categorized in terms of learning (reading, spelling, and math) and comorbid communication disorders (speech sound, and language disorders), according to established diagnostic criteria. Prevalence rates were assessed for each of the resulting subgroups. Results: Comorbidity between the three learning disorders was very frequent; 75.4% of children showed different forms of multiple SLDs, with 47.7% presenting a combined reading, spelling, and math disorder. Communication disorders were reported in 40.4% of the sample. Both language and speech sound disorders frequently co-occurred with spelling disorders, whereas associations with isolated reading or math disorders were more infrequent. Additionally, speech sound disorders frequently co-occurred with isolated spelling disorders, whereas language disorders frequently co-occurred with comorbid spelling disorders. Conclusions: Consistent with previous evidence, the study shows that learning disorders are highly comorbid with communication disorders. Critically, speech and language disorders are most frequently comorbid with spelling disorder, independent of reading and math deficits, highlighting spelling as a potential key interface between phonology, language, and learning. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beyond Boundaries: Current Advances in Developmental Learning Disorders)
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20 pages, 749 KB  
Article
Sense of Time in Neurodevelopmental Disorders: ADHD and Developmental Dyscalculia from a Dimensional and Transdiagnostic Perspective
by Federica Cortesi, Sara Eralda Santirocchi, Rachele Montanelli, Lisa Toffoli, Andrea Gambarini, Gian Marco Marzocchi, Giovanna Mioni, Giovanni Mento, Anna Lucia Ogliari, Enrico Toffalini and Valentina Tobia
Brain Sci. 2026, 16(2), 249; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci16020249 - 23 Feb 2026
Viewed by 1392
Abstract
Background: Sense of Time (SoT) refers to a range of cognitive abilities involved in the time processing (TP) and management (TM) of temporal durations. Impairments in these abilities can impact various domains of daily life, including academic, social, and recreational activities. Recent evidence [...] Read more.
Background: Sense of Time (SoT) refers to a range of cognitive abilities involved in the time processing (TP) and management (TM) of temporal durations. Impairments in these abilities can impact various domains of daily life, including academic, social, and recreational activities. Recent evidence suggests that children with neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs), particularly ADHD and Developmental Dyscalculia (DD), often exhibit deficits in time-related cognitive functions. Adopting a transdiagnostic approach, the present study investigates the relationships among SoT skills, inattention and hyperactivity, and mathematical difficulties, considering both categorical and dimensional perspectives. Methods: A total of 811 children completed SoT assessments (computerized tasks and self- and proxy-report questionnaires), mathematical tests, and questionnaires measuring attention and hyperactivity traits (self and proxy report). Results: Correlational analyses revealed significant associations between SoT and attention/hyperactivity, as well as between SoT and mathematical abilities. Group differences in TP and TM variables were examined using both categorical (diagnostic groups) and dimensionally derived group approaches. The results indicated more marked contrasts using the dimensional approach. Specifically, attentional and executive control difficulties appeared to have greater associations with TP and TM skills than mathematical difficulties alone. No evidence for attentional X mathematical difficulties interaction emerged. Conclusions: The SoT abilities were impaired in children with both ADHD and DD. A transdiagnostic dimensional approach allows for a more nuanced understanding of SoT profiles across different types of atypical development within the NDDs spectrum. Practical and clinical implications are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beyond Boundaries: Current Advances in Developmental Learning Disorders)
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24 pages, 1075 KB  
Article
Adult Dyslexia Traits as Predictors of Hot/Cool Executive Function and Prospective Memory Abilities
by Christina Protopapa, Rachael L. Elward and James H. Smith-Spark
Brain Sci. 2025, 15(10), 1065; https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci15101065 - 29 Sep 2025
Cited by 1 | Viewed by 1674
Abstract
Background/Objectives: Executive functioning (EF) and prospective memory (PM) difficulties have been documented in adults with developmental dyslexia. However, research has tended to focus on university students with a formal diagnosis, overlooking adults who may experience symptoms of dyslexia without ever being formally [...] Read more.
Background/Objectives: Executive functioning (EF) and prospective memory (PM) difficulties have been documented in adults with developmental dyslexia. However, research has tended to focus on university students with a formal diagnosis, overlooking adults who may experience symptoms of dyslexia without ever being formally diagnosed. The present online study aimed to investigate the effects of dyslexia traits on EF and PM in a larger, community-based sample by prioritising the use of self-report measures that include and differentiate between underexplored aspects of EF and PM in the dyslexia literature. Methods: One hundred and eighty adult volunteers of a wide range of ages were included in the final analysis. Participants completed four self-report questionnaires with good pedigrees assessing dyslexia traits and ADHD symptomatology, as well as everyday experiences of five distinct EFs, PM and PM strategies. Results: Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that, after controlling for age and ADHD symptomatology, more self-reported dyslexia traits were associated with more frequent EF problems overall and lower confidence in PM Abilities. Elevated dyslexia traits were significantly associated with self-reports of more difficulties with time-management, organisation and self-restraint, but not with more difficulties with motivation and regulation of emotion. No significant associations were found between dyslexia traits and the self-reported use of PM-enhancing strategies. Conclusions: The findings are considered in the light of potential metacognition deficits and theoretical and practical implications are discussed. Full article
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Beyond Boundaries: Current Advances in Developmental Learning Disorders)
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