Hydrogen, Volume 7, Issue 1 (March 2026) – 22 articles

The smart grid concept is based on the full integration of different types of energy sources and intelligent devices. Due to the short- and long-term volatility of these sources, new flexibility measures are necessary to ensure the smart grid operates stably and reliably. One option is to convert renewable energy into hydrogen, especially during periods of generation overcapacity, in order that the hydrogen that is produced can be stored effectively and used “just in time” to stabilize the power system by undergoing a reverse conversion process in gas turbines or fuel cells which then supply power to the network. On the other hand, in order to achieve a sustainable general energy system (GES), it is necessary to replace other forms of fossil energy use, such as that used for heating and other industrial processes. Research indicates that a comprehensive hydrogen supply infrastructure is required. This infrastructure would include electrolyzers, conversion stations, pipelines, storage facilities, and hydrogen gas turbines and/or fuel cell power stations. Some studies in Germany suggest that the existing gas infrastructure could be used for this purpose. Further, nuclear and coal power plants are not considered reserve power plants (as in the German case), and an additional 20–30 GW of generation capacity in H₂-operated gas turbines and strong H₂ transportation infrastructure will be required over the next 10 years. The novelty of the approach presented in this article lies in the development of a unified modeling framework that enables the simultaneous and coherent representation of both economic and technical aspects of hydrogen production systems which will be used for planning and pre-decision making. From the technical perspective, the model, based on the black box approach, captures the key operational characteristics of hydrogen production, including energy consumption, system efficiency, and operational constraints. In parallel, the economic layer incorporates capital expenditures (CAPEX), operational expenditures (OPEX), and cost-related performance indicators, allowing for a direct linkage between technical operation and economic outcomes. This paper describes the systematic transformation from today’s power system to one that includes a hydrogen economy, with a particular focus on practical experiences and developments, especially in the German energy system. It discusses the components of this new system in depth, focusing on current challenges and applications. Some scaled current applications demonstrate the state of the art in this area, including not only technical requirements (reliability, risks) and possibilities, but also economic aspects (cost, business models, impact factors). Full article

Production of ferrochrome alloy is carried out using carbon as a reductant in a Submerged Arc Furnace (SAF). Carbothermic reduction of chromite ore results in high CO₂ emissions, and alternative reductants such as H₂, wherein H₂O is the only by-product, have become attractive potential alternatives. Before utilizing H₂ as a reductant, it is crucial to carry out a comprehensive study on the reaction kinetics with the view to aid the design and operation of reactors that facilitate the reduction process. The current study determined the kinetic parameters for isothermal and non-isothermal pre-reduction of chromite with H₂ in a thermogravimetric furnace. Results from powder X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy determined the mineralogical variations between the feed and the pre-reduced samples, as well as the variation between isothermally and non-isothermally treated samples. The mass loss data indicates that longer reduction times are required to reach complete reduction. The apparent activation energy for the isothermal and non-isothermal pre-reduction tests was found to be 105 and 124 kJ/mol, respectively. The mineralogical observations for pre-reduced samples at 1300 °C and 1500 °C showed that samples treated at lower temperatures (1300 °C) displayed consistent textures and Fe-Cr droplets along rims of partially altered chromite (PAC), which suggested higher metallization at this temperature. Higher temperatures (1500 °C), on the other hand, resulted in poor metallization, possibly because higher temperatures are often associated with a collapsed pore network, which results in poor diffusion rates, thus hindering complete reduction. Full article

This review examines the combustion characteristics of hydrogen-enriched natural gas with a specific focus on residential appliances, where safety, efficiency, and emission performance are critical. Drawing on experimental studies, numerical simulations, and regulatory considerations, the paper synthesizes current knowledge on how hydrogen addition influences flame stability, flashback phenomenon, thermal efficiency, pollutant formation, and flame geometry. Results across cooktop burners, boilers, and other domestic systems show that moderate hydrogen blending not only can reduce CO and CO₂ emissions and enhance combustion efficiency but also can increase burning velocity, diffusivity, and flame temperature, thereby elevating flashback and NOx risks. The review highlights the blending limits, design adaptations, and operational strategies required to ensure safe and effective integration of hydrogen into residential gas infrastructures, supporting its role as a transitional low-carbon fuel. Full article

We present the first European intercomparison of primary flow measurement standards with hydrogen-enriched natural gas (up to 20% hydrogen in molar fraction) and natural gas with pressure up to 60 bar and volume flow rates in the range (5 to 160) m³/h. We describe the principles of operation of the primary standards and present the transfer standards, a rotary meter and an ultrasonic meter, used for the intercomparison. In many instances, the overlap between the different laboratories is satisfactory, but the collected results are limited and do not allow us to make advanced conclusions. In addition, we investigate the effect of nitrogen impurities (2% in molar fraction) on the performance of low-pressure gas meters for pure hydrogen using newly developed measurement standards. We present the methods and results of this investigation. We show that nitrogen impurities affect the volume flow measurements of an ultrasonic meter but seem to have little effect on a thermal mass flow meter. This paper explores future opportunities and challenges in international intercomparisons involving hydrogen blends and highlights key issues and solutions with hydrogen gas metering in the presence of impurities. Full article

Experimental results are compiled to show apparent hysteresis seen in hydride thermal precipitation–dissolution cycling in zirconium alloys using X-ray diffraction, dynamic elastic modulus techniques, and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Gibbs’ phase rule is used to justify a description of a stable hydride in the H-Zr system in terms of a control volume with a hydride at its core, surrounded by a stress gradient that produces a stabilizing gradient of hydrogen in the solution. The conditions for a stable hydride are derived when the flux of hydrogen in solid solution is zero. DSC heat flow curves are analyzed with a thermodynamic model that predicts concentrations of hydrogen in a solution during temperature cycling and a description of experimental results that show how concentrations evolve at a constant temperature to the same final state when cycling is paused, from which hysteresis is deemed an illusion. The control volume is supported by previous energy calculations, performed with density functional theory. Implications of replacing the order parameter for phase field methods with the gradient of the yield stress are discussed. A practical method for forming a stable hydride is presented. Full article

Magnesium has significant potential for hydrogen storage in the solid state because its capacity is about 7.6 wt%. However, the high stability of magnesium hydride requires operating temperatures superior to 380 °C for hydrogen release. It is well known that Ni could catalyze the hydrogen absorption and desorption in magnesium. In this study, carbon-coated nickel nanoparticles were employed as catalysts to enhance the hydrogen absorption and desorption kinetics of pre-hydrogenated magnesium particles. The carbon-coated nickel nanoparticles were uniformly dispersed across the surface of the pre-hydrogenated magnesium particles. In dehydrogenation at 375 °C and 350 °C, the best sample desorbs 4.90 and 4.1 wt%, respectively, in 10 min. After 45 cycles at 375 °C, the hydrogen desorption capacity is 4.91 wt%, indicating a retention capacity of 100%. Our results demonstrate that carbon-coated nickel nanoparticles can be effectively incorporated into pre-hydrogenated magnesium without the need for ball milling, significantly enhancing hydrogen absorption and desorption performance. Full article

With rising demand for clean energy and uncertainty surrounding large-scale renewable deployment, ammonia has emerged as a viable carrier for hydrogen storage and transportation. This study conducts a global patent-based analysis of ammonia-to-hydrogen production technologies to determine technological maturity, dominant design pathways, and emerging innovation trends. A statistically robust retrieval, screening, and classification process, based on the PRISMA guidelines, was employed to screen, sort, and analyze 708 relevant patent families systematically. Patent families were categorized according to synthesis processes, catalyst types, and technological fields. The findings indicate that electrochemical, plasma-based, photocatalytic, and hybrid systems are being increasingly investigated as alternatives to low-temperature processes. At the same time, thermal catalytic cracking remains the most established and widely used method. Significant advances in reactor engineering, system integration, and catalyst design have been observed, especially in Asia. While national hydrogen initiatives, such as those in Brunei, highlight the policy importance of ammonia-based hydrogen systems, the findings primarily provide a global overview of technological maturity and innovation trajectories, thereby facilitating long-term transitions to cleaner hydrogen pathways. Full article

This study introduces an integrated Life Cycle Assessment–Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis–Nash Equilibrium (LCA–MCDA–NE) framework to assess the feasibility of hydrogen energy storage (HES) in Philippine island grids. It starts with a cradle-to-gate LCA of hydrogen production across various electricity mix scenarios, from diesel-dominated Small Power Utilities Group (SPUG) systems to high-renewable configurations, quantifying greenhouse gas emissions. These impacts are normalized and integrated into an MCDA framework that considers four stakeholder perspectives: Regulatory (PRF), Developer (DF), Scientific (SF), and Local Social (LSF). Attribute utilities for Maintainability, Energy Efficiency, Geographic–Climatic Suitability, and Regulatory Compliance inform a 2 × 2 strategic game where net utility gain (Δ) and switching costs (C₁, C₂) influence adoption behavior. The findings indicate that the baseline Nash Equilibrium favors non-adoption due to limited utility gains and high switching barriers. However, enhancements in Maintainability and reduced costs can shift this equilibrium toward adoption. The LCA results show that meaningful decarbonization occurs only when low-carbon generation exceeds 60% of the electricity mix. This integrated framework highlights that successful HES deployment in remote grids relies on stakeholder coordination, reduced risks, and access to low-carbon electricity, offering a replicable model for emerging economies. Full article

Renewable hydrogen has become a versatile technology that can play a key role in the deployment of energy communities, although technological, economic, environmental, legal, and social challenges remain to be addressed. This study conducts a systematic review based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) methodology that analyzes the current state of technologies, the different applications, challenges and limitations, and future lines of research related to the enabling role of hydrogen in energy communities. Results from the bibliometric analysis show sustained growth in the number of publications over the last five years (2020–2025), with a predominance of applications in which hydrogen is combined with other energy carriers (58%). The versatility of hydrogen has prompted the evaluation of different applications, with particular emphasis on energy storage to capitalize on energy surpluses (51%), mobility (19%), and heating (20%). The main existing barriers come from the absence of stable long-term regulation, interoperability between components and technologies, and a lack of real data. Overcoming these challenges should be based on new technologies such as artificial intelligence and the construction and operation of pilot projects. In addition, a Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis has been conducted building upon the SHARED-H2 SUDOE project, yielding particularly insightful results through the active involvement of stakeholders in the preparatory process. Based on all the points given above, the research concludes that it is necessary to improve long-term policies and increase training at all levels aimed at active end-user participation and a profound restructuring of the energy system. Full article

This study evaluates the hydrogen embrittlement (HE) resistance of nickel-based electroplated coatings applied on cold-finished mild steel, with emphasis on their performance as diffusion barriers to impede hydrogen ingress. Nickel coatings were deposited using Watts plating bath under controlled electroplating parameters. Electrochemical hydrogen charging was performed in an alkaline medium at progressively increasing charging current densities to simulate varying levels of hydrogen exposure. Tensile testing was conducted immediately after charging to assess the mechanical response of both uncoated and nickel-coated specimens, focusing on key properties such as elongation, yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, and toughness. The results revealed a gradual degradation in ductility and toughness for the uncoated steel samples with increasing hydrogen content. In contrast, the nickel-coated specimens maintained mechanical stability up to a critical hydrogen threshold, beyond which a pronounced reduction in tensile response was observed. Fractographic analysis supported these trends, revealing a transition from ductile to brittle fracture characteristics with increasing concentrations of hydrogen. These findings highlight the protective capabilities and limitations of nickel-based coatings in mitigating hydrogen-induced degradation, offering insights into their application in industries where hydrogen embrittlement of structural materials is a major concern. Full article

This study presents a comprehensive techno-economic assessment to optimize a hybrid renewable energy system for green hydrogen production in Jordan. Using the Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables (HOMERs) and System Advisor Model (SAM) software, this study evaluates multiple cost projections for 2030 technology costs. Key parameters such as capital cost, efficiency, and lifetime are varied extensively. Highlighted results show a wide range in the Levelized Cost of Hydrogen (LCOH), reaching 1.59 to 3.49 USD/kg, and the Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) from 0.0072 to 0.0301 USD/kWh. Furthermore, Net Present Value (NPV) spans from USD 424 to 927 million, depending on the scenario and sensitivity case. Technically, the system’s optimized capacities vary significantly. PV ranges from 203 to 457 MW, wind capacities range from 0 to 220 MW, and electrolyzers range from 192 to 346 MW, demonstrating the flexibility required to meet different cost and performance assumptions. The study’s broad relevance extends to developing countries with grid constraints, where off-grid green hydrogen production is feasible. Its framework can be adapted globally, offering valuable insights. Full article

Many nations have been investing in hydrogen energy in the most recent wave of development and numerous projects have been proposed, yet a substantial share of these projects remain at the conceptual or feasibility stage and have not progressed to final investment decision or operation. There is a need to identify initial potential sites for green hydrogen production from renewable energy on an objective basis with minimal upfront cost to the investor. This study develops a decision support system (DSS) for identifying optimal locations for green hydrogen production using solar and wind resources that integrate economic, environmental, technical, social, and risk and safety factors through advanced Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) techniques. The study evaluates alternative weighting scenarios using (a) occurrence-based, (b) PageRank-based, and (c) equal weighting approaches to minimize human bias and enhance decision transparency. In the occurrence-based approach (a), renewable resource potential receives the highest weighting (≈34% total weighting). By comparison, approach (b) redistributes importance toward infrastructure and social indicators, yielding a more balanced representation of technical and economic priorities and highlighting the practical value of capturing interdependencies among indicators for resource-efficient site selection. The research also contrasts the empirical and operational efficiencies of various weighting methods and processing stages, highlighting strengths and weaknesses in supporting sustainable and economically viable site selection. Ultimately, this research contributes significantly to both academic and practical implementations in the green hydrogen sector, providing a strategic, data-driven approach to support sustainable energy transitions. Full article

The increasing global demand for clean hydrogen necessitates production methods that minimize greenhouse gas emissions while being scalable and economically viable. Hydrogen has a very high gravimetric energy density of about 142 MJ/kg, which makes it a very promising energy carrier for many uses, such as transportation, industrial processes, and fuel cells. Methane pyrolysis has emerged as an attractive low-carbon alternative, decomposing methane (CH₄) into hydrogen and solid carbon while circumventing direct CO₂ emissions. Still, the process is very endothermic and has always depended on fossil-fuel heat sources, which limits its ability to run without releasing any carbon. This review examines the integration of geothermal energy and methane pyrolysis as a sustainable heat source, with a focus on Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) and Closed-Loop Geothermal (CLG) technologies. Geothermal heat is a stable, carbon-free source of heat that can be used to preheat methane and start reactions. This makes energy use more efficient and lowers operating costs. Also, using flared natural gas from remote oil and gas fields can turn methane that would otherwise be thrown away into useful hydrogen and solid carbon. This review brings together the most recent progress in pyrolysis reactors, catalysts, carbon management, geothermal–thermochemical coupling, and techno-economic feasibility. The conversation centers on major problems and future research paths, with a focus on the potential of geothermal-assisted methane pyrolysis as a viable way to make hydrogen without adding to the carbon footprint. Full article

Hydrogen storage technologies are improving over time, such as in the case of hydrogen adsorption in systems, which has been investigated in various experimental ways, as well as with theoretical methods. The design of systems that meet the needs of their experimental application is one of the challenges of these days. There are different strategies to generate adsorption of more hydrogen molecules, and several research groups have chosen to use alkali metal atoms to cause better interactions between surfaces and hydrogen molecules. Carbon, silicon, boron, phosphorus, and other systems have been reported, with carbon nanostructures being the most widely used. This review describes theoretical studies based on the addition of lithium atoms to various materials to increase the adsorption properties of hydrogen molecules. Full article

Reducing CO₂ emissions in transport requires sustainable alternatives such as fuel cell electric vehicles. A critical challenge is the efficient and safe storage and fast refueling of hydrogen at 70 MPa. This study proposes a practical design-support tool to optimize hydrogen storage systems for heavy-duty vehicles with capacities up to 100 kg. A customizable, dynamic Matlab-Simulink model was developed, including all components from dispenser to onboard tanks, enabling evaluation of multiple design options. The aim is to provide clear guidelines to ensure fast, safe, and complete refueling compliant with SAE J2601-5 limits. Simulations showed Type III tanks deliver the best performance. The fastest refueling (~10 min) was achieved with shorter pipes, larger diameters and low temperatures (20 °C ambient, −40 °C dispenser), while Average Pressure Ramp Rate was maximized up to 9 MPa/min (220 g/s of hydrogen from the dispenser) without exceeding SAE limits for pressure and temperature. Full article

Decarbonizing industry, improving urban sustainability, and expanding clean energy use are key global priorities. This study presents a techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life-cycle assessment (LCA) of green hydrogen (GH₂) production via water electrolysis for low-carbon applications in the Central Asian region, with Uzbekistan considered as a representative case study. Solar PV and wind power are used as renewable electricity sources for a 44 MW electrolyzer. The assessment also incorporates recent advances in alkaline water electrolyzers (AWE) enhanced with metal–organic framework (MOF) materials, reflecting improvements in efficiency and hydrogen output. The LCA, performed using SimaPro, evaluates the global warming potential (GWP) across the full hydrogen production chain. Results show that the MOF-enhanced AWE system achieves a lower levelized cost of hydrogen (LCOH) at 5.18 $/kg H₂, compared with 5.90 $/kg H₂ for conventional AWE, with electricity procurement remaining the dominant cost driver. Environmentally, green hydrogen pathways reduce GWP by 80–83% relative to steam methane reforming (SMR), with AWE–MOF delivering the lowest footprint at 1.97 kg CO₂/kg H₂. In transport applications, fuel cell vehicles powered by hydrogen derived from AWE–MOF emit 89% less CO₂ per 100 km than diesel vehicles and 83% less than using SMR-based hydrogen, demonstrating the substantial climate benefits of advanced electrolysis. Overall, the findings confirm that MOF-integrated AWE offers a strong balance of economic viability and environmental performance. The study highlights green hydrogen’s strategic role in the Central Asian region, represented by Uzbekistan’s energy transition, and provides evidence-based insights for guiding low-carbon hydrogen deployment. Full article

Ammonia serves as a critical medium for hydrogen storage and energy transportation, making the development of efficient ammonia cracking technologies essential for advancing hydrogen energy applications. Plasma-assisted ammonia cracking has emerged as a promising approach for clean energy conversion, leveraging non-thermal plasma to effectively decompose ammonia into hydrogen and nitrogen. Compared to conventional thermal catalytic cracking, this method offers several advantages, including rapid startup and response, operational flexibility, and the ability to operate under low-temperature and atmospheric pressure conditions. This study presents a novel high-pressure plasma reactor designed to overcome the high-energy barriers associated with conventional methods. Through systematic optimization of discharge parameters, reactor configuration, and catalyst integration, significant improvements in both ammonia conversion efficiency and energy utilization have been achieved. Experimental results demonstrate that increased discharge power and reduced ammonia flow rate enhance cracking performance. In the absence of a catalyst, conversion efficiency initially increases with pressure but subsequently decreases at higher pressures. However, the incorporation of a catalyst markedly improves overall performance across all tested conditions. These advancements support the practical implementation of ammonia-based systems for distributed hydrogen supply and clean propulsion technologies. Full article

This paper investigates three distinct hydrogen-related subsystems: production, storage, and the use. An analysis of the micro-combined heat and power production (mCHP) behavior using natural gas is conducted to understand how the system operates under different conditions and to evaluate its yearly performance. To reduce CO₂ emissions, hydrogen fuel consumption is proposed, and an emission analysis under different fuel-supply configurations is performed. The results show that hydrogen produced by artificial photosynthesis has the lowest CO₂ impact. Therefore, the paper examines this process and its main characteristics. An engineering model is proposed to rapidly estimate the mean volumetric hydrogen production rate. To ensure safe coupling between hydrogen production and mCHP demand, the study then focuses on solid-state hydrogen storage. Subsequently, in this framework, the state of charge (SOC) is defined as the central control variable linking storage thermodynamics to hydrogen delivery. Accurate SOC estimation ensures that the storage unit can supply the required hydrogen flow without causing starvation, pressure drops, or thermal drift during CHP operation. The proposed SOC estimation method is based on an analytical approach and experimentally validated while relying solely on external measurements. The overall objective is to enable a coherent, low-carbon, and safely controllable hydrogen-based mCHP system. Full article

The deployment of electrolysis-based hydrogen technology requires identifying the advantages and disadvantages of scaling hydrogen production plants and determining the limits of the scaling-up process. Until now, experience has been demonstrated with electrolysers of tens and hundreds of kilowatts, but electrolysers in the tens of megawatts range are still closer to being prototypes than commercial products. Additionally, challenges such as maintenance, reliability, long-term operation, and investment recovery time arise in parallel as the scale increases. This raises the question of what is more suitable: installing a single high-power electrolyser or a modular plant composed of multiple smaller electrolysers? This paper addresses that question from both a technical and an economic perspective. Accordingly, it presents a study identifying the degree of modularisation that optimises the technical and economic performance of a large-scale hydrogen production plant. The results show that configurations with a higher degree of modularisation (based on multiple smaller electrolysers) exhibit a better technical performance and lower degradation. However, configurations with a lower degree of modularisation are more competitive in terms of costs. When combining technical and economic criteria, the results show that solutions based on a medium–low degree of modularisation are the most suitable. The advantages are lower replacement costs and uninterrupted hydrogen production. This study also recommends embracing modularisation to prevent a dependence on a single high-power electrolyser. Full article

Recently, the kinetic improvement of the nitrogenation reaction of lithium hydride (LiH) to form lithium imide (Li₂NH) by adding a scaffold was reported. The scaffold prevents agglomeration of Li₂NH and maintains the activity of LiH, achieving a reduction in reaction temperature and an increase in reaction rate. In this work, a Li–Si alloy, Li₂₂Si₅, was used as a starting material to form nano-sized LiH dispersed in a Li alloy matrix. Lithium nitride (Li₃N) is generated by the reaction between Li₂₂Si₅ and N₂ to form Li₇Si₃, and then Li₃N is converted to LiH with ammonia (NH₃) generation during heat treatment under H₂ flow conditions. Since Li₃N is formed at the nano-scale on the surface of alloy particles, LiH generated from the above nano-Li₃N is also nano-scale. The differential scanning calorimetry results indicate that direct nitrogenation of LiH in the alloy matrix occurred from around 280 °C, which is much lower than that of the LiH powder itself. Such a highly active state might be achieved due to the nano-crystalline LiH confined by the Li alloy as a self-transformed scaffold. From the above experimental results, the nano-confined LiH in the alloy matrix was recognized as a potential NH₃ synthesis technique based on the LiH-Li₂NH type chemical looping process. Full article

Chemical incompatibility between active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) and mineral supplements may affect their bioavailability and effectiveness. Water, as the main component of physiological fluids, plays a crucial role in these interactions. Natural waters vary in the deuterium. Estimation of the kinetic isotope effect (KIE) provides valuable information on reaction mechanisms in solvents with different D/H ratios and with the replacement of protium with deuterium in API molecules. Studies of the kinetics of interactions between zinc ions and amoxicillin in water with a natural isotopic composition (D/H = 145 ppm) and in heavy water (99.9% D₂O) offer a model for predicting similar interactions in vivo. The presence of chiral centers in the amoxicillin molecule allowed the use of polarimetry to study the influence of the solvent isotopic composition, temperature, and pH on the rate of interaction. In heavy water, a twofold decrease in the rate of amoxicillin binding to hydrated zinc ions was observed compared to natural water at 20 °C. Arrhenius kinetics confirmed the observed KIE: Ea = 112.5 ± 1.3 kJ/mol for D₂O and 96.0 ± 2.1 kJ/mol for H₂O. For the first time, kinetic polarimetric studies demonstrated differences in the mechanisms of binding of d- and s-element cations to amoxicillin. Full article

The integration of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems into smart grids necessitates robust, real-time fault detection mechanisms, particularly in resource-constrained environments like the Solar–Hydrogen AIoT microgrid framework at a university. This study conducts a comparative analysis of four prominent Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) architectures VGG16, ResNet-50, DenseNet121, and EfficientNetB0 to determine the optimal model for low-latency, edge-based fault diagnosis. The models were trained and validated on a dataset of solar panel images featuring multiple fault types. Quantitatively, DenseNet121 achieved the highest classification accuracy at 86.00%, demonstrating superior generalization and feature extraction capabilities. However, when considering the stringent requirements of an AIoT system, computational efficiency became the decisive factor. EfficientNetB0 emerged as the most suitable architecture, delivering an acceptable accuracy of 80.00% while featuring the smallest model size (5.3 M parameters) and a fast inference time (approx. 26 ms/step). This efficiency-to-accuracy balance makes EfficientNetB0 ideal for deployment on edge computing nodes where memory and real-time processing are critical limitations. DenseNet121 achieved 86% accuracy, while EfficientNetB0 achieved 80% accuracy with lowest model size and fastest inference time. This research provides a validated methodology for implementing efficient deep learning solutions in sustainable, intelligent energy management systems. The novelty of this work lies in its deployment-focused comparison of CNN architectures tailored for real-time inference on resource-constrained Solar–Hydrogen AIoT systems. Full article